Test of Mathematics

Logic and Proof

Statements
Definition: A statement is a sentence which is definitely true or definitely false. A
statement can never be both true and false.

The positive integer 𝑥 is divisible by 2

Statement Not Statement

if the integer 𝑥 is divisible by 4 then 𝑥3 + 𝑦2 = 88 has no integer solutions

24 is divisible by 2

the integer 𝑥 is divisible by 2

Logically Equivalent
This will mean that the two statements have the same truth values in the same
circumstances.
Eg:
Today is Tuesday
Today is the day after Monday

Making new statements

1. Let’s analyse each statement:

 21 is divisible by 3 and 21 is divisible by 6 [A and B]: False.
21 is divisible by 3, but not by 6.
 21 is divisible by 3 or 21 is divisible by 6 [A or B]: True. 21 is
divisible by 3.
 21 is not divisible by 6 [not B]: True. 21 is not divisible by 6.
 If 21 is divisible by 3 then 21 is divisible by 6 [if A then B]:
False. 21 is divisible by 3, but not by 6.
 21 is divisible by 3 if 21 is divisible by 6 [A if B]: True. If 21
were divisible by 6, it would be divisible by 3.
 21 is divisible by 3 only if 21 is divisible by 6 [A only if B]:
False. 21 is divisible by 3, but not by 6.
 21 is divisible by 3 if and only if 21 is divisible by 6 [A if and
only if B]: False. 21 is divisible by 3, but not by 6.
2. Replacing 21 by x, the truth of the statements depends on the divisibility
of by 3 and 6:
 is divisible by 3 and is divisible by 6: True if is divisible by 6.
 is divisible by 3 or is divisible by 6: True if is divisible by
either 3 or 6.
 is not divisible by 6: True if is not divisible by 6.
 If is divisible by 3 then is divisible by 6: True if is divisible by
6; otherwise false.
 is divisible by 3 if is divisible by 6: True if is divisible by 6.
 is divisible by 3 only if is divisible by 6: True if is divisible by
6; otherwise false.
  is divisible by 3 if and only if is divisible by 6: True if is
divisible by 6; otherwise false.
3. Changing the set of values affects the truth of each statement based on
which numbers are included in the set:
 If the set includes only numbers divisible by 6, most statements will
be true.
 If the set includes numbers not divisible by 3 or 6, the truth of the
statements will change accordingly.

Not Statement

A: 21 is divisible by 3
not A: not [21 is divisible by 3]

The term and

The Term or

Statements with if

a) If A then B (B if A)

In logic, the statement if A then B means that if A is true, then B must also be
true.

If A is true, then B is true.

If A is false, then B may be either true or false

Thus the only way that if A then B can be false is if A is true and B is false.
 b) A only if B

statements of the form A only if B are logically equivalent to statements of the

form if A then B.

if 𝑥 = 3, then 𝑥2 = 9 This can be written as 𝑥 = 3 only if 𝑥2 = 9

c) A if and only if B

(Abbreviated to A iff B)

(A if B) and (A only if B)

A if B is the same as [logically equivalent to] if B then A

And

A only if B is the same as [logically equivalent to] if A then B

Summary:

If A then B also written as B if A or as A only if B.

Not symmetric: if A then B is not the same as if B then A

Symmetric: A iff B is logically equivalent to B iff A

Negating compound statements

not (A and B) is logically equivalent to not A or not B

not (A or B) is logically equivalent to not A and not B

Converses and contrapositives

Converse
or a statement p → q , the converse is q → p

Contrapositive

In each of these, A and B are both swapped and negated, whereas in the
converse, they were simply swapped. (There is also a third possibility, called the
inverse of a statement, where A and B are both negated, but not swapped. We
will not consider inverses further here.)

Necessary and Specification

Eg:

For two triangles to be congruent it is sufficient that they have two equal sides
and the enclosed angle in common.

Or:

For two triangles to be similar it is necessary, but not sufficient, that they have
an angle in common.
A is sufficient for B means exactly the same as if A then B.

A is necessary for B when if B then A, or equivalently A if B

The best way to think about A is sufficient for B is to think of it as saying that
when we know A is true then we are guaranteed that B is true.

Example: 𝑥 is an odd natural number greater than 1 and not divisible by any
natural number other than 1 and itself is sufficient for 𝑥 to be prime.

This is true because if 𝑥 is an odd natural number greater than 1 and

not divisible by any natural number other than 1 and itself then 𝑥 is
prime

Here is an example:

two triangles having the same three angles is a necessary and sufficient
condition for the two triangles to be similar.

So, to summarise:

if you are asked for a sufficient condition for B to be true then you need to look
for a condition that guarantees to make B true.

if you are asked for a necessary condition for B to be true then you need to look
for something that must be the case for B to be true but might not be enough by
itself to guarantee that B is true.
in place of “for all” we can write “for every” or “for each”.

in place of there exists we can write for some or for at least one

When you see the phrase for all 𝑥 … you can think of it as telling you that you
can pick ANY 𝑥 you want from the given set of 𝑥s and then the corresponding
statement will be true.

The phrase is telling you that every value of 𝑥 makes the statement true. And
when you see the phrase there exists an 𝑥 such that… you can think of it as
issuing a challenge: you are challenged to FIND an 𝑥 that makes the statement

one 𝑥 that makes the statement true.

that the phrase is applied to true. The phrase is telling you that there is at least

Be aware that there exists does not mean that there are any values for which the
corresponding statement is false. For example, the statement
Direct deductive proofs

Proof by contradiction

We can now set out the general structure of proof by contradiction: • We are
asked to prove some statement A.

• We start by assuming not A is true.

• We then show that not A leads us to two contradictory statements, B and not B.
• As B and not B cannot both be true our assumption that not A was true must
have been an error.
• If not A is false, then A must be true.

To prove: √2 is irrational

We start by assuming that √2 is not irrational, that is we assume that √2 is

rational. If √2 is rational it can be written as a fraction in its lowest terms; that is
we can write:

a
√2 =
b

2
a
2= 2
b

2b2=a2
 Proof by contrapositive

The contrapositive of if A then B is if not B then not A.

Note: Remember that the contrapositive of if A then B is if not B then not A and
these statements are logically equivalent – i.e. both expressions say the same
thing. Because if not B then not A is the very same thing as if A then B

Disproof by counterexample:

A counterexample to a statement is an example that shows clearly that the

statement must be false.

if A then B can be false is if we can find an example of statement A that is true

and an example of statement B that is false.