DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.1 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Evaluation Criteria
● Mid1 Sem- 20%
● Mid2 Sem-25%
● End Sem-25%
● Lab Assessment -10%
● Lab Exam- 20%

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.2 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Chapter 1: Introduction

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.3 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Outline

● The Need for Databases

● Data Models
● Relational Databases
● Database Design
● Storage Manager
● Query Processing
● Transaction Manager

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.4 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Database Management System (DBMS)
● DBMS contains information about a particular enterprise
● Collection of interrelated data
● Set of programs to access the data
● An environment that is both convenient and efficient to use
● Database Applications:
● Banking: transactions
● Airlines: reservations, schedules
● Universities: registration, grades
● Sales: customers, products, purchases
● Online retailers: order tracking, customized recommendations
● Manufacturing: production, inventory, orders, supply chain
● Human resources: employee records, salaries, tax deductions
● Databases can be very large.
● Databases touch all aspects of our lives

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.5 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 University Database Example
● Application program examples
● Add new students, instructors, and courses
● Register students for courses, and generate class rosters
● Assign grades to students, compute grade point averages (GPA)
and generate transcripts
● In the early days, database applications were built directly on top of
file systems

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.6 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 What DBMS Can Do

● Store data
● Visualize data
● Update data
● Access data

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.7 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Drawbacks of using file systems to store data

● Data redundancy and inconsistency

● Multiple file formats, duplication of information in different files
● Difficulty in accessing data
● Need to write a new program to carry out each new task
● Data isolation
● Multiple files and formats
● Integrity problems
● Integrity constraints (e.g., account balance > 0) become “buried” in
program code rather than being stated explicitly
● Hard to add new constraints or change existing ones

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.8 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Drawbacks of using file systems to store data (Cont.)

● Atomicity of updates
● Failures may leave database in an inconsistent state with partial updates
carried out
● Example: Transfer of funds from one account to another should either
complete or not happen at all
● Concurrent access by multiple users
● Concurrent access needed for performance
● Uncontrolled concurrent accesses can lead to inconsistencies
4 Example: Two people reading a balance (say 100) and updating it by
withdrawing money (say 50 each) at the same time
● Security problems
● Hard to provide user access to some, but not all, data

Database systems offer solutions to all the above problems

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.9 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Levels of Abstraction
● Physical level: describes how a record (e.g., instructor) is stored.
● Logical level: describes data stored in database, and the relationships among
the data.
type instructor = record
ID : string;
name : string;
dept_name : string;
salary : integer;
end;
● View level: application programs hide details of data types. Views can also
hide information (such as an employee’s salary) for security purposes.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.10 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 View of Data

An architecture for a database system

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.11 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Instances and Schemas
● Similar to types and variables in programming languages
● Logical Schema – the overall logical structure of the database
● Example: The database consists of information about a set of customers and
accounts in a bank and the relationship between them
4 Analogous to type information of a variable in a program
● Physical schema– the overall physical structure of the database
● Instance – the actual content of the database at a particular point in time
● Analogous to the value of a variable
● Physical Data Independence – the ability to modify the physical schema without
changing the logical schema
● Applications depend on the logical schema
● In general, the interfaces between the various levels and components should
be well defined so that changes in some parts do not seriously influence
others.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.12 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Data Models
● A collection of tools for describing
● Data
● Data relationships
● Data semantics
● Data constraints
● Relational model
● Entity-Relationship data model (mainly for database design)
● Object-based data models (Object-oriented and Object-relational)
● Semistructured data model (XML)
● Other older models:
● Network model
● Hierarchical model

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.13 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Relational Model
● All the data is stored in various tables.
● Example of tabular data in the relational model Columns

Rows

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.14 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 A Sample Relational Database

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.15 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Data Definition Language (DDL)
● Specification notation for defining the database schema
Example: create table instructor (
ID char(5),
name varchar(20),
dept_name varchar(20),
salary numeric(8,2))
● DDL compiler generates a set of table templates stored in a data dictionary
● Data dictionary contains metadata (i.e., data about data)
● Database schema
● Integrity constraints
4 Primary key (ID uniquely identifies instructors)
● Authorization
4 Who can access what

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.16 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Data Manipulation Language (DML)
● Language for accessing and manipulating the data organized by the
appropriate data model
● DML also known as query language
● Two classes of languages
● Pure – used for proving properties about computational power
and for optimization
4 Relational Algebra
4 Tuple relational calculus
4 Domain relational calculus
● Commercial – used in commercial systems
4 SQL is the most widely used commercial language

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.17 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 SQL

● The most widely used commercial language

● SQL is NOT a Turing machine equivalent language
● SQL is NOT a Turing machine equivalent language
● To be able to compute complex functions SQL is usually embedded in
some higher-level language
● Application programs generally access databases through one of
● Language extensions to allow embedded SQL
● Application program interface (e.g., ODBC/JDBC) which allow SQL
queries to be sent to a database

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.18 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Database Design
The process of designing the general structure of the database:

● Logical Design – Deciding on the database schema. Database

design requires that we find a “good” collection of relation
schemas.
● Business decision – What attributes should we record in the
database?
● Computer Science decision – What relation schemas should
we have and how should the attributes be distributed among
the various relation schemas?
● Physical Design – Deciding on the physical layout of the database

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.19 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Database Design (Cont.)
● Is there any problem with this relation?

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.20 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Design Approaches
● Need to come up with a methodology to ensure that each of the relations
in the database is “good”
● Two ways of doing so:
● Entity Relationship Model (Chapter 7)
4 Models an enterprise as a collection of entities and relationships
4 Represented diagrammatically by an entity-relationship
diagram:
● Normalization Theory (Chapter 8)
4 Formalize what designs are bad, and test for them

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.21 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Object-Relational Data Models
● Relational model: flat, “atomic” values
● Object Relational Data Models
● Extend the relational data model by including object orientation and
constructs to deal with added data types.
● Allow attributes of tuples to have complex types, including non-atomic
values such as nested relations.
● Preserve relational foundations, in particular the declarative access to
data, while extending modeling power.
● Provide upward compatibility with existing relational languages.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.22 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 XML: Extensible Markup Language
● Defined by the WWW Consortium (W3C)
● Originally intended as a document markup language not a database
language
● The ability to specify new tags, and to create nested tag structures made
XML a great way to exchange data, not just documents
● XML has become the basis for all new generation data interchange
formats.
● A wide variety of tools is available for parsing, browsing and querying
XML documents/data

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.23 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Database Engine
● Storage manager
● Query processing
● Transaction manager

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.24 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Storage Management
● Storage manager is a program module that provides the interface between
the low-level data stored in the database and the application programs and
queries submitted to the system.
● The storage manager is responsible to the following tasks:
● Interaction with the OS file manager
● Efficient storing, retrieving and updating of data
● Issues:
● Storage access
● File organization
● Indexing and hashing

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.25 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Query Processing
1. Parsing and translation
2. Optimization
3. Evaluation

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.26 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Query Processing (Cont.)
● Alternative ways of evaluating a given query
● Equivalent expressions
● Different algorithms for each operation
● Cost difference between a good and a bad way of evaluating a query can
be enormous
● Need to estimate the cost of operations
● Depends critically on statistical information about relations which
the database must maintain
● Need to estimate statistics for intermediate results to compute cost of
complex expressions

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.27 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Transaction Management
● What if the system fails?
● What if more than one user is concurrently updating the same data?
● A transaction is a collection of operations that performs a single
logical function in a database application
● Transaction-management component ensures that the database
remains in a consistent (correct) state despite system failures (e.g.,
power failures and operating system crashes) and transaction failures.
● Concurrency-control manager controls the interaction among the
concurrent transactions, to ensure the consistency of the database.

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.28 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Database Users and Administrators

Database

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.29 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Database System Internals

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.30 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Database Architecture

The architecture of a database systems is greatly influenced by

the underlying computer system on which the database is running:
● Centralized
● Client-server
● Parallel (multi-processor)
● Distributed

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.31 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Two Tier and three tier Architecture

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.32 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 End of Chapter 1

Database System Concepts - 6th Edition 1.33 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan