Field and Office Computations

Field computation in surveying involves calculating and processing data collected during
fieldwork to determine spatial measurements, coordinates, distances, elevations, and other
relevant information. These computations are critical for mapping, construction, and engineering
projects. Below is an overview of the key aspects of field computation in surveying.
Office computation in surveying involves processing, analyzing, and interpreting the data
collected during fieldwork to create accurate maps, plans, and reports. This step transforms raw
field data into meaningful outputs for construction, engineering, and land management projects.

Types of Field and Office Computations in Surveying

1. Traverse Computations:
o Objective: Determine positions of survey points by measuring angles and
distances in a connected series of lines.
o Steps:
 Measure horizontal angles, distances, and bearings between survey points.
 Compute coordinates using trigonometric relationships.
 Adjust traverse measurements (e.g., using the Bowditch method) to
minimize errors and ensure closure.
2. Leveling Computations:
o Objective: Determine differences in elevation between points.
o Steps:
 Record backsight (BS) and foresight (FS) readings with a leveling
instrument.
 Compute height of the instrument (HI) and point elevations using the
formula:
Elevation = HI−FS (Where HI = Height of Instrument, and FS = Foresight)
 Perform checks for misclosures and correct them.
3. Area Computations:
o Objective: Calculate the area of land parcels.
o Methods:

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  Coordinate Method: Use point coordinates and formulas like the
Shoelace formula.
 Trapezoidal Rule: Estimate area based on irregular shapes divided into
trapezoids.
 Planimeter: Measure area directly on a plotted map.
4. Distance and Bearing Computations:
o Objective: Compute distances and bearings between two points.
o Steps:
 Use Pythagoras' theorem to calculate horizontal distances:

Distance=√ (X 2 − X 1)2 +(Y 2 −Y 1 )2

 Compute bearings using:

Y 2 −Y 1
Bearing=arctan ( tan )
−1
X2 − X 1

Bearing computations in surveying involve determining the direction of a line relative to

a reference direction, usually a north-south line. Bearings can be expressed as whole-
circle bearings (WCB) or reduced bearings (RB). Below are worked examples for
both types:

Example 1: Calculating Whole-Circle Bearings (WCB)

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Problem 1: A surveyor measures the angle of a line relative to the north-south axis using a
theodolite. Determine the WCB for each quadrant.

1.

Scenario 1: The line lies in the first quadrant (North-East direction).

1. Measured angle: 35°

2. WCB = 35°

Scenario 2: The line lies in the second quadrant (South-East direction).

1. Measured angle: 125°

2. WCB = 180∘−125∘=55∘

Scenario 3: The line lies in the third quadrant (South-West direction).

1. Measured angle: 205°

2. WCB = 205° - 180°

Scenario 4: The line lies in the fourth quadrant (North-West direction).

1. Measured angle: 290°

2. WCB = 360° −290° = 70°

Example 2: Converting Whole-Circle Bearings to Reduced Bearings

Reduced bearings (RB) are expressed as angles from the north or south direction, followed by
east or west.

Steps to Convert:

1. Identify the quadrant of the given WCB.

2. Apply the quadrant-specific formula:
1. First Quadrant (NE): RB = WCB
2. Second Quadrant (SE): RB = 180° −WCB
3. Third Quadrant (SW): RB = WCB+180°
4. Fourth Quadrant (NW): RB = 360° −WCB

Worked Example:

WCB = 50∘

1. First Quadrant (NE): RB=N50° E

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 WCB = 150°

1. Second Quadrant (SE): RB=S(180° −150° )E = S30° E

WCB = 230°

1. Third Quadrant (SW): RB=S(230° −180° )W=S50° W

WCB = 300°

Fourth Quadrant (NW): RB = N(360° −300° )W =N60° W

Example 3: Finding the Bearing Between Two Points

Given coordinates of two points, A(x 1 , y 1)∧B( x 2 , y 2), the bearing can be computed using the
formula for the angle of a line:

−1 y2 − y1
θ=tan ( )
x2 − x1

Worked Example:

 Point A(100,200) and Point B(300,500)

∆ x=x 2 − x 1=300 −100=200

∆ y = y 2 − y 1=500 −200=300

−1 y2 − y1
θ=tan ( )
x2 − x1

−1 300
θ=tan ( )
200
−1
θ=tan (1.5)

= 56.31°

Since the line lies in the first quadrant (NE), the bearing is:

 WCB = 56.31°
 RB = N56.31° E

Example 1: Computing Distance Between Two Points

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Problem:

Two points have the following coordinates:

 A(100m, 200m)
 B(300m, 500m)

Solution:

1. Calculate the differences in X and Y coordinates:

∆ x=x 2 − x 1=300 −100=200

∆ y = y 2 − y 1=500 −200=300

2. Apply the distance formula:

Distance=√ (X 2 − X 1)2 +(Y 2 −Y 1 )2

Distance=√(200)2+(300)2

Distance=√ 40000+90000

Distance=√130000

Distance = 360.56m

Example 2: Distance with Elevation Difference

When elevation (height) differences are considered, the 3D distance can be calculated using:

Distance=√ (X 2 − X 1)2 +(Y 2 −Y 1 )2+(Z 2 − Z 1)2

Problem:

Two points have the following coordinates:

 A(100m, 200m, 50m)

 B(300m, 500m, 100m)

Solution:

1. Calculate the differences in X, Y, and Z:

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 ∆ x=x 2 − x 1=300 −100=200

∆ y = y 2 − y 1=500 −200=300

∆ z=Z 2 − Z 1=100 − 50=50

2. Apply the 3D distance formula:

Distance=√ ( X 2 − X 1)2 +(Y 2 −Y 1 )2+(Z 2 − Z 1)2

Distance=√ (200)2+(300)2 +(50)2

Distance=√ 40000+90000+ 2500

Distance=√132,500

Distance = 364.01m

Example 3: Horizontal Distance from Slope Distance

If you are given a slope distance (S) and a vertical angle (θ), the horizontal distance ( Dℎ) can be
calculated as:

Dℎ =S × cos θ

Problem:

 Slope distance (S) = 200 m

 Vertical angle (θ) = 30°

Solution:

1. Calculate the horizontal distance:

Dℎ =200 m× cos30°

¿ 200 m× 0.8660

= 173.2m

5. Area Computations:
o Objective: Estimate earthwork volumes (e.g., cut and fill).

o Methods:

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  Cross-Section Method: Use cross-section profiles at regular intervals.
 Grid Method: Subdivide the site into grids, calculate elevations, and
estimate volumes.
Volume computation in surveying is crucial for tasks like earthwork, excavation, embankments,
and land development. The volume is typically calculated based on the topographic data of the
area. Below are the most common methods used for volume computation, along with worked
examples.

1. Trapezoidal Rule (Prismoidal Formula)

This method assumes that the area between two sections forms a trapezoid.

Formula:

L
A= ( A1 + A2 )
2

Where:

 L = distance between two sections

 A1 = area of the first section
 A2 = area of the second section

Example 1: Trapezoidal Rule

Problem: Compute the volume of earthwork between two cross-sections:

 Section 1 area ( A1) = 30 m²

 Section 2 area ( A2 ) = 50 m²
 Distance between sections (L) = 20 m

Solution:

L
Area= ( A1 + A2 )
2

20 m
Area= ¿
2

Area=10. m׿ )

Area=10 m× ¿)

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 3
Area=800 m

2. Mid-Ordinate Rule

This method is commonly used when the boundary line is curved. It divides the area into strips
and measures the mid-ordinates.

Formula:

Area = Sum of mid-ordinates X Width of strip

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 Summary of Methods and Applications

Method Formula Application

1 Roads, canals, simple
Trapezoidal Rule A= (a+ b). h
2 polygons

Mid-Ordinate Rule A=Sum of mid-ordinates⋅Width Curved boundaries

n
Coordinate Method A=∑ ( X i . Y i+ 1 −Y i . X i+1 )
i=1

∆ x (Y 0 +4 Y 1+2 Y 2 +...+Y n )
Simpson’s Rule Irregular boundaries
❑

A= × Base ×Height
Division into 1 Triangular plots,
Triangles 2 irregular shapes

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Elevation and Leveling

(a) Height of Instrument (HI) or Collimation Method

HI = BM + BS

 Use: Calculate the height of the instrument based on the benchmark (BM) and back sight
(BS).

(b) Reduced Level (RL)

RL = HI − FS

 Use: Determine the reduced level by subtracting the foresight (FS) from the height of the
instrument.
 Manipulation: Rearrange to find missing values, e.g., HI=RL+FSHI = RL +
FSHI=RL+FS.

Worked Example: Height of Instrument Method

A surveyor is tasked with determining the elevations of several points (A, B, and C) in a field.
The elevation of a known benchmark (BM) is 100.000 m. Using a leveling instrument, the
surveyor records the following readings:

Point Back Sight (BS) Fore Sight (FS) Remarks

BM 1.500 - Known elevation: 100.000 m

A - 2.000

B - 1.800

C - 2.200

Solution

Calculate the Height of the Instrument (HI):

1. HI = Elevation of BM + Back Sight (BS)

2. HI = 100.000 + 1.500 = 101.500 m

Calculate the Elevation of Point A:

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 1. Elevation of A = HI - Fore Sight (FS)
2. Elevation of A = 101.500 - 2.000 = 99.500 m

Calculate the Elevation of Point B:

1. Elevation of B = HI - Fore Sight (FS)

2. Elevation of B = 101.500 - 1.800 = 99.700 m

Calculate the Elevation of Point C:

1. Elevation of C = HI - Fore Sight (FS)

2. Elevation of C = 101.500 - 2.200 = 99.300 m

Results

Point Elevation (m)

BM 100.000

A 99.500

B 99.700

C 99.300

Key Points:

 The Height of Instrument (HI) is the elevation of the instrument's line of sight.
 The Back Sight (BS) is always taken on a point with a known or assumed elevation (like
a benchmark).
 The Fore Sight (FS) is taken on the points to calculate their elevation relative to the HI.

Worked Example: Reduced Level Calculation

A surveyor is tasked with determining the reduced levels (RLs) of points P, Q, R, and S using a
leveling instrument. The RL of a known benchmark (BM) is 100.000 m, and the following
readings are recorded:

Station Back Sight (BS) Intermediate Sight (IS) Fore Sight (FS) Remarks

BM 1.500 - - RL = 100.000 m

P - 2.000 -

Q - 1.800 -

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Station Back Sight (BS) Intermediate Sight (IS) Fore Sight (FS) Remarks

R - 2.200 -

S - - 2.500

Solution

Step 1: Collimation Method

Using the collimation method, the Height of Instrument (HI) is first calculated and then used
to determine the RLs of the points.

Calculate HI for the first setup:

HI =RLBM + BS=100.00+1.50=101.50

Calculate RL for each point:

1. P : RLP =HI − IS=101.50 −2.00=99.50

2. Q: RLQ =HI − IS=101.50 −1.80=99.70

3. R: RL R=HI − IS=101.50− 2.20=99.30

4. S : RLS=HI − IS =101.50 −2.50=99.00

Results

Station BS IS FS HI RL Remarks

BM 1.500 - - 101.500 100.000 Known RL

P - 2.000 - 101.500 99.500

Q - 1.800 - 101.500 99.700

R - 2.200 - 101.500 99.300

S - - 2.500 101.500 99.000

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Key Points

Collimation Method:

1. Calculate the HI for each setup.

2. Subtract IS or FS from HI to get RL.

Rise-and-Fall Method (Alternative):

1. Calculate differences between consecutive readings to find "rise" or "fall."

2. Add rise to or subtract fall from the previous RL to calculate the next RL.

RL calculations are relative to a known benchmark elevation, ensuring accuracy in

determining the height of other points.

Volume Computations

Volume of Earthwork

Using the prismoidal formula:

L
V = ( A 1 +4 A m + A2 )
6

 Use: Calculate volume of cut/fill between two cross-sections, where L is the distance, A1
and A2 are end areas, and Am is the mid-area.

Problem: Compute the Volume of Earthwork Between Cross-Sections

Solution: Using the Trapezoidal Rule

The formula for volume calculation using the trapezoidal rule is:

L
V = ( A 1 +2 A 2+ A 3)
2

Where:

 V = Volume
 L = Distance between the sections (50 m in this case)
 A1 , A 2 , A3 =Cross Sectional Area

Step 1: Substitute the Given Values

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 50
V= (25+2( 30)+28)
2

Step 2: Simplify the Expression

V =25(25+60+ 28)
V =25(113)
V = 2825m3

Final Answer:

The volume of earthwork is 2825 cubic meters.

Notes:

If the intervals between sections are irregular, the formula for the volume between two
sections is:

( A 1+ A 2)
V=A ×L
2

Compute this for each interval and sum the results.

For more complex calculations, methods like the Prismoidal Rule can be applied if
cross-sectional areas vary significantly.

Given cross-sectional areas (in square meters) at regular intervals of 50 meters along a road
alignment:

 Cross-section 1: A1=25 m2
 Cross-section 2: A2=30 m2
 Cross-section 3: A3 =28 m2

Use Prismoidal Rule to compute the volume of the section along the road alignment.

Solution:

L
V = ( A 1 +4 A m + A2 )
6

Where:

 A1: Areas at consecutive cross-sections

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  Am : Mid-section area (calculated as the average of A1 and A2 )
 L: Distance between the sections (length of the prismoid)

Step 1: Calculate the Mid-section Area

The mid-section area Am is the average of the areas of A1 and A2:

(A 1 + A2 )
Am =A
2

Substitute the values:

(25+30)
Am =A =27.5m2
2

Step 2: Compute the Volume Using the Formula

Now substitute A1 = 25, A2 = 30, Am = 27.5, and L=50:

L
V = ( A 1 +4 A m + A2 )
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50
V= (25+ 4(27.5)+30)
6
V =8.33(25+ 4(27.5)+30)
V =8.33(25+110 +30)
V =8.33(165)
V =¿1,374.45
V =¿1,375m 3

Computations of rectangular coordinates from one station to the other

In surveying, calculating the rectangular (Cartesian) coordinates of a new station from a known
station involves using the known coordinates, the bearing (or azimuth), and the horizontal
distance between the two points. This process is fundamental in traverse computations, where a
series of connected lines form a framework for mapping and measurement.

Steps to Compute Rectangular Coordinates:

Identify Known Parameters:

1. Coordinates of the Known Station (Point A): X A ,Y A

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 2. Bearing or Azimuth (θ): The direction from Point A to Point B, typically measured
clockwise from the north direction.
3. Horizontal Distance (D): The straight-line distance between Point A and Point B.

Calculate the Latitude and Departure:

1. Latitude (∆ Y ): The change in the north-south direction.

2. Departure (∆ X): The change in the east-west direction.

These are computed as:

∆ Y = Cos(θ)

∆ X = Sin(θ)

Note: Ensure that the bearing or azimuth (θ) is converted to radians if your calculator or
software uses radian mode.

Determine the Signs of Latitude and Departure:

1. Bearing Quadrants:

1. NE (0° to 90°): ∆ Y is positive, ∆ X is positive

2. SE (90° to 180°): ∆ Y is negative, ∆ X is positive
3. SW (180° to 270°): ∆ Y is negative, ∆ X is negative
4. NW (270° to 360°): ∆ Y is positive, ∆ X is negative

Adjust the signs of Δy and Δx based on the quadrant of the bearing.

Compute the Coordinates of the New Station (Point B):

X B= X A +∆ X

Y B=Y A + ∆Y

Example Calculation:

Suppose you have a known station A with coordinates (200,300) meters. Determine the
coordinates of station B, which is 300 meters away from A at a bearing of N 42°30' E.

Convert Bearing to Azimuth:

Bearing N 42°30' E corresponds to an azimuth of 42°30'.

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 Convert Degrees to Decimal:

42°30' = 42.5°

Convert Degrees to Radians:

π
θ=42.5 ° × =0.718radians
180

Calculate Latitude and Departure:

1. ∆ Y =300 ×Cos (0.7418) = 221.37 meters

2. ∆ X=300× Sin (0.7418) = 202.67 meters

Determine Signs (NE Quadrant):

1. Both Δy and Δx are positive.

Compute Coordinates of Point B:

1. X B = 200 + 202.67 = 402.67meters

2.
3. Y B = 300 + 221.37 = 521.37 meters

Therefore, the coordinates of station B are approximately (402.67,521.37) meters.

Additional Considerations:

 Units: Ensure consistency in units throughout the calculations.

 Angle Measurement: Confirm whether your angles are in degrees or radians and convert
as necessary.
 Bearing Notation: Understand the bearing notation used (e.g., N 42°30' E) and convert it
appropriately to azimuth if needed.

Coordinate Transformations:
o Transform field coordinates to fit different systems or projections, often using
affine transformations or least-squares adjustments.

Example Problem:

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Transform a point from a local coordinate system to a global coordinate system. The
transformation involves the following:

 Translation: ΔX =100, ΔY =50

 Rotation: θ =30° (clockwise)
 Scaling: S =2.0
 Input Point: (X,Y) = (10,20)

We need to compute the new coordinates (X′,Y′)(X', Y')(X′,Y′) in the global coordinate system.

Tools for Field Computations

1. Traditional Tools:
o Field books for manual calculations.
o Mechanical calculators for basic arithmetic operations.
2. Modern Tools:
o Total Stations: Provide direct measurements of angles, distances, and
coordinates.
o GNSS/GPS Receivers: Directly compute positions and elevations using satellite
data.
o Survey Software: Automate computations, adjustments, and plotting (e.g.,
AutoCAD Civil 3D, ArcGIS, Trimble Access).
o Handheld Calculators: Preprogrammed for common surveying tasks (e.g., HP-
35s, Casio FX series).

Error Adjustments in Field Computations

1. Sources of Error:
o Instrumental errors.
o Human errors (e.g., incorrect readings or recording).
o Environmental factors (e.g., temperature, wind, or terrain).
2. Error Adjustment Methods:
o Linear Adjustments: Proportional distribution of misclosures in traverse and
leveling computations.

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 o Least-Squares Adjustment: Minimizes the sum of squared errors for complex
networks.
o Check Measurements: Ensure accuracy by cross-verifying readings.
Applications
 Mapping: Creating topographic or cadastral maps.
 Construction: Ensuring accurate placement of structures.
 Boundary Surveys: Determining legal land boundaries.
 Engineering Design: Providing data for road, bridge, or building design.

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