GEOREFERENCING

Georeferencing is the process of aligning spatial data (like a scanned map or aerial image) to a
known coordinate system so it can be used in a Geographic Information System (GIS). Here’s a
step-by-step guide to georeferencing using typical GIS software like QGIS or ArcGIS:

❖ Process of Georeferencing in Arc GIS 10.4:

Step 1: Prepare Your Files

• Ensure you have:
o A raster image to georeference (e.g., scanned map or aerial photo).
o A reference layer with spatial information (e.g., shapefile, feature class, or
basemap).
o A coordinate system defined for the data frame or reference layer.

Step 2: Load the Data into ArcMap

1. Open ArcMap.
2. Add the reference layer (like a roads or administrative boundaries shapefile).
3. Add the raster image (the unreferenced image to be georeferenced).
4. The image might not show up correctly — that’s normal before georeferencing.

Figure 1: Choosing the Coordinate System

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 Step 3: Open the Georeferencing Toolbar
1. Go to the menu: Customize > Toolbars > Georeferencing.
2. The Georeferencing toolbar should appear at the top.

Step 4: Set the Raster to Georeference

1. In the Georeferencing toolbar, select your raster image from the dropdown list.
2. Click Fit to Display if the image doesn’t appear.

Step 5: Add Control Points (GCPs)

1. Click the Add Control Points tool on the Georeferencing toolbar.
2. On the image (raster), click on a point you recognize (e.g., road intersection).
3. Then click on the corresponding location in the reference layer.
4. Repeat this process for at least 4 well-distributed points across the image.
o More points = more accuracy.
o Spread them out over the full extent of the image.

Step 6: Adjust and View Transformation

• As you add points, the image will start to shift and align with the reference layer.
• You can view residuals and RMSE (Root Mean Square Error) to assess
accuracy:
o Menu: Georeferencing > View Link Table.

Figure 2: After Entering 4 GCPs

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 Step 7: Choose Transformation Type (Optional)
• Go to Georeferencing > Transformation.
• Choose from:
o 1st Order Polynomial (Affine) – default and usually sufficient.
o 2nd or 3rd Order Polynomial – for curved distortion.
o Spline – for historical maps or images with warping.

Step 8: Save or Rectify the Georeferenced Image

You have two options:
Option 1: Save Control Points
• Menu: Georeferencing > Save.
• This saves a world file (e.g., .jgw or .tfw) to reference the image without
modifying the original raster.
Option 2: Rectify the Image (Create New Georeferenced Raster)
• Menu: Georeferencing > Rectify.
• Choose:
o Output location and name.
o Resampling method (e.g., Nearest Neighbor, Bilinear).
o Output format (e.g., TIFF).
• Click Save to generate the georeferenced image.

Step 9: Validate the Result

• Load the rectified image and confirm alignment with other layers.
• If misaligned, you can reopen the link table, adjust points, and re-rectify.

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 DIGITIZATION

Digitization is the process of converting information from a physical or analog format into a
digital one that computers can store, process, and transmit.

❖ Types of Digitization:
1. Manual Digitization (On-Screen Digitization)

• Process: Uses a scanned map displayed on a screen, where a user manually traces
features using a digitizing tool.

• Advantages: Provides high accuracy, enables selective feature extraction, and is

relatively easy for complex datasets.

• Best for: Georeferenced maps, detailed spatial datasets.

2. Heads-up Digitization

• Process: Similar to manual digitization but performed directly on GIS software using
background imagery as reference.

• Advantages: Avoids physical digitizing tablets, allows interactive editing and checking of
spatial relationships.

• Best for: Satellite imagery analysis, urban mapping.

3. Automatic Digitization

• Process: Uses algorithms to trace features from raster images, converting them to vector
format.

• Advantages: Saves time and effort, ideal for high-volume data extraction.

• Best for: Converting scanned contour maps or extracting road networks.

4. Heads-down (Tablet-based) Digitization

• Process: Uses a digitizing tablet where the user traces features from a paper map using a
puck (digitizing tool).

• Advantages: Preserves accuracy of original maps, useful for old cartographic datasets.

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 • Best for: Historical maps, cadastral surveys.

5. Photogrammetric Digitization

• Process: Uses stereo imagery to derive 3D spatial features.

• Advantages: Generates elevation models, accurate terrain analysis.

• Best for: Topographic mapping, land-use planning.

❖ Process of Digitization in 10.4:

1. Prepare Your Data

• Install ArcGIS 10.4 and open ArcMap.

• Add a base map: This could be a scanned image (raster), topographic map, or satellite
image.

o Go to File > Add Data > Add Data.

o Browse to your scanned image or map and add it.

2. Georeference the Image (if necessary)

If the scanned map does not have spatial reference, georeferencing is required before digitizing.

• Go to Georeferencing Toolbar: View > Toolbars > Georeferencing.

• Add control points to align the image with real-world coordinates.

• Save the georeferenced image once aligned properly.

3. Create a New Shapefile or Feature Class

• Open ArcCatalog (within ArcMap or standalone).

• Navigate to a folder, right-click > New > Shapefile.

o Choose the feature type: Point, Polyline, or Polygon.

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 o Set the coordinate system (matching the base map).

• Click OK, and the shapefile is created.

Figure 3: Creating Shapefile

4. Add the Shapefile to ArcMap

• Use Add Data to bring your new shapefile into the map.

5. Start Editing

• Go to Editor Toolbar: View > Toolbars > Editor.

• Click Editor > Start Editing.

o Select the shapefile layer you created.

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6. Digitize Features

• Use the tools in the Create Features panel (on the right side):

o Select the feature type (point, line, polygon).

o Use the Sketch Tool to trace the features on the base map.

o Left-click to add vertices.

o Double-click to finish each feature.

7. Attribute Data Entry

• Open the Attribute Table of your shapefile.

• Add or edit attribute fields: Right-click layer > Open Attribute Table > Table Options >
Add Field.

• Populate the fields with data after each digitized feature is created.

Figure 4: Digitizing the area

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8. Save and Stop Editing

• When done, click Editor > Save Edits.

• Then click Editor > Stop Editing.

9. Backup and Use

• Your shapefile now contains digitized features.

• You can use it in analysis, map creation, or export it for use in other GIS applications.

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 CHOROPLETH MAPING

Creating a Choropleth Map in ArcGIS 10.4 involves visualizing data through varying colors or
shading across predefined geographic areas (e.g., countries, states, districts). Here's a step-by-
step process to create a choropleth map using ArcGIS 10.4:

❖ Process of Choropleth Mapping in Arc GIS 10.4:

Step 1: Prepare Your Data

1. Attribute Data: Ensure you have a dataset (e.g., Excel, CSV) with geographic identifiers
and a quantitative variable to map (e.g., population, literacy rate).

2. Spatial Data: Obtain a shapefile (.shp) or feature class representing the geographic areas
(e.g., state boundaries).

Step 2: Add Data to ArcMap

1. Open ArcMap (ArcGIS 10.4).

2. Click File > Add Data > Add Data.

3. Add both your spatial layer (shapefile) and attribute table (Excel or CSV

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 Figure 5: Choropleth Map

Step 3: Join the Data

1. Right-click the shapefile layer in the Table of Contents > Select Joins and Relates > Join.

2. In the dialog box:

o Choose the field in the layer that matches your attribute table.

o Choose the table to join.

o Select the matching field in the table.

3. Click OK. You can right-click the layer and open the attribute table to verify the join.

Step 4: Create the Choropleth Map

1. Right-click the joined layer > Properties.

2. Go to the Symbology tab.

3. Choose Quantities > Graduated Colors.

4. In the Value Field, select the variable you want to map (e.g., population density).

5. Choose a classification method:

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 o Natural Breaks (Jenks) – Best for unevenly distributed data.

o Equal Interval – Equal range for all classes.

o Quantile – Equal number of features in each class.

6. Set the number of classes (e.g., 5).

7. Choose a color ramp (e.g., light to dark shades).

8. Click OK to apply the symbology.

Step 5: Customize the Map

• Add Legends, North Arrow, and Scale Bar from the Insert menu.

• Use Layout View to design your final map for export/printing.

• Change layer names, label fields, and titles for clarity.

Step 6: Export or Save the Map

• Go to File > Export Map to export the map as a PDF, PNG, or JPEG.

• Save your project as a .mxd file for future edits.

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 MAP COMPOSITION

Map composition refers to arranging and organizing map elements (like title, legend, scale, etc.)
in a layout that communicates spatial information effectively. This is typically done in Layout
View in ArcMap.

❖ Process of Map Composition in Arc GIS:

1. Open Your Project

• Launch ArcMap 10.4.

• Add your data layers (shapefiles, feature classes, raster images, etc.) using File > Add
Data.

2. Switch to Layout View

• Go to the bottom-left corner of the ArcMap window.

• Click Layout View (beside “Data View”) to switch from map editing to map composition.

3. Insert Map Elements

You’ll now begin building the map layout by adding essential elements.

a. Title

• Go to Insert > Title.

• Type your map title (e.g., "Land Use Map of XYZ Region").

• You can drag to reposition and format it by double-clicking.

b. Legend

• Go to Insert > Legend.

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 • Select the layers to include.

• Click Next through the wizard to customize layout, order, and appearance.

c. Scale Bar

• Go to Insert > Scale Bar.

• Choose a style and insert it.

• Customize it by double-clicking (e.g., to switch units from kilometers to miles).

d. North Arrow

• Go to Insert > North Arrow.

• Choose a style and insert it.

• Position it suitably on the map layout.

e. Text/Labels

• Go to Insert > Text.

• Add credits, sources, or notes like "Data source: Survey Dept, 2024".

f. Neatline (optional)

• Go to Insert > Neatline to add a border around your map.

4. Adjust Layout and Positioning

• Use the Select Element Tool (arrow tool on the Layout toolbar) to drag and align
elements.

• Resize the map frame and elements by clicking and dragging handles.

• Use View > Layout Toolbar to enable alignment tools.

5. Set Page and Print Setup

• Go to File > Page and Print Setup.

• Choose paper size (e.g., A4, A3), orientation (portrait/landscape), and printer settings.

• Match map layout to print size.

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 6. Export or Print the Map

• Once satisfied, you can export your map:

o Go to File > Export Map.

o Choose format: PDF, JPEG, PNG, TIFF, etc.

o Set resolution (DPI): 300 DPI is standard for print.

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 KML TO LAyER CONvERSION

Converting KML (Keyhole Markup Language) files to a feature layer in ArcGIS 10.4 allows you to
use Google Earth data in ArcMap for analysis or editing. Here’s a step-by-step guide to convert a
KML/KMZ to Layer in ArcGIS 10.4:

❖ Process of KML to Layer Conversion:

Step 1: Open ArcMap (ArcGIS 10.4)

1. Launch ArcMap.

2. Go to the Catalog window or use the Arc Toolbox.

Step 2: Locate the Conversion Tool

1. In Arc Toolbox, navigate to:

Conversion Tools > From KML > KML To Layer

Step 3: Run the Tool

1. Input KML File: Browse and select your .kml or .kmz file.

2. Output Location: Choose a geodatabase or folder to store the output.

3. Output Data Name: Enter a name for the output layer.

4. Click OK to run the tool.

Example:

• Input KML file: C:\Users\YourName\Documents\file.kml

• Output Location: C:\GIS_Project\Geodatabase.gdb

• Output Data Name: KML_Converted_Layer

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 Figure 6: KML to Layer
Step 4: Add the Output Layer to Map

Once the process completes, a File Geodatabase Feature Class is created along with a layer file
(.lyr) that you can add to ArcMap.

• Use the Add Data button to add the .lyr file or browse to the Feature Class in your
geodatabase.

Step 5: Explore and Edit

• You can now treat the converted KML as a standard feature layer.

• Open the attribute table, symbolize the data, or perform analysis as needed.

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 XL SHEET ATACHMENT

Attaching an Excel data sheet in ArcGIS 10.4 involves several steps to ensure your data can be
used effectively in mapping and analysis. Here's a step-by-step guide to importing and using an
Excel spreadsheet in ArcGIS 10.4:

❖ Process of XL Data Sheet Atachment in Arc GIS 10.4:

Step 1: Prepare the Excel File

1. Use supported format:

o Make sure the file is saved in .xls or .xlsx format.

o Avoid using .csv at this step unless needed later.

2. Clean the data:

o Ensure the first row contains field names (column headers).

o Avoid special characters or spaces in column names.

o Ensure that fields are formatted correctly (e.g., numeric fields contain only
numbers).

3. No blank rows or columns between data.

Step 2: Open ArcMap (ArcGIS 10.4)

1. Launch ArcMap or ArcCatalog.

2. Create or open an existing map project.

Step 3: Add Excel Sheet to ArcMap

1. In ArcMap, go to the Catalog window:

o If not visible, activate it via: Windows > Catalog.

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 2. In Catalog, navigate to the folder where the Excel file is stored.

3. Expand the Excel file:

o You’ll see each worksheet listed with a $ suffix (e.g., Sheet1$).

4. Drag and drop the desired worksheet into the Table of Contents in ArcMap.

Step 4: Join Excel Data to a Feature Layer (Optional)

If your Excel table contains location data (like ID, ZIP code, or coordinates), you can join it to an
existing spatial layer:

1. Right-click on the spatial layer (e.g., shapefile or feature class) in the Table of Contents.

2. Click Joins and Relates > Join.

3. In the Join dialog box:

o Choose the field in the spatial layer to match.

o Choose the Excel table you added.

o Select the matching field from the Excel table.

4. Click OK to perform the join.

5. Right-click the spatial layer and open the Attribute Table to verify the join.

Step 5: Display Data (Optional)

You can now symbolize, label, or query your data:

• Open Layer Properties > Symbology to symbolize based on Excel fields.

• Use Labels to display text from Excel columns.

Step 6: Troubleshooting Common Errors

• Excel file not visible in Catalog:

o Make sure Microsoft Office is installed (32-bit ArcGIS may not read 64-bit Office
files well).

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 o Try saving in .xls (older Excel format) if .xlsx fails.

• Join doesn’t work properly:

o Ensure fields used in join are of the same data type (e.g., both are text or both
are numeric).

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