Artificial Raindrop Algorithm For Control of Frequency in A Networked Power System
Artificial Raindrop Algorithm For Control of Frequency in A Networked Power System
International Journal of Power Electronics and Drive System (IJPEDS)
Vol. 16, No. 2, June 2025, pp. 1116~1123
ISSN: 2088-8694, DOI: 10.11591/ijpeds.v16.i2.pp1116-1123 1116
Artificial raindrop algorithm for control of frequency in a
networked power system
Lakshmi Dhandapani1, Pushpa Sreenivasan1, Malathy Batumalay2,3
1
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Academy of Maritime Education and Training University, Kanathur, India
2
Faculty of Data Science and IT, INTI International University, Nilai, Malaysia
3
Centre for Data Science and Sustainable Technologies, INTI International University, Nilai, Malaysia
Article Info ABSTRACT
Article history: Load frequency control (LFC) evaluates the net changes in generation by
continuously monitoring tie-line flows and system frequency required
Received Jul 15, 2024 relying on load changes. It adjusts generator set points to minimize the area
Revised Dec 30, 2024 control error's (ACE) time-averaged value. ACE is regarded as a controlled
Accepted Mar 1, 2025 output of LFC. Previous research focused on customary power systems like
hydro-hydro, thermal-thermal, and hydro-thermal configurations. This
current development study introduces the hybrid PV and dual thermal
Keywords: system interconnected systems for LFC analysis. The research evaluates
LFC performance with different controllers, considering parameters such as
Artificial raindrop algorithm maximum peak overshoot (Mp), maximum undershoot (Mu), settling time
Energy efficiency (Ts), and peak time (Tp). Controllers, including proportional integral (PI),
Load frequency control anti-windup PI, fuzzy gain scheduling PI, and A cutting-edge algorithm
MPPT generating fake raindrops are used for minimize ACE. The analysis
Proportional integral introduces various load perturbations to observe controller performance in
PV-thermal-thermal interconnected power systems. Both PV-thermal-thermal and thermal-
interconnected thermal-thermal systems exemplify innovative approaches to energy
management that bolster energy efficiency and sustainability. By integrating
these advanced systems, we can make significant strides towards achieving
global sustainability goals and promoting a cleaner and support energy
efficiency for the future.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-SA license.
Corresponding Author:
Lakshmi Dhandapani
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
Academy of Maritime Education and Training University
135, East Coast Road, Kanathur 603112, Tamil Nadu, India
Email: [email protected]
1. INTRODUCTION
The incorporation of sustainable energy into conventional electricity systems has grown
dramatically in the last ten years, partly because of reduced distributed energy prices, environmental
concerns, and legislative support for renewable energy sources. However, because renewable energy is
intermittent and affects grid frequency by reducing system inertia, this integration presents a threat to grid
stability. It is still very important to handle load-frequency management, which is usually done with classic
controllers like proportional integral (PI) and proportional integral derivative (PID), and is frequently
optimized with strategies like particle swarm optimization (PSO) and genetic algorithm (GA) [1]-[5].
Newer methods that show promise in resolving these issues in multi-machine power systems include
fuzzy-based PID controllers and contemporary strategies like optimum control and model predictive control
(MPC). Research has looked into a number of techniques, including generalized Hopfield neural network
Journal homepage: http://ijpeds.iaescore.com
Int J Pow Elec & Dri Syst ISSN: 2088-8694 1117
(GHNN) for self-adaptive PID tuning and adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system (ANFIS) for adaptive
control, which have shown benefits over conventional techniques in simulations [6]-[10]. New developments
in smart generation control include the proportional-derivative win or learn fast-policy hill climbing (κ)
(PDWoLF-PHC(κ)) technique, which emphasizes flexibility and resilience in intricate multi-area power
systems. Further investigation is being conducted into algorithmic enhancements like as BFOA and genetic
algorithms, which optimize control parameters for improved load frequency control (LFC) performance in a
variety of power system setups [11]-[15].
2. GRID-BASED SOLAR ENERGY SYSTEM
Due to the inherently low PV panel conversion efficiency and the application of the maximum
power point tracking (MPPT) method becomes crucial [16], [17]. This algorithm enhances the PV system's
tracking efficiency guarantees steady load voltage maintenance in spite of temperature and irradiance
fluctuations [18]. An inverter is then used to convert the PV system's DC output to AC, as seen in Figure 1.
Figure 1. PV cell equivalent circuit
2.1. Photovoltaic (PV) panel
Photovoltaic (PV) diodes make up a solar cell panel, which uses the photovoltaic effect to function.
The PV cell produces electricity when it is exposed to sunlight. The voltage that the PV cell normally
generates ranges from 0.3 to 0.6 V, depending on the technology. Figure 1 depicts the PV cell's comparable
circuit. Modeling the solar panel is done using (1) and (2).
𝐼 = 𝐼1 − 𝐼𝑜1 (𝑒𝑥𝑝(𝑞(𝑉 − 𝐼𝑅𝑒 )/𝐵𝑘𝑇) − 1) − (𝑉 − 𝐼𝑅𝑒 )/𝑅𝑠ℎ (1)
𝐼𝐴 = (𝜆1 /1000)[𝐼𝑠𝑐 + 𝐾. (𝑇 − 25)] (2)
In the given context, 𝐼𝑠𝑐 represents the current in a short circuit, 𝐼 signifies the generated current of
the photovoltaic array, 𝐼𝐴 stands for the photo current, 𝐼𝑜1 denotes the reverse saturation current, 𝑉 represents
the voltage produced by the solar cell. The Boltzmann constant is denoted by 𝑘., 𝑇 signifies the Kelvin
temperature, 𝑞 represents the electron charge, λ1 represents the irradiance, and 𝐵 is the diode's quality factor.
Temperature and illumination play a crucial role in determining power generation in the cell, with this
generation being connected directly to irradiance and inversely to temperature [19]-[22].
2.2. Integrated PV-thermal-hydro power system
A three-area interconnected system's block diagram is shown in Figure 2. The three areas' frequency
deviations (∆f1-∆f3) are displayed [23], [24]. To examine the differences in frequency and tie-line power,
equal load disturbances are introduced to each of the three systems. The system's performance is evaluated by
evaluating different load perturbations. This system's main goal is the same as a three-area thermal
system's [25].
Manual regulation is replaced by a closed-loop control method called load frequency control, or
LFC. Eliminating frequency variations brought on by load disturbances in the tie lines and throughout the
three zones is the primary goal of LFC. Every system controls its own oscillations and makes up for those in
regions where deviations are uncontrollable [26]. The three-area block schematic of a networked system is
shown in Figure 2.
Artificial raindrop algorithm for control of frequency in a networked … (Lakshmi Dhandapani)
1118 ISSN: 2088-8694
Figure 2. Diagrammatic representation of an integrated three-zone system
3. ARTIFICIAL RAINDROP ALGORITHM (ARDA)
A signal produced by the LFC regulates frequency and establishes generation. The LFC's ARDA
modifies the PI controller's gains. This is the definition of the general optimization problem, where x is an n-
dimensional vector and S is a set of finite measure. This optimization problem is intended to be solved by the
raindrop algorithm.
At first, N raindrops fall on the "ground," where S stands for the "ground". The notation "𝑥𝑖∈𝑆 x i ∈
S" indicates the location of the i-th raindrop. The raindrop will migrate during each period after it has fallen.
The ideal values for the PI controller are ascertained by means of the six phases of ARDA: raindrop
production, raindrop descent, raindrop collision, raindrop flow, RP updating, and vapor updating. If there's
still duplicate vapor in Figure 3, which shows the process diagram of the artificial rain drop algorithm.
Figure 3. Displays the flow diagram of the artificial rain drop algorithm
Int J Pow Elec & Dri Syst, Vol. 16, No. 2, June 2025: 1116-1123
Int J Pow Elec & Dri Syst ISSN: 2088-8694 1119
4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION
The momentary reaction evaluation with reference to the islanded microgrid (MG) system was
conducted with the aid of MATLAB/Simulink 2018a. To ensure a fair and comprehensive assessment of
optimization of particle swarms (PSO), the grey wolf algorithm for optimization (GOA), and artificial rain
drop algorithm (ARDA), identical system parameters were employed in both simulations.
4.1. Controlling voltage and frequency during load variation and DG integration
In an islanded microgrid, frequency, voltage, and regulation are critical due to the lack of main grid
support. To optimize stability after DG insertion and load changes, three metaheuristic techniques (PSO,
GOA, ARDA) were employed to fine-tune the capacitance of the DC-link and PI controller parameters.
ARDA iteratively searched for optimal values by minimizing the FF parameter during simulation. At 0.05
seconds, photovoltaic (PV) modules powered by solar were activated, causing voltage overshoots (Figure 4).
The optimized PI gains and capacitance values obtained through these techniques ensure minimal
overshoot and settling time, ensuring optimal dynamic behavior in the MG model behavior.
Figure 4 illustrates voltage overshoot at 0.05 seconds in the DG integration process, influenced by DG rating
and controller parameters. To ensure a fair comparison between PSO, GOA, and ARDA, the same system
settings were maintained. Load changes at 0.25 s (addition) and 0.55 s (disconnection) caused corresponding
voltage fluctuations.
Figure 5 depicts responses during DG insertion, load addition, and disconnection of load [20]-[22].
Optimal parameters from ARDA outperform PSO and GOA in Figures 5(a) and 5(b), evident in lower
overshoot and settling times across conditions. In islanded MG operations, addressing system frequency is
crucial. Figure 5(c) shows ARDA's superior frequency regulation compared to PSO and GOA, emphasizing
ARDA's effectiveness in enhancing overall MG system performance. Figure 6 depicts MG system frequency
response for three optimization methods, indicating stable responses within ±1% deviation. Notably, ARDA
exhibits superior dynamic.
Table 1 presents a comparative analysis of control of frequency and voltage in the islanded
microgrid setup (MG) under study, highlighting the superior effectiveness of ARDA compared to its
competitors. The results shown in Table 1 show that the ARDA controller worked better than both PSO and
GOA. This meant that the studied MG system had better dynamic response indicators and stable operation. It
maintained voltage within ±5% and frequency within ±1%, meeting IEEE standards. Notably, the settling
time for frequency wasn't calculated due to the curve staying within ±2% of the rated value.
Table 1. Summarizes comparative analyses for control of frequency and voltage in the examined
islanded microgrid emphasizing ARDA's efficacy over competitors
Examined scenario Approach MOS/MUS (%) Peak period (milliseconds) Settling time (ms)
Voltage MG insertion PSO 5.86 27.2 37.7
GOA 4.68 36.3 64.5
ARDA 1.45 26.2 26.36
Load injection PSO 16.45 4.00 94.21
GOA 16.00 4.70 94.20
ARDA 15.04 3.90 94.19
Load detachment PSO 16.41 7.70 73.50
GOA 15.59 7.50 78.50
ARDA 14.77 7.80 77.40
Frequency MG injection PSO 0.44 2.05 -
GOA 0.54 5.58 -
ARDA 0.46 2.30 -
Load injection PSO 0.66 35.2 -
GOA 0.50 34.8 -
ARDA 0.46 35.0 -
Load detachment PSO 0.50 36.4 -
GOA 0.48 36.7 -
ARDA 0.46 36.8 -
4.2. Evaluation of the analyzed optimization algorithms effectiveness
This segment presents results from evaluating three optimization algorithms (PSO, GOA, ARDA)
under identical conditions. All algorithms underwent 50 iterations with 50 search agents in a fair comparison.
Over 20 simulation runs, ARDA achieved the minimum fitness function value (0.5841) in the seventeenth
cycle, outperforming PSO (0.9211586 at 21st iteration) and GOA (0.8748774 at 25th iteration). ARDA
exhibited faster convergence and superior solution quality. Figure 7 shows the PSO, GOA, and ARDA
convergence curve.
Artificial raindrop algorithm for control of frequency in a networked … (Lakshmi Dhandapani)
1120 ISSN: 2088-8694
Figure 4. Response of the system's voltage under load variation and DG integration
(a) (b)
(c)
Figure 5. Profile of voltage at (a) DG integration, (b) abrupt load increase, and (c) abrupt load drop
Figure 6. The microgrid system's frequency response for the explored optimization methods
Int J Pow Elec & Dri Syst, Vol. 16, No. 2, June 2025: 1116-1123
Int J Pow Elec & Dri Syst ISSN: 2088-8694 1121
Figure 7. The convergence profile for GOA, PSO, and ARDA
5. CONCLUSION
This paper presents the successful development of an optimal controller for an islanded microgrid
(MG) utilizing the adaptive randomized differential algorithm (ARDA). The designed controller effectively
regulates voltage and frequency during load variation and microgrid integration, minimizing overshoot and
settling time scenarios. Comparative analysis of optimization algorithms demonstrates that ARDA exhibits
superior convergence behavior, offering higher quality solutions and faster optimization capabilities
compared to alternative algorithms.
The implemented controller provides remarkable power quality by ensuring virtually perfect
sinusoidal waveforms for both voltage and current, according to the power quality analysis. Under the
identical operating conditions and system settings, a thorough comparison with controllers that use particle
swarm optimization (PSO) and genetic optimization algorithm (GOA) highlights the ARDA-based
controller's superior performance. The results show that in every studied case, the ARDA-based parameter
selection produces the best dynamic responses, outperforming alternative approaches. Furthermore, there
may be future uses for this strategy that try to increase energy efficiency.
FUNDING INFORMATION
Author state no funding involved.
AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS STATEMENT
This journal uses the Contributor Roles Taxonomy (CRediT) to recognize individual author
contributions, reduce authorship disputes, and facilitate collaboration.
Name of Author C M So Va Fo I R D O E Vi Su P Fu
Lakshmi Dhandapani ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Pushpa Sreenivasan ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Malathy Batumalay ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
C : Conceptualization I : Investigation Vi : Visualization
M : Methodology R : Resources Su : Supervision
So : Software D : Data Curation P : Project administration
Va : Validation O : Writing - Original Draft Fu : Funding acquisition
Fo : Formal analysis E : Writing - Review & Editing
CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships
that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. Authors state no conflict of interest.
Artificial raindrop algorithm for control of frequency in a networked … (Lakshmi Dhandapani)
1122 ISSN: 2088-8694
DATA AVAILABILITY
The authors confirm that the data supporting the findings of this study are available within the
article and its supplementary materials.
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Int J Pow Elec & Dri Syst ISSN: 2088-8694 1123
BIOGRAPHIES OF AUTHORS
Dr. Lakshmi Dhandapani is a Professor of Department of Electrical and
Electronics Engineering, Academy of Maritime Education and Training, Deemed to be
University, Chennai, Tamil Nādu, India. She has more than 23 years of expertise in the field of
power system. She has guided more than 30 UG students, 15 PG students, and 4 research
scholars. She has published 11 book chapters and 6 books, 46 articles in SCI and Scopus
indexed journals, and nearly 35 national level and international level conference proceedings.
She is a life member in professional bodies such as IEEE, IEI, IAENG, and InSc. She is a star
organizer in IGEN Energathon-2023 Marathon, a new world record on a longest conference.
Her areas of interest are power system operation and control, soft computing, renewable
energy systems, microgrids, and electrical machines. She can be contacted at email:
[email protected].
Pushpa Sreenivasan is a research scholar in Electrical and Electronics
Engineering Department at the Academy of Maritime Education (AMET) University, Tamil
Nadu, India. She has 18 years of teaching experience. She received her B.E. degree in
Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Madras University in the year 2003, M.E. degree
in Power System Engineering from Anna University, Tamil Nadu, India, in the year 2009,
respectively. She is currently an assistant professor at Panimalar Engineering College, Tamil
Nadu, India. Her research interests include the field of power systems, renewable energy,
electrical machines, control systems, and microgrids. She is a life member in professional
bodies like IAENG. She got an organizer award in the Green Energy SDG. She can be
contacted at email: [email protected].
Dr. Malathy Batumalay earned her master’s degree in engineering from the
University Malaya, Malaysia, and subsequently pursued her Ph.D. in Photonics Engineering at
the same institution. Her research focuses on lasers, fiber optics, and fiber sensors. She
collaborates with both local and international researchers to delve deeper resulting in
numerous high-quality publications in relevant journals. Additionally, she actively serves as a
reviewer for several journals and holds a committee position in the Optical Society of
Malaysia (OSM), where she contributes to activities involving young researchers.
Furthermore, she is also registered as a professional engineer with the Board of Engineer
Malaysia (BEM) and as a chartered engineer with The Institution of Engineering and
Technology (IET). Presently associated as a professor with a prestigious private university in
Malaysia, renowned for its expertise in communication, networking, and cloud computing, she
holds pivotal leadership positions. As the Director of the Centre for Data Science and
Emerging Technologies, Dr. Malathy epitomizes academic excellence. Her fervent aspiration
is to engage with emerging talents and prospective research candidates, thereby enhancing the
academic landscape. She can be contacted at email: [email protected].
