Field Astronomy

Lecture Notes
by
K. F. Aleem,
Department of Surveying and Geoinformatics,
Abubakar Tafawa Balewa University,
Bauchi.
Module 2: Motion of the Planet
Before delfing into Motion of the Planet, we need to look at the orbit
2.1 An orbit is the curved trajectory, regular, repeating path that one object in space takes around
another object due to gravitational forces. For example, the Earth orbits the Sun, and the Moon
orbits the Earth.
2.2 Types of Orbits:
Orbit are classified according to shape as
 Circular Orbit: An orbit with a constant distance from the central body, forming a
perfect circle.
 Elliptical Orbit: An orbit shaped like an ellipse, with varying distances from the central
body. Most planetary orbits are elliptical.
Orbit are classified according to position and location as:
1. Low Earth Orbit (LEO): These orbits are close to Earth, typically between 160 to 2,000
kilometers above the surface. Satellites in LEO are used for various purposes, including
communication, weather monitoring, and scientific research.
2. Medium Earth Orbit (MEO): These orbits range from about 2,000 to 35,786 kilometers
above Earth. Navigation satellites, like those in the GPS constellation, often use MEO.
3. Geostationary Orbit (GEO): At approximately 35,786 kilometers above the equator,
satellites in GEO orbit Earth at the same rate that Earth rotates. This makes them appear
stationary relative to a point on the ground, ideal for communication and weather
satellites. This is special type of orbit where a satellite remains fixed over one point on
the Earth's equator, matching the Earth's rotation period
 4. Polar Orbit: These orbits pass over the Earth's poles, allowing satellites to scan the
entire surface of the Earth over time. They are often used for Earth observation and
reconnaissance.
5. Sun-Synchronous Orbit: A special type of polar orbit where the satellite passes over the
same part of the Earth at roughly the same local solar time, providing consistent lighting
conditions for imaging.
2.3 Orbital Mechanics
The motion of objects in these orbits is governed by the same principles that describe planetary
motion, such as Kepler's laws and Newton's laws of motion and gravitation. The specific
parameters of an orbit, like its altitude and inclination, determine its characteristics and
suitability for different applications.
2.31 Motion of the Planet
The motion of planets is primarily described by Kepler's laws of planetary motion, which were
formulated by Johannes Kepler in the early 17th century. These laws describe how planets orbit
the Sun and are fundamental to our understanding of celestial mechanics. Here are the three
laws:
2.32 Kepler's First Law: The Law of Ellipses
This law states that the orbit of a planet around the Sun is an ellipse, with the Sun at one of the
two foci. This means that the distance between a planet and the Sun varies throughout its orbit.
2.33 Kepler's Second Law: The Law of Equal Areas
According to this law, a line segment joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during
equal intervals of time. This implies that a planet moves faster when it is closer to the Sun and
slower when it is farther from the Sun.
2.34 Kepler's Third Law: The Law of Harmonies
This law states that the square of the orbital period of a planet is proportional to the cube of the
semi-major axis of its orbit. Mathematically, it can be expressed as:

T2∝a3

where ( T ) is the orbital period, and ( a ) is the semi-major axis. This law shows that planets
farther from the Sun have longer orbital periods.
2.35 Newton's Contribution
Isaac Newton later expanded on Kepler's laws by formulating his laws of motion and the law of
universal gravitation. Newton showed that Kepler's laws are a natural consequence of the
gravitational force between the Sun and the planets
These principles not only apply to planets but also to moons, comets, and artificial satellites.
Understanding these laws helps us predict planetary positions, design satellite orbits, and explore
the dynamics of our solar system.

2.4 Orbital elements

The six classical orbital elements, also known as Keplerian elements, are used to uniquely
describe the orbit of a satellite or celestial body. Here they are:
1. Semi-major axis (a): This defines the size of the orbit. For an elliptical orbit, it is the
longest diameter of the ellipse.
2. Eccentricity (e): This describes the shape of the orbit, indicating how much it deviates
from a perfect circle. An eccentricity of 0 means the orbit is circular, while values
between 0 and 1 indicate an elliptical orbit.
3. Inclination (i): This is the tilt of the orbit's plane with respect to the reference plane
(usually the equatorial plane for Earth satellites). It is measured in degrees.
4. Right ascension of the ascending node (Ω): This is the angle from a reference direction
(usually the vernal equinox) to the direction of the ascending node, where the orbit
crosses the reference plane from south to north.
5. Argument of periapsis (ω): This is the angle from the ascending node to the orbit's point
of closest approach to the primary body (periapsis).
6. True anomaly (ν): This is the angle between the direction of periapsis and the current
position of the satellite, measured at the primary focus of the ellipse.
These elements together define the size, shape, and orientation of the orbit, as well as the
satellite's position within it
2.5 Satellite orbit computation: Satellite orbit computation involves determining the path a
satellite follows around a celestial body, like Earth. Here are some key concepts and formulas
used in this process:

2.52 Orbital Speed

The orbital speed of a satellite in a circular orbit can be calculated using the formula:

v=GMR+hv=R+hGM

where:

 ( v ) is the orbital speed,

 ( G ) is the gravitational constant ((6.67430 \times 10^{-11}

 ( M ) is the mass of the Earth ((5.972 \times 10^{24} ,

 ( R ) is the radius of the Earth ((6.371 \times 10^6 ,

 ( h ) is the altitude of the satellite above the Earth's surface.

2.52 Orbital Period

The orbital period, which is the time it takes for a satellite to complete one full orbit, can be
calculated using:

Example Calculation

For instance, if a satellite orbits at an altitude of 400 km above the Earth's surface, you can plug
in the values:

 ( h = 400 \times 10^3 ,

 ( R = 6.371 \times 10^6 )

Using these formulas, you can determine the satellite's speed and orbital period. For the
International Space Station (ISS), which orbits at this altitude, the orbital speed is approximately
7.67 km/s, and the orbital period is about 92 minute

2.6 A perturbed orbit refers to the actual path of a satellite that deviates from the idealized,
unperturbed Keplerian orbit due to various external forces. These perturbations can cause
changes in the satellite's orbital elements over time.

2.61 Sources of Perturbations

1. Gravitational Forces:

 Third-Body Effects: The gravitational influence of other celestial bodies, such as

the Moon or the Sun, can alter the satellite's orbit.

 Non-Spherical Earth: The Earth's shape is not a perfect sphere; it is an oblate

spheroid. This causes variations in the gravitational field, leading to
perturbations.

2. Atmospheric Drag:

 At lower altitudes, the satellite experiences drag from the Earth's atmosphere,
which can cause it to lose altitude and slow down over time.

3. Solar Radiation Pressure:

 The pressure exerted by sunlight can cause small but significant changes in the
satellite's orbit, especially for satellites with large surface areas.

4. Relativistic Effects:
  Effects predicted by Einstein's theory of general relativity, such as the precession
of the perihelion, can also cause perturbations.

2.62 Effects of Perturbations

 Precession: The gradual shift in the orientation of the satellite's orbit. For example, the
argument of periapsis and the right ascension of the ascending node can change over
time.

 Orbital Decay: The gradual decrease in the altitude of a satellite's orbit due to
atmospheric drag.

 Changes in Eccentricity and Inclination: Perturbations can alter the shape and tilt of the
orbit.

Example

The International Space Station (ISS) experiences significant atmospheric drag, requiring
periodic reboosts to maintain its orbit. Without these adjustments, the ISS would gradually
descend and eventually re-enter the Earth's atmosphere

Understanding and accounting for these perturbations is crucial for accurate satellite orbit
prediction and maintenance.

2.7 A constellation is a group of stars that form a recognizable or perceived pattern in the night
sky, often named after mythological figures, animals, or objects. There are 88 officially
recognized constellations by the International Astronomical Union (IAU).

2.8 Light year: Light year is the Unit of Measurements of Celestial Bodies. This is equvalent to
the distance at which light will travel in One year.

3*108*60*60*24*365.25 m

2.9 Magnitude of the Sun: Two types of magnitude are Apparent and Absolute magnitude

Apparent Magnitude: Apparent magnitude measures how bright an object appears from Earth.
The Sun has an apparent magnitude of about -26.74, making it the brightest object in our sky.

Absolute Magnitude: Absolute magnitude measures the intrinsic brightness of an object. If the
Sun were placed at a standard distance of 10 parsecs (about 32.6 light years) from Earth, its
absolute magnitude would be +4.83

2. Distance of the Sun from Earth

  Average Distance: The average distance from the Earth to the Sun is about 1
astronomical unit (AU), which is approximately 149.6 million kilometers (93 million
miles)

3 Variation: This distance varies slightly due to the elliptical shape of Earth's orbit, ranging from
about 147.1 million kilometers (perihelion) to 152.1 million kilometers (aphelion)

Magnitude and Distance of Other Stars

 Apparent Magnitude: Stars have varying apparent magnitudes depending on their

intrinsic brightness and distance from Earth. For example, Sirius, the brightest star in the
night sky, has an apparent magnitude of -1.46.

 Distance: Distances to stars are often measured in light-years or parsecs. For instance,
Sirius is about 8.6 light-years away from Earth.

Understanding these concepts helps astronomers determine the properties and distances of
celestial objects, enhancing our knowledge of the universe.