Matrices

A. M. Mohiuddin
Senior Lecturer
Canadian University Of Bangladesh
Dhaka, Bangladesh
Lecture Outline

Introduction to Matrices

Basic Properties of Matrices

Special Types of Matrices

Matrix Operations

Properties of Matrix Operations

 Introduction to Matrices
Matrix: A matrix (plural matrices) is a rectangular array of numbers
(real or complex) arranged in rows and columns, enclosed by a pairs of brackets (
or ) and generally denoted by capital letters (A, B, X or Y).
In other words, it is an ordered rectangular arrangement of numbers or functions
which are represented as
𝑎11 𝑎12 . . . 𝑎1𝑛 Row
𝑎21 𝑎22 . . . 𝑎2𝑛
A= : : : :
: : : :
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 . . . 𝑎𝑚𝑛

Column
 Basic Properties of Matrices
❖ The numbers in the array are called the entries or the elements of the matrix.

❖ Number of rows and columns that a matrix has is called its dimension or order.

❖ Matrix is enclosed by [ ] or ( ).

❖ Matrix is also represented as A = aij , where i and j are the row and column number.

a11 a12 a13

❖ Symbolically depicted as: a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33 3×3

❖ First subscript refers to row number (m) and Second subscript refers to column number (n).
Special Types of Matrices with Examples
Rectangular Matrix: A matrix having unequal number of rows and columns (m ≠ n) is
called rectangular matrix.

1 −1 2 7 1−i 2i 3
For examples, and are rectangular matrices.
−2 3 5 0 2×4 0 −2 4i 2×3

Square Matrix: A matrix with the equal number of rows and columns (m = n) is called a
square matrix.

2 −3 1
1 3
For examples, and 0 1 −5 are square matrices.
5 2 2×2
7 −2 6 3×3
Special Types of Matrices with Examples
Row Matrix: A matrix having only one row is called a row matrix.

For examples, 1 2 3 and 2 4 −1 0 are row matrices. These are also called row vector.

Column Matrix: A matrix having only one column is called a column matrix.

i
2
4
For examples, 3 and are column matrices. These are also called column vector.
0
4
−2
Special Types of Matrices with Examples
Diagonal Matrix: A square matrix whose elements aij = 0 when i ≠ j is called a diagonal matrix.
2 0 0
1 0
For examples, and 0 −3 0 are diagonal matrices.
0 2 2×2
0 0 1 3×3

Scalar Matrix: A diagonal matrix whose diagonal elements are all equal is called a scalar matrix.
2 0 0
3 0
For examples, and 0 2 0 are scalar matrices.
0 3 2×2
0 0 2 3×3

Identity or Unit Matrix: A square matrix whose elements aij = 0, if i ≠ j and aij = 1, if i = j is
called an identity matrix.
1 0 0
For examples, I3 = 0 1 0 is an identity matrix of order 3.
0 0 1 3×3
Special Types of Matrices with Examples
Zero or Null Matrix: A matrix in which every element is zero is called a zero or null
matrix.
0 0 0
0 0
For examples, and 0 0 0 are zero matrices.
0 0
0 0 0

Equal Matrix: Two matrices are said to be equal if

(a) Each matrix has same number of rows and columns.
(b) Corresponding elements within each matrix are equal.
For example,
11 x l m n
11 22
A= B= C= o p q
y 44 33 44
r s t
A and B matrices are equal. Matrix C is not equal to A or B.
Special Types of Matrices with Examples
Upper Triangular Matrix: A square matrix in which all the elements below the diagonal are
zero is known as the upper triangular matrix.

2 3 5 3 −5 7
For examples, 0 1 −2 and 0 4 1 are upper triangular matrices.
0 0 7 0 0 9

Lower Triangular Matrix: A square matrix in which all the elements above the diagonal are
zero is known as the lower triangular matrix.

2 0 0 3 0 0
For examples, 3 1 0 and −5 4 0 are lower triangular matrices.
5 −2 7 7 1 9
Special Types of Matrices with Examples
Commutative Matrices: If A and B are two square matrices such that AB = BA, then A and B
are said to be commutative matrices.

1 2 5 7
For examples, and are commutative matrices.
2 1 7 5

Transpose Matrix: If the rows and columns in a matrix A are interchanged, the new matrix
is called the transpose of the original matrix A. The transposed matrix is denoted by AT .

1 2
1 3 5
For example, if A = , then AT = 3 4 .
2 4 6 2×3
5 6 3×2
Special Types of Matrices with Examples
Symmetric Matrix: A matrix equal to its transpose, i. e. a square matrix such that aij = aji for
1 ≤ i, j ≤ n is said to be symmetric. In a short, a square matrix A will be symmetric if AT = A.

a h g 1 2 −3
For examples, A = h b f and B = 2 5 7 are symmetric matrices.
g f c −3 7 3

Skew-Symmetric Matrix: A matrix equal to the negative of its transpose, i. e. a square matrix
in which aij = −aji and aii = 0 is said to be skew-symmetric. In a short, a square matrix A
will be skew-symmetric if AT = −A.

0 h g 0 1 −2
For examples, A = −h 0 f and B = −1 0 3 are Skew-symmetric matrices.
−g −f 0 2 −3 0
Idempotent and Involutory Matrix

Idempotent Matrix: A square matrix 𝐴 is said to be an idempotent matrix if 𝐴2 = 𝐴.

−1 3 5 2 −2 −4
For examples, 1 −3 −5 and −1 3 4 are idempotent matrices.
−1 3 5 1 −2 −3

Involutory Matrix: A square matrix 𝐴 is called an involutory matrix if 𝐴2 = 𝐼.

4 3 3
4 3
For examples, 𝐴 = and 𝐵 = −1 0 −1 are involutory matrices.
−5 −4
−4 −4 −3
 Matrix Operations
(1) Addition and Subtraction of Matrices
If A and B are the matrices of same order, then the addition or subtraction of A and B can be
obtained by adding or subtracting the corresponding elements of A and B. Matrices of
different order cannot be added or subtracted.
For example, consider matrix A and matrix B as below:

1 2 3 5 6 7
A= B=
7 8 9 2×3 3 4 5 2×3

1+5 2+6 3+7 6 8 10

Thus, A + B = =
7+3 8+4 9+5 10 12 14

1−5 2−6 3−7 −4 −4 −4

And, A − B = =
7−3 8−4 9−5 4 4 4
 Matrix Operations
(2) Scalar Multiplication of Matrices
If A is any matrix and k is any scalar, then the product kA or Ak is the matrix obtained by
multiplying each element of A by k.

For example, consider matrix A and scalar k as below:

2 4
Scalar, k = 5 and Matrix, A =
6 8

2 4 10 20
Then, kA = 5A = 5 =
6 8 30 25
 Matrix Operations
(3) Matrix Multiplication
❖ Matrix product AB is defined only when the number of columns of A is equal to number of
rows of B.
❖ Suppose, A is a matrix of order i × j and B is a matrix of order j × k. Then the matrix
product AB results in a matrix, say C of order i × k.

❖ Each element in C can be computed according to: Cik = σj Aij Bjk

Where, Cik is i, k th element of C

Aij is i, j th element of A
th
Bjk is j, k element of B
σj is summation sign, which indicates that the aij bjk terms should be summed over j.
 Matrix Operations
6 7
0 1 2
For example, A = B= 8 9
3 4 5 2×3
10 11 3×2

Suppose, AB = C of order 2 × 2. Using formula Cik = σj Aij Bjk , we get

6 7
0 1 2
AB = × 8 9
3 4 5
10 11

0 + 8 + 20 0 + 9 + 22
=
18 + 32 + 50 21 + 36 + 55

28 31
= = C (Resultant Matrix)
100 112 2×2
Properties of Matrix Addition, Scalar and Matrix Multiplication

Properties of Matrix Addition

For three matrices 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 of same order,
Commutative Law: 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐵 + 𝐴
Associative Law: 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 𝐶
Additive Identity: 𝐴 + 0 = 0 + 𝐴 = 𝐴

Properties of Scalar Multiplication

For three matrices 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 and scalars 𝑐, 𝑘
Associative Law: 𝑐𝑘 𝐴 = 𝑐(𝑘𝐴)
Distributive Law: 𝑘 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝑘𝐴 + 𝑘𝐵
Scalar Identity: 1𝐴 = 𝐴

Properties of Matrix Multiplication

For three matrices 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶
Associative Law: 𝐴 𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 𝐶
Distributive Law: 𝐴 𝐵 + 𝐶 = 𝐴𝐵 + 𝐴𝐶
Multiplicative Identity: 𝐴𝐼 = 𝐼𝐴 = 𝐴
 Matrix Multiplication
1 3 2
Problem: If 𝐴 = 2 0 −1 , then show that 𝐴 satisfies the equation 𝐴3 − 4𝐴2 − 3𝐴 + 11𝐼 = 0.
1 2 3
1 3 2 1 3 2 1+6+2 3+0+4 2−3+6
Solution: 𝐴2 =𝐴×𝐴= 2 0 −1 × 2 0 −1 = 2 + 0 − 1 6 + 0 − 2 4+0−3
1 2 3 1 2 3 1+4+3 3+0+6 2−2+9
9 7 5
= 1 4 1
8 9 9
9 7 5 1 3 2 9 + 14 + 5 27 + 0 + 10 18 − 7 + 15
and 𝐴3 = 𝐴2 ×𝐴= 1 4 1 × 2 0 −1 = 1 + 8 + 1 3+0+2 2−4+3
8 9 9 1 2 3 8 + 18 + 9 24 + 0 + 18 16 − 9 + 27
28 37 26
= 10 5 1
35 42 34
 Matrix Multiplication
28 37 26 9 7 5 1 3 2 1 0 0
Now 𝐴3 − 4𝐴2 − 3𝐴 + 11𝐼 = 10 5 1 −4 1 4 1 −3 2 0 −1 + 11 0 1 0
35 42 34 8 9 9 1 2 3 0 0 1

28 37 26 36 28 20 3 9 6 11 0 0
= 10 5 1 − 4 16 4 − 6 0 −3 + 0 11 0
35 42 34 32 36 36 3 6 9 0 0 11

28 − 36 − 3 + 11 37 − 28 − 9 + 0 26 − 20 − 6 + 0
= 10 − 4 − 6 + 0 5 − 16 + 0 + 11 1−4+3+0
35 − 32 − 3 + 0 42 − 36 − 6 + 0 34 − 36 − 9 + 11

0 0 0
= 0 0 0 =0
0 0 0

∴ 𝐴3 − 4𝐴2 − 3𝐴 + 11𝐼 = 0 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑑

 Minors and Cofactors
If 𝐴 is a square matrix, then the minor of entry 𝑎𝑖𝑗 is denoted by 𝑀𝑖𝑗 and is defined to be
the determinant of the submatrix that remains after the 𝑖-th row and 𝑗-th column are
deleted from 𝐴. The number −1 𝑖+𝑗 ∙ 𝑀𝑖𝑗 is denoted by 𝐶𝑖𝑗 and is called the cofactor of
entry 𝑎𝑖𝑗 .
1 1 2
Example: To illustrate this definition, consider the following 3 by 3 matrix. 𝐴 = 3 3 6
0 1 4
1 1 2
3 6
(a) The minor of entry 𝑎11 is 𝑀11 = 3 3 6 = = 12 − 6 = 6
1 4
0 1 4
The cofactor of 𝑎11 is 𝐶11 = −1 1+1 ∙ 𝑀11 = 𝑀11 = 6

1 1 2
1 2
(b) The minor of entry 𝑎21 is 𝑀21 = 3 3 6 = =4−2=2
1 4
0 1 4
The cofactor of 𝑎21 is 𝐶21 = −1 2+1 ∙ 𝑀21 = −𝑀21 = −2
 Minors and Cofactors
3 1 −4 3 1 −4 3 1 −4
2 5 6 2 5 6 2 5 6
1 4 8 1 4 8 1 4 8

5 6 2 6 2 5
𝑀11 = = 40 − 24 = 16 𝑀12 = = 16 − 12 = 4 𝑀13 = =8−5=3
4 8 1 8 1 4
1+1 1+2 1+3
𝐶11 = −1 𝑀11 = 16 𝐶12 = −1 𝑀12 = −4 𝐶13 = −1 𝑀13 = 3
Find all the minors and 3 1 −4 3 1 −4 3 1 −4
2 5 6 2 5 6 2 5 6
cofactors of the matrix 1 4 8 1 4 8 1 4 8

1 −4 3 −4 3 1
𝑀21 = = 8 + 16 = 24 𝑀22 = = 24 + 4 = 28 𝑀23 = = 12 − 1 = 11
3 1 −4 4 8 1 8 1 4
𝐴= 2 5 6 𝐶21 = −1 2+1
𝑀21 = −24 𝐶22 = −1 2+2
𝑀22 = 28 𝐶23 = −1 2+3
𝑀23 = −11
1 4 8
3 1 −4 3 1 −4 3 1 −4
2 5 6 2 5 6 2 5 6
1 4 8 1 4 8 1 4 8

1 −4 3 −4 3 1
𝑀31 = = 6 + 20 = 26 𝑀32 = = 18 + 12 = 30 𝑀33 = = 15 − 2 = 13
5 6 2 6 2 5
3+1 3+2 3+3
𝐶31 = −1 𝑀31 = 26 𝐶32 = −1 𝑀32 = −30 𝐶33 = −1 𝑀33 = 13
 Determinant of Matrix
The determinant of a matrix is a number that is specially defined only for square matrices. Determinants are
mathematical objects that are very useful in the analysis and solution of systems of linear equations. For every
square matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] of order 𝑛, we can associate a number called determinant of square matrix. It is
denoted by |𝐴| or det 𝐴 .

Evaluating Determinants
Order One:
𝐴= 𝑎 ∴ 𝐴 = 𝑎 =𝑎
Order Two:
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎11 𝑎12
𝐴= 𝑎 𝑎22 ∴ 𝐴 = 𝑎 𝑎22 = 𝑎11 ∙ 𝑎22 − 𝑎12 ∙ 𝑎21
21 21
Order Three:
+ − +
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
𝑎 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎22
𝐴 = 𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ∴ 𝐴 = 𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑎23 = +𝑎11 22 − 𝑎12 𝑎 + 𝑎13 𝑎
𝑎32 𝑎33 31 𝑎33 31 𝑎32
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
Determinant using Cofactor Expansion
3 1 0
Example: Find the determinant of the matrix 𝐴 = −2 −4 3 by cofactor expansion.
5 4 −2
Along the First Row: + − +
3 1 0
−4 3 −2 3 −2 −4
det 𝐴 = −2 −4 3 = +3 −1 +0
4 −2 5 −2 5 4
5 4 −2
= 3 8 − 12 − 1 4 − 15 + 0(−8 + 20)
= 3 −4 − 1 −11 + 0 = −1
Along the First Column:
+ 3 1 0
−4 3 1 0 1 0
det 𝐴 = − −2 −4 3 = +3 − (−2) +5
4 −2 4 −2 −4 3
+ 5 4 −2
= 3 8 − 12 − (−2) −2 − 0 + 5 3 + 0
= 3 −4 − −2 −2 + 5 3 = −1
 Singular and Non-Singular Matrix

Singular and Non-Singular Matrices: Let 𝐷 be the determinant of the square matrix 𝐴, then if

(a) 𝐷 = 0, the matrix 𝐴 is called a singular matrix

(b) 𝐷 ≠ 0, the matrix 𝐴 is called a non-singular matrix

1 2 3 3 4 −1
1 2 6 2
For examples, 𝐴 = , 𝐵= 4 5 6 and 𝐶 = , 𝐷= 1 0 3
2 4 5 3
7 8 9 2 −1 4

Where, 𝐴 & 𝐵 are singular matrices and 𝐶 & 𝐷 are non-singular matrices.
 Adjoint and Inverse of Matrix
Adjoint or Adjugate Matrix: Let 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] be a square matrix of order 𝑛. The adjoint
of the matrix 𝐴 is the transpose of the cofactor matrix of 𝐴. It is denoted by 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 .

𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑓 𝐴 𝑇

Inverse Matrix: If 𝐴 is a square matrix, and if a matrix 𝐵 of the same size can be found
such that 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐵𝐴 = 𝐼, then 𝐴 is said to be invertible and 𝐵 is called an inverse of 𝐴.

Inverse of a Matrix Using Its Adjoint: If 𝐴 is an invertible matrix, then

1 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴
𝐴−1 = ∙ 𝑎𝑑𝑗(𝐴) =
det(𝐴) 𝐴
 Inverse of Matrix
−1 2 −3
Problem: Find the inverse of the matrix 𝐴 = 2 1 0 , using its adjoint.
4 −2 5
−1 2 −3
Solution: Given, 𝐴 = 2 1 0
4 −2 5
−1 2 −3
1 0 2 0 2 1
Let 𝐷 = 𝐴 = 2 1 0 = −1 −2 + −3
−2 5 4 5 4 −2
4 −2 5
= −1 5 + 0 − 2 10 − 0 − 3 −4 − 4

= −5 − 20 + 24 = −1 ≠ 0

So 𝐴 is non-singular matrix and hence 𝐴−1 exists.

 Inverse of Matrix
Cofactors of −1 = 𝐴11 = Cofactors of 2 = 𝐴12 = Cofactors of −3 = 𝐴13 =
1 0 2 0 2 1
=5 (−1) = −10 = −8
−2 5 4 5 4 −2
Cofactors of 2 = 𝐴21 = Cofactors of 1 = 𝐴22 = Cofactors of 0 = 𝐴23 =
2 −3 −1 −3 −1 2
−1 = −4 =7 (−1) =6
−2 5 4 5 4 −2
Cofactors of 4 = 𝐴31 = Cofactors of −2 = 𝐴32 = Cofactors of 5 = 𝐴33 =
2 −3 −1 −3 −1 2
=3 −1 = −6 = −5
1 0 2 0 2 1

𝑇
5 −10 −8 5 −4 3
𝑇
∴ 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = 𝑐𝑜𝑓(𝐴) = −4 7 6 = −10 7 −6
3 −6 −5 −8 6 −5

1 1 5 −4 3 −5 4 −3
−1
∴ 𝐴 = ∙ 𝑎𝑑𝑗 𝐴 = −10 7 −6 = 10 −7 6
𝐴 −1
−8 6 −5 8 −6 5
 Rank of Matrix
Let 𝐴 be an 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix. The rank of 𝐴 is the maximal order of a non-zero minor of 𝐴.
5 3 0
Example: Find the rank of the matrix 1 2 −4 .
−2 −4 8
5 3 0
Solution: Let 𝐴 = 1 2 −4 ∵ The order of 𝐴 is 3 × 3. ∴ 𝜌 𝐴 ≤ 3.
−2 −4 8
5 3 0
2 −4 1 −4 1 2
Consider the third order minor 1 2 −4 = 5 −3 +0
−4 8 −2 8 −2 −4
−2 −4 8
= 5 16 − 16 − 3 8 − 8 + 0(−4 + 4) = 0

Since the third order minor vanishes, therefore 𝜌(𝐴) ≠ 3 and 𝜌 𝐴 ≤ 2.

5 3
Consider a second order minor = 10 − 3 = 7 ≠ 0
1 2
There is a minor of order 2, which is not zero. ∴ 𝜌 𝐴 = 2.
Next Lecture

➢ Transpose of Matrix

➢ Inverse Matrix

➢ Rank of Matrix