Database Management Systems

CS502
Unit I
DBMS Concepts and architecture Introduction, Database approach
v/s Traditional file accessing approach, Advantages, of database
systems, Data models, Schemas and instances, Data independence,
Data Base Language and interfaces, Overall Database Structure,
Functions of DBA and designer, ER data model: Entitles and
attributes, Entity types, Defining the E-R diagram, Concept of
Generalization, Aggregation and Specialization. transforming ER
diagram into the tables. Various other data models object oriented
data Model, Network data model, and Relational data model,
Comparison between the three types of models.
What is Database
⚫ The database is a collection of inter-related data which
is used to retrieve, insert and delete the data efficiently.
It is also used to organize the data in the form of a
table, schema, views, and reports, etc.
⚫ For example: The college Database organizes the data
about the admin, staff, students and faculty etc.
⚫ Using the database, you can easily retrieve, insert, and
delete the information.
Database Management System
⚫ Database management system is a software which is
used to manage the database. For example: MySQL,
Oracle, etc are a very popular commercial database
which is used in different applications.
⚫ DBMS provides an interface to perform various
operations like database creation, storing data in it,
updating data, creating a table in the database and a lot
more.
⚫ It provides protection and security to the database. In
the case of multiple users, it also maintains data
consistency.
DBMS allows users the following
tasks:
⚫ Data Definition: It is used for creation, modification, and
removal of definition that defines the organization of data
in the database.
⚫ Data Updation: It is used for the insertion, modification,
and deletion of the actual data in the database.
⚫ Data Retrieval: It is used to retrieve the data from the
database which can be used by applications for various
purposes.
⚫ User Administration: It is used for registering and
monitoring users, maintain data integrity, enforcing data
security, dealing with concurrency control, monitoring
performance and recovering information corrupted by
unexpected failure.
Characteristics of DBMS
⚫ It uses a digital repository established on a server to store
and manage the information.
⚫ It can provide a clear and logical view of the process that
manipulates data.
⚫ DBMS contains automatic backup and recovery
procedures.
⚫ It contains ACID properties which maintain data in a
healthy state in case of failure.
⚫ It can reduce the complex relationship between data.
⚫ It is used to support manipulation and processing of data.
⚫ It is used to provide security of data.
⚫ It can view the database from different viewpoints
according to the requirements of the user.
Advantages of DBMS
⚫ Controls database redundancy: It can control data redundancy
because it stores all the data in one single database file and that
recorded data is placed in the database.
⚫ Data sharing: In DBMS, the authorized users of an organization
can share the data among multiple users.
⚫ Easily Maintenance: It can be easily maintainable due to the
centralized nature of the database system.
⚫ Reduce time: It reduces development time and maintenance
need.
⚫ Backup: It provides backup and recovery subsystems which
create automatic backup of data from hardware and software
failures and restores the data if required.
⚫ multiple user interface: It provides different types of user
interfaces like graphical user interfaces, application program
interfaces
Disadvantages of DBMS
⚫ Cost of Hardware and Software: It requires a high speed
of data processor and large memory size to run DBMS
software.
⚫ Size: It occupies a large space of disks and large memory
to run them efficiently.
⚫ Complexity: Database system creates additional
complexity and requirements.
⚫ Higher impact of failure: Failure is highly impacted the
database because in most of the organization, all the data
stored in a single database and if the database is damaged
due to electric failure or database corruption then the data
may be lost forever.
DBMS vs. File System
Database
What is Data?
⚫ Data is a collection of a distinct small unit of
information. It can be used in a variety of forms like
text, numbers, media, bytes, etc. it can be stored in
pieces of paper or electronic memory, etc.
⚫ Word 'Data' is originated from the word 'datum' that
means 'single piece of information.' It is plural of the
word datum.
⚫ In computing, Data is information that can be
translated into a form for efficient movement and
processing. Data is interchangeable.
DBMS Architecture
⚫ The DBMS design depends upon its architecture. The
basic client/server architecture is used to deal with a
large number of PCs, web servers, database servers
and other components that are connected with
networks.
⚫ The client/server architecture consists of many PCs
and a workstation which are connected via the
network.
⚫ DBMS architecture depends upon how users are
connected to the database to get their request done.
Types of DBMS Architecture
1-Tier Architecture
⚫ In this architecture, the database is directly available to
the user. It means the user can directly sit on the
DBMS and uses it.
⚫ Any changes done here will directly be done on the
database itself. It doesn't provide a handy tool for end
users.
⚫ The 1-Tier architecture is used for development of the
local application, where programmers can directly
communicate with the database for the quick response.
2-Tier Architecture
⚫ The 2-Tier architecture is same as basic client-server.
In the two-tier architecture, applications on the client
end can directly communicate with the database at the
server side. For this interaction, API's like: ODBC,
JDBC are used.
⚫ The user interfaces and application programs are run
on the client-side.
⚫ The server side is responsible to provide the
functionalities like: query processing and transaction
management.
⚫ To communicate with the DBMS, client-side
application establishes a connection with the server
side.
2-Tier Architecture
3-Tier Architecture
⚫ The 3-Tier architecture contains another layer between
the client and server. In this architecture, client can't
directly communicate with the server.
⚫ The application on the client-end interacts with an
application server which further communicates with
the database system.
⚫ End user has no idea about the existence of the
database beyond the application server. The database
also has no idea about any other user beyond the
application.
⚫ The 3-Tier architecture is used in case of large web
application.
3-Tier Architecture
Three schema Architecture
⚫ The three schema architecture is also called
ANSI/SPARC architecture or three-level architecture.
⚫ This framework is used to describe the structure of a
specific database system.
⚫ The three schema architecture is also used to separate
the user applications and physical database.
⚫ The three schema architecture contains three-levels. It
breaks the database down into three different
categories.
Three schema Architecture
Three schema Architecture
1. Internal Level
⚫ The internal level has an internal schema which describes the physical storage
structure of the database.
⚫ The internal schema is also known as a physical schema.
⚫ It uses the physical data model. It is used to define that how the data will be
stored in a block.
⚫ The physical level is used to describe complex low-level data structures in
detail.
2. Conceptual Level
⚫ The conceptual schema describes the design of a database at the conceptual
level. Conceptual level is also known as logical level.
⚫ The conceptual schema describes the structure of the whole database.
⚫ The conceptual level describes what data are to be stored in the database and
also describes what relationship exists among those data.
⚫ In the conceptual level, internal details such as an implementation of the data
structure are hidden.
⚫ Programmers and database administrators work at this level.
Three schema Architecture
3. External Level
⚫ At the external level, a database contains several
schemas that sometimes called as subschema. The
subschema is used to describe the different view of the
database.
⚫ An external schema is also known as view schema.
⚫ Each view schema describes the database part that a
particular user group is interested and hides the
remaining database from that user group.
⚫ The view schema describes the end user interaction
with database systems.
Data model Schema and Instance
⚫ The data which is stored in the database at a particular
moment of time is called an instance of the database.
⚫ The overall design of a database is called schema.
⚫ A database schema is the skeleton structure of the database.
It represents the logical view of the entire database.
⚫ A schema contains schema objects like table, foreign key,
primary key, views, columns, data types, stored procedure,
etc.
⚫ A database schema can be represented by using the visual
diagram. That diagram shows the database objects and
relationship with each other.
⚫ A database schema is designed by the database designers to
help programmers whose software will interact with the
database. The process of database creation is called data
modeling.
Data Independence
Data independence can be explained using the three-schema
architecture.
Data independence refers characteristic of being able to modify the
schema at one level of the database system without altering the
schema at the next higher level.
There are two types of data independence:
1. Logical Data Independence
⚫ Logical data independence refers characteristic of being able to
change the conceptual schema without having to change the
external schema.
⚫ Logical data independence is used to separate the external level
from the conceptual view.
⚫ If we do any changes in the conceptual view of the data, then the
user view of the data would not be affected.
⚫ Logical data independence occurs at the user interface level.
Data Independence
2. Physical Data Independence
⚫ Physical data independence can be defined as the
capacity to change the internal schema without having
to change the conceptual schema.
⚫ If we do any changes in the storage size of the database
system server, then the Conceptual structure of the
database will not be affected.
⚫ Physical data independence is used to separate
conceptual levels from the internal levels.
⚫ Physical data independence occurs at the logical
interface level.
Data Independence
Database Language
⚫ A DBMS has appropriate languages and interfaces to
express database queries and updates.
⚫ Database languages can be used to read, store and
update the data in the database.
Types of Database Language
1. Data Definition Language
DDL stands for Data Definition Language. It is used to define database structure
or pattern.
⚫ It is used to create schema, tables, indexes, constraints, etc. in the database.
⚫ Using the DDL statements, you can create the skeleton of the database.
⚫ Data definition language is used to store the information of metadata like the
number of tables and schemas, their names, indexes, columns in each table,
constraints, etc.
Here are some tasks that come under DDL:
⚫ Create: It is used to create objects in the database.
⚫ Alter: It is used to alter the structure of the database.
⚫ Drop: It is used to delete objects from the database.
⚫ Truncate: It is used to remove all records from a table.
⚫ Rename: It is used to rename an object.
⚫ Comment: It is used to comment on the data dictionary.
These commands are used to update the database schema that's why they come
under Data definition language.
2. Data Manipulation Language
DML stands for Data Manipulation Language. It is used for
accessing and manipulating data in a database. It handles user
requests.
Here are some tasks that come under DML:
⚫ Select: It is used to retrieve data from a database.
⚫ Insert: It is used to insert data into a table.
⚫ Update: It is used to update existing data within a table.
⚫ Delete: It is used to delete all records from a table.
⚫ Merge: It performs UPSERT operation, i.e., insert or update
operations.
⚫ Call: It is used to call a structured query language or a Java
subprogram.
⚫ Explain Plan: It has the parameter of explaining data.
⚫ Lock Table: It controls concurrency.
3. Data Control Language
DCL stands for Data Control Language. It is used to retrieve
the stored or saved data.
⚫ The DCL execution is transactional. It also has rollback
parameters.
⚫ (But in Oracle database, the execution of data control
language does not have the feature of rolling back.)
Here are some tasks that come under DCL:
⚫ Grant: It is used to give user access privileges to a
database.
⚫ Revoke: It is used to take back permissions from the user.
There are the following operations which have the
authorization of Revoke:
⚫ CONNECT, INSERT, USAGE, EXECUTE, DELETE,
UPDATE and SELECT.
4. Transaction Control Language
⚫ TCL is used to run the changes made by the DML
statement. TCL can be grouped into a logical
transaction.
⚫ Here are some tasks that come under TCL:
⚫ Commit: It is used to save the transaction on the
database.
⚫ Rollback: It is used to restore the database to original
since the last Commit.
Database Administrator (DBA)
⚫ A Database Administrator (DBA) is individual or person
responsible for controlling, maintenance, coordinating, and
operation of database management system. Managing,
securing, and taking care of database system is prime
responsibility.
⚫ They are responsible and in charge for authorizing access
to database, coordinating, capacity, planning, installation,
and monitoring uses and for acquiring and gathering
software and hardware resources as and when needed.
Their role also varies from configuration, database design,
migration, security, troubleshooting, backup, and data
recovery. Database administration is major and key
function in any firm or organization that is relying on one
or more databases. They are overall commander of
Database system.
Types of Database Administrator
(DBA)
⚫ Administrative DBA –
Their job is to maintain server and keep it functional. They are concerned with data
backups, security, trouble shooting, replication, migration etc.
⚫ Data Warehouse DBA –
Assigned earlier roles, but held accountable for merging data from various sources into
data warehouse. They also design warehouse, with cleaning and scrubs data prior to
loading.
⚫ Development DBA –
They build and develop queries, stores procedure, etc. that meets firm or organization
needs. They are par at programmer.
⚫ Application DBA –
They particularly manages all requirements of application components that interact with
database and accomplish activities such as application installation and coordinating,
application upgrades, database cloning, data load process management, etc.
⚫ Architect –
They are held responsible for designing schemas like building tables. They work to build
structure that meets organisation needs. The design is further used by developers and
development DBAs to design and implement real application.
⚫ OLAP DBA –
They design and builds multi-dimensional cubes for determination support or OLAP
Importance of Database
Administrator (DBA) :
⚫ Database Administrator manages and controls three levels
of database like internal level, conceptual level, and
external level of Database management system architecture
and in discussion with comprehensive user community,
gives definition of world view of database. It then provides
external view of different users and applications.
⚫ Database Administrator ensures held responsible to
maintain integrity and security of database restricting from
unauthorized users. It grants permission to users of
database and contains profile of each and every user in
database.
⚫ Database Administrator also held accountable that database
is protected and secured and that any chance of data loss
keeps at minimum.
Role and Duties of Database
Administrator (DBA) :
⚫ Decides hardware –
They decides economical hardware, based upon cost, performance and
efficiency of hardware, and best suits organisation. It is hardware which is
interface between end users and database.
⚫ Manages data integrity and security –
Data integrity need to be checked and managed accurately as it protects and
restricts data from unauthorized use. DBA eyes on relationship within data to
maintain data integrity.
⚫ Database design –
DBA is held responsible and accountable for logical, physical design, external
model design, and integrity and security control.
⚫ Database implementation –
DBA implements DBMS and checks database loading at time of its
implementation.
⚫ Query processing performance –
DBA enhances query processing by improving their speed, performance and
accuracy.
⚫ Tuning Database Performance –
If user is not able to get data speedily and accurately then it may loss
organization business. So by tuning SQL commands DBA can enhance
performance of database.
Role and Duties of Database Administrator
(DBA) :
⚫ Decides hardware –
They decides economical hardware, based upon cost, performance and
efficiency of hardware, and best suits organisation. It is hardware which is
interface between end users and database.
⚫ Manages data integrity and security –
Data integrity need to be checked and managed accurately as it protects and
restricts data from unauthorized use. DBA eyes on relationship within data to
maintain data integrity.
⚫ Database design –
DBA is held responsible and accountable for logical, physical design, external
model design, and integrity and security control.
⚫ Database implementation –
DBA implements DBMS and checks database loading at time of its
implementation.
⚫ Query processing performance –
DBA enhances query processing by improving their speed, performance and
accuracy.
⚫ Tuning Database Performance –
If user is not able to get data speedily and accurately then it may loss
organization business. So by tuning SQL commands DBA can enhance
performance of database.
Data Model
⚫ Data models define how the logical structure of a database is modeled. Data
Models are fundamental entities to introduce abstraction in a DBMS. Data
models define how data is connected to each other and how they are processed
and stored inside the system.
⚫ The very first data model could be flat data-models, where all the data used are
to be kept in the same plane. Earlier data models were not so scientific, hence
they were prone to introduce lots of duplication and update anomalies.
⚫ Hierarchical Model
⚫ Network Model
⚫ Entity-Relationship Model
⚫ Relational Model
⚫ Object-Oriented Data Model
⚫ Object-Relational Data Model
⚫ Flat Data Model
⚫ Semi-Structured Data Model
⚫ Associative Data Model
⚫ Context Data Model
Hierarchical Model
⚫ Hierarchical Model was the first DBMS model. This
model organises the data in the hierarchical tree
structure. The hierarchy starts from the root which has
root data and then it expands in the form of a tree
adding child node to the parent node. This model
easily represents some of the real-world relationships
like food recipes, sitemap of a website etc. Example:
We can represent the relationship between the shoes
present on a shopping website in the following way:
Hierarchical Model
Features of a Hierarchical Model
⚫ One-to-many relationship: The data here is organised in a
tree-like structure where the one-to-many relationship is between
the datatypes. Also, there can be only one path from parent to
any node. Example: In the above example, if we want to go to
the node sneakers we only have one path to reach there i.e
through men's shoes node.
⚫ Parent-Child Relationship: Each child node has a parent node
but a parent node can have more than one child node. Multiple
parents are not allowed.
⚫ Deletion Problem: If a parent node is deleted then the child node
is automatically deleted.
⚫ Pointers: Pointers are used to link the parent node with the child
node and are used to navigate between the stored data. Example:
In the above example the 'shoes' node points to the two other
nodes 'women shoes' node and 'men's shoes' node.
Network Model
⚫ This model is an extension of the hierarchical model. It
was the most popular model before the relational
model. This model is the same as the hierarchical
model, the only difference is that a record can have
more than one parent. It replaces the hierarchical tree
with a graph. Example: In the example below we can
see that node student has two parents i.e. CSE
Department and Library. This was earlier not possible
in the hierarchical model.
Network Model
Features of a Network Model
⚫ Ability to Merge more Relationships: In this model, as
there are more relationships so data is more related.
This model has the ability to manage one-to-one
relationships as well as many-to-many relationships.
⚫ Many paths: As there are more relationships so there
can be more than one path to the same record. This
makes data access fast and simple.
⚫ Circular Linked List: The operations on the network
model are done with the help of the circular linked list.
The current position is maintained with the help of a
program and this position navigates through the
records according to the relationship.
Entity-Relationship Model
⚫ Entity-Relationship Model or simply ER Model is a high-level
data model diagram. In this model, we represent the real-world
problem in the pictorial form to make it easy for the stakeholders
to understand. It is also very easy for the developers to
understand the system by just looking at the ER diagram. We use
the ER diagram as a visual tool to represent an ER Model. ER
diagram has the following three components:
⚫ Entities: Entity is a real-world thing. It can be a person, place, or
even a concept. Example: Teachers, Students, Course, Building,
Department, etc are some of the entities of a School
Management System.
⚫ Attributes: An entity contains a real-world property called
attribute. This is the characteristics of that attribute. Example:
The entity teacher has the property like teacher id, salary, age,
etc.
⚫ Relationship: Relationship tells how two attributes are related.
Example: Teacher works for a department.
Entity-Relationship Model

In the above diagram, the entities are Teacher and Department. The
attributes of Teacher entity are Teacher_Name, Teacher_id, Age, Salary,
Mobile_Number. The attributes of entity Department entity are Dept_id,
Dept_name. The two entities are connected using the relationship. Here,
each teacher works for a department.
Features of ER Model
⚫ Graphical Representation for Better Understanding:
It is very easy and simple to understand so it can be
used by the developers to communicate with the
stakeholders.
⚫ ER Diagram: ER diagram is used as a visual tool for
representing the model.
⚫ Database Design: This model helps the database
designers to build the database and is widely used in
database design.
Relational Model
⚫ Relational Model is the most widely used model. In this
model, the data is maintained in the form of a
two-dimensional table. All the information is stored in the
form of row and columns. The basic structure of a
relational model is tables. So, the tables are also called
relations in the relational model. Example: In this example,
we have an Employee table.
Features of Relational Model
⚫ Tuples: Each row in the table is called tuple. A row
contains all the information about any instance of the
object. In the above example, each row has all the
information about any specific individual like the first
row has information about John.
⚫ Attribute or field: Attributes are the property which
defines the table or relation. The values of the attribute
should be from the same domain. In the above
example, we have different attributes of the employee
like Salary, Mobile_no, etc.
Object-Oriented Data Model
⚫ The real-world problems are more closely represented
through the object-oriented data model. In this model,
both the data and relationship are present in a single
structure known as an object. We can store audio,
video, images, etc in the database which was not
possible in the relational model(although you can store
audio and video in relational database, it is adviced not
to store in the relational database). In this model, two
are more objects are connected through links. We use
this link to relate one object to other objects. This can
be understood by the example given below.
Object Oriented Data Model
Data models…..
⚫ Object-Relational Model
As the name suggests it is a combination of both the
relational model and the object-oriented model. This model
was built to fill the gap between object-oriented model and
the relational model. We can have many advanced features
like we can make complex data types according to our
requirements using the existing data types. The problem
with this model is that this can get complex and difficult to
handle. So, proper understanding of this model is required.
⚫ Flat Data Model
It is a simple model in which the database is represented as
a table consisting of rows and columns. To access any data,
the computer has to read the entire table. This makes the
modes slow and inefficient.
Data models…..
⚫ Object-Relational Model
⚫ As the name suggests it is a combination of both the
relational model and the object-oriented model. This model
was built to fill the gap between object-oriented model and
the relational model. We can have many advanced features
like we can make complex data types according to our
requirements using the existing data types. The problem
with this model is that this can get complex and difficult to
handle. So, proper understanding of this model is required.
⚫ Flat Data Model
⚫ It is a simple model in which the database is represented as
a table consisting of rows and columns. To access any data,
the computer has to read the entire table. This makes the
modes slow and inefficient.