UNIT IV

CLIMATE SYSTEM PROCESSES

Conservation of motion: Force – Coriolis– Application – Geotropic wind – Pressure co-

ordinates. Equation of State – Atmosphere – Ocean. Application: Thermal circulation – Sea
level rise - Temperature equation: Ocean – Air – Application – Decay of sea surface
temperature.

Conservation of Motion:
The Conservation of Motion principle is derived from Newton’s Second Law, which
states that the rate of change of momentum of a fluid parcel is equal to the sum of forces acting
on it.

where:
• DV/Dt is the total acceleration,
• ρ is fluid density,
• P is pressure,
• g is gravitational acceleration,
• F represents frictional forces,
• C represents the Coriolis force.
In a rotating frame like the Earth, we need to account for the effects of rotation. The full
momentum equation in a rotating reference frame includes additional forces like Coriolis force
and centrifugal force.
Forces Governing Atmospheric and Oceanic Motion
The key forces that govern the motion of air and water are:
1. Pressure Gradient Force (PGF)
o Arises from spatial variations in pressure.
o Drives motion from high to low pressure.
o Mathematically, it is:

o Responsible for winds in the atmosphere and currents in the ocean.

2. Coriolis Force
➢ An apparent force due to Earth's rotation.
➢ Deflects moving objects:
 ▪ Right in the Northern Hemisphere
▪ Left in the Southern Hemisphere.
Given by:
C=−2Ω×V
where Ω is Earth's angular velocity.
3. Gravitational Force
Acts downward towards the center of the Earth.
Drives hydrostatic balance in the atmosphere and ocean:
∂P/∂z = −ρg
4. Frictional Force
Acts opposite to motion.
Significant near the surface due to interaction with land and water.
Leads to Ekman transport in the ocean.
Special Cases of Motion
1. Geostrophic Balance (No Friction)
• When Coriolis force balances the Pressure Gradient Force.
• Governs large-scale atmospheric and oceanic flows.
• Leads to geostrophic wind and geostrophic currents.
2. Gradient Wind
• Includes centrifugal force for curved flows around pressure systems.
3. Thermal Wind
• Describes how winds vary with height due to temperature gradients.
4. Ekman Transport (With Friction)
• Describes how surface winds drive ocean currents.
• Ekman transport describes the net movement of water due to the balance between the
Coriolis force, wind stress, and frictional forces.
• Leads to upwelling and downwelling in the ocean.
Applications of Conservation of Motion
1. Cyclone and Anticyclone Formation
✓ Conservation of angular momentum explains the rotation of cyclones.
✓ Low-pressure systems (cyclones) rotate counterclockwise (NH) and clockwise (SH).
✓ High-pressure systems (anticyclones) rotate in the opposite direction.
2. Ocean Currents
 ✓ Driven by wind stress, pressure gradients, and Coriolis effects.
✓ Example: The Gulf Stream, Kuroshio Current.
3. Jet Streams and Trade Winds
✓ Governed by geostrophic and thermal wind balance.
4. Tides and Waves
✓ Tides result from gravitational attraction (Moon & Sun).
✓ Waves involve momentum conservation between wind and waves.

Influence of Coriolis Force on Atmospheric and Ocean Circulation

The Coriolis force is a result of Earth’s rotation and acts perpendicular to the direction of
motion of moving objects, causing them to deflect to the right in the Northern Hemisphere
and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. This force significantly impacts large-scale
atmospheric and oceanic circulation, shaping global wind patterns, ocean currents, and
weather systems.
Influence on Atmospheric Circulation
1. Trade Winds: In the tropics, air moves from high-pressure regions near 30° latitude
toward the equator. The Coriolis force deflects these winds westward, forming the
northeast trade winds in the Northern Hemisphere and the southeast trade winds in
the Southern Hemisphere.
o Example: The Hadley cell circulation results in trade winds converging at the
Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), influencing tropical weather and
monsoons.
2. Westerlies and Polar Easterlies: In mid-latitudes, winds move from west to east due
to the Coriolis force.
o Example: The jet streams, fast-flowing air currents, guide storm systems and
impact weather patterns across continents.
3. Cyclones and Anticyclones: The Coriolis effect determines the rotation of large
weather systems.
o Example: Hurricanes (tropical cyclones) spin counterclockwise in the
Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere.
Influence on Oceanic Circulation
1. Gyres: Ocean currents form large circular systems called gyres, rotating clockwise in
the Northern Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the Southern Hemisphere due to the
Coriolis force.
o Example: The North Atlantic Gyre drives the Gulf Stream, warming Western
Europe.
2. Ekman Transport and Upwelling: The Coriolis force affects ocean water movement,
leading to Ekman spirals and coastal upwelling.
 o Example: Along the Peruvian coast, upwelling brings nutrient-rich water to
the surface, supporting marine life and fisheries.
3. El Niño and La Niña: The Coriolis effect influences shifts in trade winds and ocean
currents, affecting global climate patterns.
o Example: El Niño weakens trade winds, altering Pacific Ocean currents and
causing extreme weather events worldwide.

Application of Newton’s Laws of Motion in Ocean Currents and

their Dynamics
Ocean currents are large-scale movements of seawater influenced by multiple forces, including
gravity, wind, the Coriolis effect, and friction. Newton’s three laws of motion help explain
their formation, direction, and behavior.
1. Newton’s First Law (Law of Inertia)
"An object at rest stays at rest, and an object in motion stays in motion unless acted upon
by an external force."
Application in Ocean Currents:
• Ocean water remains still unless an external force (such as wind, gravity, or density
differences) initiates movement.
• Once a current is set in motion, it continues flowing in the same direction until forces
like friction or landmasses alter its path.
Example:
• The Gulf Stream continues moving across the Atlantic Ocean due to the momentum
imparted by wind and Earth's rotation, only slowing down due to friction with
surrounding water masses.

2. Newton’s Second Law (F = ma)

"The acceleration of an object is directly proportional to the force applied and inversely
proportional to its mass."
Application in Ocean Currents:
• The force (F) exerted by winds, tides, or differences in water density accelerates (a)
ocean currents, with heavier (denser) water masses responding more slowly due to their
larger mass (m).
• Stronger winds or larger pressure gradients create faster-moving currents.
Example:
• El Niño and La Niña Phenomena:
o During El Niño, weakened trade winds fail to push warm Pacific water
westward, causing slower currents.
 o In La Niña, stronger winds accelerate currents, intensifying upwelling and
cooling the ocean surface.
3. Newton’s Third Law (Action and Reaction)
"For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction."
Application in Ocean Currents:
• As winds push water in one direction, an equal and opposite force acts within the
water column.
• This creates Ekman transport, where the surface water moves at an angle to the wind
due to the Coriolis effect, causing deeper layers to respond in a spiral motion.
Example:
• Coastal Upwelling:
o Along the Peruvian coast, winds push surface waters away, and deeper,
nutrient-rich water rises in response, supporting marine ecosystems.

Geostrophic wind
Definition
A geostrophic wind is an idealized wind that results from a balance between the Coriolis force
and the pressure gradient force (PGF). It flows parallel to isobars (lines of constant
pressure) at high altitudes where friction is negligible.
Forces Acting on Geostrophic Wind
Geostrophic wind forms due to the interaction of two primary forces:
(a) Pressure Gradient Force (PGF)
• Air moves from high-pressure to low-pressure areas.
• This force acts perpendicular to isobars, pushing air toward lower pressure.
• The strength of PGF depends on the pressure difference and distance between isobars
(closer isobars = stronger PGF).

(b) Coriolis Force

• Caused by Earth’s rotation, it deflects moving air.
• In the Northern Hemisphere, wind is deflected to the right.
 • In the Southern Hemisphere, wind is deflected to the left.
• Its strength depends on wind speed and latitude:

Where:
Ω = Earth's rotation rate
V = wind velocity
ϕ = latitude
Geostrophic Balance
When PGF and Coriolis force become equal and opposite, the wind stops accelerating and
reaches a steady-state geostrophic balance.

• This balance causes wind to flow parallel to isobars, with:

• Low pressure to the left and high pressure to the right (Northern Hemisphere).
• The opposite pattern in the Southern Hemisphere.
Characteristics of Geostrophic Wind
• Occurs in the upper atmosphere (above ~1 km) where friction is minimal.
• Faster in mid-latitudes due to a stronger Coriolis effect.
• Does not apply at the equator (Coriolis force = 0).
Real-World Examples
1. Jet Streams – High-altitude fast-moving winds (e.g., Polar Jet Stream).
2. Upper-Level Westerlies – Large-scale winds in the mid-latitudes.
3. Trade Wind Belts – Near the tropics, winds begin as geostrophic before being modified
by friction.
Importance of Geostrophic Wind
• Helps predict weather patterns and storm movements.
• Influences ocean currents through wind-driven circulation.
• Used in aviation and climate studies to understand upper-atmospheric winds.

Pressure Coordinates:
Pressure coordinates refer to a vertical coordinate system in meteorology and
atmospheric sciences where pressure (instead of altitude or height) is used to describe the
vertical structure of the atmosphere.
Since atmospheric pressure decreases with height, using pressure as a coordinate simplifies
many calculations and makes it easier to analyze large-scale atmospheric processes.
The atmosphere is compressible, meaning air density changes with altitude. In contrast,
pressure provides a more natural and convenient coordinate because:
• Atmospheric models and equations become simpler.
• It aligns with the concept of hydrostatic balance (i.e., pressure decreases steadily with
height).
• Many meteorological measurements (like from weather balloons) are taken in terms of
pressure levels rather than geometric height.
Relationship Between Pressure and Height
Pressure decreases exponentially with height due to the weight of the overlying air:

Where:
• P0 = Surface pressure (~1013 hPa at sea level)
• z = Height above sea level
• H = Scale height (~8.5 km in Earth's atmosphere)
A few standard atmospheric pressure levels and their approximate altitudes:

Pressure (hPa) Approximate Altitude (km)

1000 0 (Sea Level)

850 1.5 km

500 5.5 km

250 10-11 km

100 16 km

The Pressure Coordinate System

In a pressure coordinate system, the vertical axis represents pressure instead of height.
This means that:
• Lower pressure (e.g., 200 hPa) corresponds to higher altitudes (upper atmosphere).
• Higher pressure (e.g., 1000 hPa) corresponds to lower altitudes (near the surface).
Meteorological charts (like weather maps) often use constant pressure levels (isobaric
surfaces) to analyze wind patterns, temperature, and other atmospheric variables.
Geopotential Height in Pressure Coordinates
Since pressure and height are related but not identical, scientists use geopotential height (Z),
which accounts for variations in Earth's gravity:

Where:
• R = Specific gas constant for dry air
• T = Temperature
• g = Gravitational acceleration
• P = Pressure
Advantages of Pressure Coordinates
• Simplifies atmospheric equations: Many equations (like the geostrophic wind
equation) are more manageable in pressure coordinates.
• Matches observation methods: Radiosondes (weather balloons) and reanalysis
models use pressure levels.
• Better representation of atmospheric motion: Vertical movement in pressure
coordinates corresponds directly to mass conservation and energy transfer.
Applications in Meteorology
1. Weather Forecasting – Meteorologists use constant pressure level maps (e.g., 500
hPa charts) to track storms and jet streams.
2. Climate Studies – Climate models often use pressure levels to analyze global
circulation patterns.
3. Aircraft Navigation – Pilots use pressure altitudes for flight levels.

Equation of State in the Atmosphere and Ocean

The Equation of State describes the relationship between pressure, temperature, and
density of a fluid. It is essential in both atmospheric and oceanic sciences for understanding
air and water behavior under varying conditions.
1. Equation of State for the Atmosphere
The atmosphere behaves as a compressible gas, meaning its density changes significantly with
pressure and temperature. The equation of state for air is given by the Ideal Gas Law:
P=ρRT
Where:
• P = Pressure (Pa)
• ρ = Air density (kg/m³)
 • R = Specific gas constant for dry air (287 J/kg·K)
• T = Temperature (K)
Key Features in the Atmosphere
• Density decreases with height because pressure decreases.
• Temperature variations impact density (e.g., warm air is less dense than cold air,
leading to buoyancy effects).
• The equation is modified for moist air using the virtual temperature correction,
which accounts for water vapor effects.
Application:
• Used in weather forecasting and climate models to study air motion, pressure systems,
and temperature distribution.
2. Equation of State for the Ocean
Unlike air, seawater is a nearly incompressible fluid, meaning its density changes primarily
due to temperature, salinity, and pressure rather than compression. The equation of state for
seawater is more complex and is given by:
Ρ = f(S,T,P)
Where:
• ρ = Seawater density (kg/m³)
• S = Salinity (g/kg or PSU)
• T = Temperature (°C)
• P = Pressure (dbar)
A widely used empirical formulation for seawater is the UNESCO Equation of State (EOS-
80) or the more accurate TEOS-10 (Thermodynamic Equation of Seawater - 2010).
Key Features in the Ocean
• Increased salinity → Higher density
• Lower temperature → Higher density (except near freezing, where water expands)
• Higher pressure → Slightly higher density (due to compressibility effects at great
depths)
Application:
• Explains ocean circulation (e.g., thermohaline circulation).
• Used in climate models to predict sea level changes and water mass movement.
Comparison: Atmosphere vs. Ocean

Feature Atmosphere Ocean

State Equation P=ρRT ρ=f(S,T,P)

Feature Atmosphere Ocean

Compressibility High Low

Dominant
Temperature, Pressure Temperature, Salinity, Pressure
Variables

Large (due to altitude Small but significant (deep-sea pressure,

Density Variation
changes) salinity)

Applications:
The Equation of State plays a fundamental role in understanding thermal circulation in the
atmosphere and ocean, as well as the mechanisms behind sea level rise due to climate change.

1. Thermal Circulation and the Equation of State

Thermal circulation refers to the movement of air or water driven by temperature
differences that create density variations. This process is crucial in both the atmosphere and
ocean.
(A) Atmospheric Thermal Circulation
• The Equation of State for Air (P=ρRT) shows that warmer air is less dense and rises,
while cooler air is denser and sinks.
• This forms convection currents, leading to phenomena like:
o Sea Breeze: During the day, land heats up faster than the ocean, causing warm
air to rise over land and cool air from the ocean to move in.
o Monsoons: Large-scale seasonal wind patterns caused by temperature
differences between land and ocean.
o Hadley Cells: Global-scale thermal circulations driving trade winds and
weather patterns.
(B) Oceanic Thermal Circulation (Thermohaline Circulation)
• In the Equation of State for Seawater (ρ=f(S,T,P)), density changes are driven by
temperature (T) and salinity (S) variations.
• Cold, salty water is denser and sinks, while warm, less salty water is less dense and
rises.
• This drives thermohaline circulation, also called the Global Conveyor Belt, which:
o Redistributes heat worldwide (e.g., Gulf Stream warming Europe).
o Impacts weather and climate by transporting warm and cold water masses.

2. Sea Level Rise and the Equation of State

Sea level rise occurs due to thermal expansion and glacial melting, both influenced by the
Equation of State for seawater.
(A) Thermal Expansion (Steric Sea Level Rise)
• When temperature increases, water expands (decreasing density).
• The Equation of State explains this:
o Warmer water has lower density, causing ocean volume to increase.
o This is the main driver of sea level rise in recent decades.
Example:
• The IPCC reports estimate that thermal expansion contributes 30-50% of observed
sea level rise.
(B) Ice Sheet and Glacier Melting
• Freshwater from melting ice reduces ocean salinity, further affecting density and
circulation.
• This disrupts thermohaline circulation, which can slow down ocean currents and
impact global climate.
Example:
• Greenland Ice Sheet melting is injecting freshwater into the North Atlantic,
potentially weakening the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC).
The Equation of State is essential in predicting and understanding:
1. Thermal circulation (both atmospheric and oceanic), which drives weather patterns
and ocean currents.
2. Sea level rise, where thermal expansion and melting ice affect global ocean height.

Temperature Equation:
A temperature equation for the ocean typically models how ocean temperature changes over
time and depth due to heat inputs and losses.
1. Basic Surface Energy Balance Equation (Surface Ocean Temperature)

Where:
• Tocean = sea surface temperature (°C or K)
• ρ = density of seawater (~1025 kg/m³)
• cp = specific heat of seawater (~3990 J/kg·K)
• H= depth of the mixed layer (m)
• Qnet = net heat flux at the ocean surface (W/m²)
Net heat flux includes:
 • Qsw: incoming shortwave radiation
• Qlw,in: incoming longwave radiation
• Qlw,out: outgoing longwave radiation
• Qsens: sensible heat flux to the air
• Qlat : latent heat flux (evaporation)

2. 1D Heat Diffusion Equation (With Depth)

To model temperature variation with depth z and time t:

Where:
• T(z,t) = temperature at depth z and time t
• κ = thermal diffusivity of seawater (~1.4 × 10⁻⁷ m²/s)
• Q(z,t) = internal heating rate (e.g., solar radiation penetrating into depth)

3. Full 3D Ocean Model Equation (Advanced Models)

In ocean circulation models (like in climate models), the temperature is governed by
the advection-diffusion equation:

Where:

• u⃗ = velocity field (currents)

• KKK = eddy diffusivity tensor
• This equation includes advection (movement by currents) and diffusion.

Temperature equation of air:

The temperature equation for air models how air temperature changes due to various energy
processes like solar radiation, conduction, convection, and mixing.
1. Basic Energy Balance Equation (Air Temperature Over Time)
Where:
• Tair : air temperature (°C or K)
• ρair : air density (~1.225 kg/m³ at sea level)
• cp: specific heat of air (~1005 J/kg·K)
• Qnet: net heat flux into the air (W/m³)
2. 1D Heat Conduction in Air (Static or Moving Air Layers)

Where:
• α=k/(ρaircp ): thermal diffusivity of air (~2.2 × 10⁻⁵ m²/s)
• z: vertical coordinate (height)
• Used when modeling vertical temperature gradients (like near the Earth's surface).

3. Full Advection-Diffusion Equation (Atmospheric Models)

Where:

• u⃗: wind velocity vector (advection)

• K: turbulent (eddy) diffusivity tensor
• Q: heating rate (solar radiation, latent heat release, etc.)
This is used in numerical weather prediction and climate models.

4. Air Temperature Change Near Surface Due to Solar Heating

Where:
• S : solar radiation (W/m²)
• α : surface albedo (reflectivity)
• H : mixing height (thickness of the air layer being heated)

Decay of Sea Surface temperature:

 The decay of sea surface temperature refers to the reduction or cooling of the
temperature at the ocean's surface over time. This phenomenon can occur due to various
factors, such as seasonal changes, ocean currents, or atmospheric conditions. For example,
during the monsoon season, cooler winds and increased cloud cover can lead to a decrease in
sea surface temperature.
1. Seasonal Variations
• Summer to Winter Transition: During warmer months, solar radiation heats the
ocean's surface, leading to higher SSTs. As seasons transition to winter, the reduced
solar energy and longer nights contribute to cooling.
• Monsoon and Rainfall: In regions like South Asia, monsoons play a significant role.
Rainfall and cloud cover reduce the direct solar heating of the sea surface, leading to a
gradual decay in SST.
2. Ocean Dynamics
• Upwelling: This occurs when deeper, colder water rises to the surface, often driven
by wind or ocean currents. Upwelling replaces the warmer surface water, leading to a
drop in SST. This is common along western coasts of continents, such as in the eastern
Pacific Ocean.
• Currents: Ocean currents, like the cold Labrador Current, transport cooler waters
into warmer regions, influencing SST patterns. Similarly, warm currents like the Gulf
Stream can create contrasting effects.
3. Atmospheric Influences
• Wind Patterns: Strong winds across the ocean increase evaporation and cause
mixing of surface water with colder layers below, leading to cooling.
• Cloud Cover and Radiative Cooling: Thick clouds reduce the amount of sunlight
reaching the ocean, while clear skies at night enhance heat loss through radiation,
accelerating SST decay.
4. Weather Phenomena
• Tropical Cyclones: Cyclones churn the ocean, bringing cooler, deeper water to the
surface. They leave behind a "cold wake" where SSTs drop significantly.
• El Niño and La Niña: These climatic events alter SST in the Pacific Ocean. During
La Niña, upwelling intensifies, causing SST decay in certain regions, whereas El Niño
reduces upwelling, delaying SST decay.
5. Anthropogenic and Long-Term Changes
• Pollution and Aerosols: Human activities, such as releasing aerosols, can influence
cloud formation and reduce solar radiation reaching the sea surface, affecting SST
cooling.
• Global Warming: While SSTs are rising overall due to global warming, localized
cooling patterns may still occur in specific regions due to increased glacial melting or
shifts in currents.
Importance of SST Decay
• Weather and Climate Systems: SST influences air-sea interactions, affecting
monsoons, hurricanes, and global weather patterns. A decay in SST can signal changes
in these systems.
• Marine Ecosystems: Cooling events like upwelling provide nutrients to surface
waters, supporting marine life such as plankton, fish, and other aquatic species.