Dr.

Omari Mohammed
Maître de Conférences Classe A
Université d’Adrar
Courriel : [email protected]

SUPPORT DE COURS

Matière : Réseaux Avancés 2

Niveau : 1ère Année Master en Informatique
Option : Réseaux et Systèmes Intelligents
 Advanced Computer Networks 2
Text Book: Wireless Communications and Networks, 2nd Edition, William Stallings.

Program:
1- Introduction to Wireless Networks (1 class)
2- Antennas and Propagation (2 classes)
3- Spread Spectrum (1 class)
4- Coding and Error control (1 class)
5- Satellite communication (2 class)
6- Cellular Wireless Networks (2 classes)
7- Mobile IP and Wireless Access Protocol (1 class)
8- WiMAX and IEEE 802.16 Broadband Wireless Access Standards (1 class)
9- Wireless LANs, Wi-Fi and the IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN Standard (2 classes)
10- Bluetooth and IEEE 802.15 (presentation)

-1-
 Introduction
1- The Invention
• Guglielmo Marconi (born at Bologna, Italy in 1874) invented the wireless telegraph in 1896.

• In 1901, he sent telegraphic signals across the Atlantic Ocean from Cornwall (UK) to St. John's
Newfoundland (Canada); a distance of about 3200 km.
• His invention allowed two parties to communicate by sending each other alphanumeric characters
encoded in an analog signal.
• Since then, advances in wireless technologies have led to the radio, the television, the mobile
telephone, and communications satellites.

2- Satellites
• Communications satellites were first launched in the 1960s.
• Those first satellites could only handle 240 voice channels.
• Today, satellites carry about one-third of the voice traffic and all of the television signals between
countries.
• Modern satellites typically introduce a 0.25 second propagation delay to the signals they handle.
Newer satellites in lower orbits, with less delay, have been deployed to provide data services such
as Internet access.
• Wireless networking is allowing businesses to develop WANs, MANs, and LANs.
• The IEEE has developed 802.11 as a standard for wireless LANs.
• The Bluetooth industry consortium is also working to provide a seamless wireless networking
technology.

-2-
2- Cellular Telephony
• The cellular or mobile telephone has gone through different generations.
• The first-generation wireless phones used analog technology. These devices were heavy and
coverage was unreliable.
• The current generation of wireless devices is built using digital technology. Digital networks carry
much more traffic and provide better reception and security than analog networks.
• In addition, digital technology has made possible services such as caller identification.
• The standards that define how wireless communication devices interact are quickly converging and
soon will allow the creation of a global wireless network that will deliver a wide variety of
services.
• Wireless technologies have gradually migrated to higher frequencies; thus, greater data rates and
throughput are reached.
• In 1990, the number of mobile telephone users was approximately 11 million. Today, that number
is in the billions.
• The newer generation devices have access to the Internet.
• There are a number of reasons for the increasing dominance of mobile phones. Mobile phones are
convenient; they move with people, and by their nature, they are location aware.
• In addition, a mobile phone communicates with regional base stations that are at fixed locations.
• Technical innovations have contributed to the success of mobile phones, such as the small and
light handsets, and the long duration of battery life.
• In addition, the costs associated with mobile telephones have been decreasing, and sometimes the
phone is free with some service packages.
• In many geographic areas (isolated), mobile telephones are the only economical way to provide
phone service to the population.
• Operators can build base stations quickly and inexpensively when compared with digging up
ground to lay copper or fiber.
• Cellular telephones today have access to the Internet, instant messaging, e-mail, and other services
available on the Internet.
• Wireless devices in automobiles allow users to download maps and directions on demand. Soon,
the devices may be able to call for help when an accident has occurred.
• Refrigerators may one day be able to order groceries over the Internet to replace consumed items.
• Wireless users use the Internet differently than fixed users. Because wireless devices are location
aware, information can be tailored to the geographic location of the user. Information will be able
to find users, instead of users searching for information.

-3-
 • The ITU (International Telecommunications Union) is working to develop a family of standards
for the next-generation wireless devices.
• The new standards will use higher frequencies to increase capacity.
• The new standards will also help overcome the incompatibilities introduced as the different first-
and second-generation networks were developed and deployed over the last decade.
• The dominant first-generation digital wireless network in North America was the Advanced
Mobile Phone System (AMPS). This network offers a data service which provides a 19.2-kbps
data rate.
• The key second-generation wireless systems are the Global System for Mobile Communications
(GSM), Personal Communications Service (PCS) IS-136, and PCS IS-95. The standards are being
developed around the 2-GHz frequency band. The new standards and frequency band will provide
data rates up to 2 Mbps.
3- Broadband
• Broadband wireless service shares the same advantages of all wireless services: convenience and
reduced cost.
• The standards cover everything from the wireless LAN to the small wireless home network.
• Data rates vary from 2 Mbps to well over 100 Mbps.
• Many of these technologies are available now and many more will become available in the next
several years.
• Wireless LANs (WLANs) provide network services where it is difficult or too expensive to deploy
a fixed infrastructure.
• The primary WLAN standard is IEEE 802.11, which provides for data rates as high as 54 Mbps.
• A potential problem with 802.11 is compatibility with Bluetooth.
• Bluetooth is a wireless networking specification that defines wireless communications between
devices such as laptops, PDAs, printers, keyboards, and mobile phones.
• Bluetooth and some versions of 802.11 use the same frequency band. The technologies would
most likely interfere with each other if deployed in the same device.
4- Future Use
• In the United States, two license-free frequency bands are Industrial, Scientific, and Medical (ISM)
band near 2.4 GHz and the newly allocated unlicensed radio band, the Unlicensed National
Information Infrastructure (UNII) band.
• The first significant product in wireless is Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity), the very popular wireless
LAN technology based on the IEEE 802.11 standards.

-4-
 • Wi-Fi covers not only office-based LANs, but also home-based LANs and publicly available hot
spots, which are areas around a central antenna in which people can wirelessly share information
or connect to the Internet with a properly equipped laptop.
• Four other innovative technologies are working their way through the research, development, and
standardization efforts: WiMAX, Mobile-Fi, ZigBee, and Ultrawideband.
• WiMAX is similar to Wi-Fi. Both create hot spots, but while Wi-Fi can cover several hundred
meters, WiMAX has a range of 40 to 50 km. Thus,WiMAX provides a wireless alternative to
cable, DSL.
• Mobile-Fi is similar to the mobile version of WiMAX in terms of technology.
• The objective with Mobile-Fi is to provide Internet access to mobile users at data rates even higher
than those available in today's home broadband links.
• Thus, a Mobile-Fi user could enjoy broadband Internet access while traveling in a moving car or
train.
• ZigBee functions at a relatively low data rate over relatively short distances, compared to Wi-Fi.
• The objective is to develop products that are very low cost, with low power consumption and low
data rate.
• ZigBee technology enables the coordination of communication among thousands of tiny sensors,
which can be scattered throughout offices, farms, or factories, picking up bits of information about
temperature, chemicals, water, or motion.
• They are designed to use little energy because they will be left in place for 5 or 10 years and their
batteries need to last.
• ZigBee devices communicate efficiently, passing data over radio waves. At the end of the line the
data can be dropped into a computer for analysis or picked up by another wireless technology like
Wi-Pi or WiMAX.
• Ultrawideband enables the movement of massive files at high data rates over short distances. For
example, in the home, Ultrawideband would allow the user to transfer hours of video from a PC to
a TV without any messy cords.
5- Wireless Limitations
• Wireless is not perfect due to two main issues: incompatible standards and device limitations.
• In North America there are two standards for digital cellular service. Internationally, there is at
least one more.
• A device using PCS IS-136 will not work in an area where the deployed technology is PCS IS-95.
• Also mentioned previously is the inability to use Bluetooth and 802.11 in the same device.
• The small display on a mobile telephone is inadequate for displaying more than a few lines of text.

-5-
• In addition, most mobile wireless devices cannot access the vast majority of www sites on the
Internet. The mobile browsers use a special language, wireless markup language (WML), instead
of the de facto standard HTML.

-6-
 Antennas and Propagation

I- Antennas
1- Definition
• An antenna can be defined as an electrical conductor or system of conductors used either for
radiating electromagnetic energy or for collecting electromagnetic energy.

• For transmission of a signal, radio-frequency electrical energy from the transmitter is converted
into electromagnetic energy by the antenna and radiated into the surrounding environment
(atmosphere, space, water).
• For reception of a signal, electromagnetic energy gathered around the antenna is converted into
radio-frequency electrical energy and fed into the receiver.
• In two-way communication, the same antenna can be and often is used for both transmission and
reception.
2- Radiation Patterns
• An antenna will radiate power in all directions but, typically, does not perform equally well in all
directions.
• A common way to characterize the performance of an antenna is the radiation pattern, which is a
graphical representation of the radiation properties of an antenna as a function of space
coordinates.
• The simplest pattern is produced by an idealized antenna known as the isotropic antenna.
• An isotropic antenna is a point in space that radiates power in all directions equally.
• The actual radiation pattern for the isotropic antenna is a sphere with the antenna at the center.

-7-
• The distance from the antenna to each point on the radiation pattern is proportional to the power
radiated from the antenna in that direction.

Radiation
Radiation
A
Pattern
Pattern A
B
B

(a) Omni-directional Antenna (b) Directional Antenna

• The isotropic antenna (Fig. a) produces an omnidirectional radiation pattern of equal strength in all
directions, so the A and B vectors are of equal length.
• In a directional antenna (Fig. b), the preferred direction of radiation is along one axis.
• The actual size of a radiation pattern is arbitrary.
• What is important is the relative distance from the antenna position in each direction.
• The relative distance determines the relative power.
• The radiation pattern of the B vector is longer than the A vector, indicating that more power is
radiated in the B direction than in the A direction.
• The radiation pattern provides a convenient means of determining the beam width of an antenna,
which is a common measure of the directivity of an antenna.
• The beam width, also referred to as the half-power beam width, is the angle within which the
power radiated by the antenna is at least half of what it is in the most preferred direction.
• When an antenna is used for reception, the radiation pattern becomes a reception pattern.
• The longest section of the pattern indicates the best direction for reception.
3- Antenna Types
A- Dipoles
• Two of the simplest and most basic antennas are the half-wave dipole, or Hertz, antenna and the
quarter-wave vertical, or Marconi, antenna.
• The half-wave dipole consists of two straight collinear conductors of equal length, separated by a
small gap.

-8-
• The length of the antenna is one-half the wavelength of the signal that can be transmitted most
efficiently.

y z

x x

z
y

x
z
y

• A vertical quarter-wave antenna is the type commonly used for automobile radios and portable
radios.

• A half-wave dipole has a uniform or omnidirectional radiation pattern in one dimension and a

figure-eight pattern (∞) in the other two dimensions.

-9-
 y y

z x

z
z

x
x
y

• A typical directional radiation pattern is shown above. In this case the main strength of the antenna
is in the x-direction.

Parabolic Reflective Antenna

• An important type of antenna is the parabolic reflective antenna, which is used in terrestrial
microwave and satellite applications.

• A parabola is the locus of all points equidistant from a fixed line and a fixed point.
• The fixed point is called the focus and the fixed line is called the directrix.

• If a parabola is revolved about its axis, the surface generated is called a paraboloid.

-10-
 • A cross section (or plan) through the paraboloid parallel to its axis forms a parabola and a cross
section perpendicular to the axis forms a circle.
• Such surfaces are used in automobile headlights, optical and radio telescopes, and microwave
antennas.
• If a source of electromagnetic energy is placed at the focus of the paraboloid, and if the paraboloid
is a reflecting surface, then the wave will bounce back in lines parallel to the axis of the
paraboloid.
• In theory, this reflection creates a parallel beam without dispersion. In practice, there will be some
dispersion, because the source of energy must occupy more than one point.
• On the contrary, if the incoming waves are parallel to the axis of the reflecting paraboloid, the
resulting signal will be concentrated at the focus.
Antenna Gain
• Antenna gain is a measure of the directionality of an antenna.
• Antenna gain is defined as the power output, in a particular direction, compared to that produced in
any direction by a perfect omnidirectional antenna (isotropic antenna).
• For example, if an antenna has a gain of 3 dB, that antenna improves upon the isotropic antenna in
that direction by 3 dB, or a factor of 2.
• The increased power radiated in a given direction is at the expense of other directions: The
increased power radiated in one direction is done by reducing the power radiated in other
directions.
• A concept related to that of antenna gain is the effective area of an antenna.
• The effective area of an antenna is related to the physical size of the antenna and to its shape.
A = π r2 (r is the radius)
Type of Antenna Effective Area Ae Power Gain
λ

Isotropic 1
4
7
Parabolic Antenna 0.56A
λ

-11-
 1.64 λ

Half-wave dipole 1.64
4
• The relationship between antenna gain and effective area is


4 4 
=
=
λ 

Where:
G : antenna gain
Ae : effective area
f : carrier frequency
c : speed of light (3 x 108 m/s)
λ : carrier wavelength
and GdB = 10 log10(G)
• Example: A parabolic reflective antenna, with a diameter of 2 m, operating at 12 Ghz, what is the
antenna gain?
• Answer: Effective Area Ae = 0.56 A = 0.56 π r2 = 0.56 π
(
× ) .
G= =35.186
(× )

GdB= 10 log10(35.186) = 45.46 dB

-12-
II- Propagation Mode
• A signal radiated from an antenna travels along one of three routes: ground wave (GW), sky wave
(SW), or line of sight (LOS).

1- Ground Wave Propagation

• Ground wave propagation follows the contour of the earth and can propagate considerable
distances, well over the visual horizon.

• This effect is found in frequencies up to about 2 MHz.

Band Frequency Wavelength Propagation Utilization
Name Range Range Mode
ELF (extremely
30 – 300 Hz 10.000 - 1000 km GW Power lines
low frequency)
VF (voice
300 – 3000 Hz 1000 - 100 km GW Telephone lines
frequency)
VLF (very low Submarine
3 – 30 kHz 100 - 10 km GW
frequency) communications
LF (low Marine
30 – 300 kHz 10 - 1 km GW
frequency) communications
MF (medium
300 – 3000 kHz 1000 - 100 m GW, SW AM broadcasting
frequency)

• Electromagnetic waves in GW are characterized by diffraction: a phenomenon related to the

behavior of electromagnetic waves in the presence of obstacles.
• Electromagnetic waves in GW are scattered by the atmosphere in such a way that they do not
penetrate the upper atmosphere.
• The best-known example of ground wave communication is AM radio.

-13-
2- Sky Wave Propagation
• Sky wave propagation is used for amateur radio, and international broadcasts such as BBC.

• With sky wave propagation, a signal from an earth-based antenna is reflected from the ionized
layer of the upper atmosphere (ionosphere) back down to earth.
• This effect is caused by signal refraction.
• A sky wave signal can travel through a number of hops, bouncing back and forth between the
ionosphere and the earth's surface.
• With this propagation mode, a signal can be picked up thousands of kilometers from the
transmitter.
Band Frequency Wavelength Propagation Utilization
Name Range Range Mode
MF (medium
300 – 3000 kHz 1000 - 100 m GW, SW AM broadcasting
frequency)
HF (high International
3 – 30 MHz 100 - 10 km SW
frequency) broadcasting

3- Line-of-Sight Propagation
• Above 30 MHz, neither ground wave nor sky wave propagation modes operate, and
communication must be by line of sight.

-14-
 • For satellite communication, a signal above 30 MHz is not reflected by the ionosphere and
therefore can be transmitted between an earth station and a satellite overhead that is not beyond the
horizon.
• For ground-based communication, the transmitting and receiving antennas must be within an
effective line of sight of each other.
• In fact, microwaves are bent or refracted by the atmosphere and the curvature of the earth.
Band Frequency Wavelength Propagation Utilization
Name Range Range Mode
VHF (very high FM broadcasting
30 – 300 MHz 10 - 1 m LOS
frequency) VHF television
UHF (ultra high Cellular telephone
300 – 3000 MHz 100 - 10 cm LOS
frequency) UHF television
SHF (super high Satellite
3 – 30 GHz 10 - 1 cm LOS
frequency) communication
EHF (extremely
30 – 300 GHz 10 - 1 mm LOS Experimental
high frequency)
Infrared 300 GHz – 400 THz 1 mm - 770 nm LOS Infrared LANs
Optical
Visible Light 400 – 900 THz 770 - 330 nm LOS
communication

Optical line of sight:

• With no intervening obstacles, the optical line of sight can be expressed as:
 = 3.57√ℎ
Where
d: is the distance between an antenna and the horizon in kilometers
h: is the antenna height in meters
Radio line of sight:
• The effective, or radio, line of sight to the horizon is expressed as:
 = 3.57√!ℎ
Where
K: an adjustment factor to account for the refraction. (K=4/3)

Radio LOS

Optical LOS
Antenna
Earth

• Thus, the maximum distance between two antennas for LOS propagation is:
-15-
  = 3.57("!ℎ + "!ℎ
)
where h1 and h2 are the heights of the two antennas.
• Example 1: Two antennas, one is 100 m high, the second is at ground level (0 m), what is the
maximum distance between them for LOS transmission?
Answer:  = 3.57√!ℎ = 3.57√1.33 $ 100 = 41.17 &'
• Example 2: Now, suppose that the receiving antenna is 10 m high, how high must the transmitting
antenna be in order to achieve the same distance? What can you infer?
Answer: d = 41.17 = 3.57("!ℎ + "!ℎ
) = 3.57("!ℎ + √!$10), then h1 = 46.2 m.
We can infer that raising the receiving antenna above ground helps in reducing the height of the
transmitting antenna.

II- Impairments
• With any communications system, the received signal will differ from the transmitted signal due to
various transmission impairments.
1- Attenuation and Distortion
• The strength of a signal decreases with distance over any transmission medium.

• For unguided media (wireless), attenuation is a complex function of distance and the makeup of
the atmosphere.
• Attenuation introduces 3 factors for the transmission engineer.
• 1. A received signal must have sufficient strength so that the electronic circuitry in the receiver can
detect and interpret the signal.
• 2. The signal must maintain a level sufficiently higher than noise to be received without error.
• 3. Attenuation is greater at higher frequencies, causing distortion.

-16-
 Composite Composite
signal sent signal received
Components Components
in phase out of phase

Point 2
Transmission
Medium

• The first and second factors are dealt with by attention to signal strength and the use of amplifiers
or repeaters.
• These problems are more complex when there are multiple receivers, where the distance from
transmitter to receiver is variable.
• The third factor is known as attenuation distortion.
• Because the attenuation varies as a function of frequency, the frequency components of the
received signal have different relative strengths than the frequency components of the transmitted
signal.
• One approach to solve this problem is to use amplifiers that amplify high frequencies more than
lower frequencies.
2- Free Space Loss
• For any type of wireless communication the signal disperses with distance.
• Therefore, an antenna (fixed area) will receive less signal power the farther it is from the
transmitting antenna.

Receiving Antenna 2

Receiving Antenna 1

Transmitting Antenna

• A transmitted signal attenuates over distance because the signal is being spread over a larger and
larger area.
-17-
 • This form of attenuation is known as free space loss.
• Free space loss can be express in terms of the ratio of the radiated power (Pt) to the received power
(Pr), received by the antenna.
• For the ideal isotropic antenna, free space loss is:
+, (4)
(4 )

*= = =
+- λ


Where:
Pt : Signal power at the transmitting antenna
Pr : Signal power at the receiving antenna
f : carrier frequency
c : speed of light (3 x 108 m/s)
λ : carrier wavelength
d : the distance between the two antennas

• For other antennas, free space loss is calculated based on the gain of each antenna:
+, (4)
(λ)
()

*= =
=   = 

+- , -λ , - , -

Where:
Gt : Gain of the transmitting antenna
Gr : Gain of the receiving antenna
At : Effective area of the transmitting antenna
Ar : Effective area of the receiving antenna

*./ = 10*01 (*)

*./ = 20*01 (λ) + 20*01 () − 10*01 (, - )
*./ = 20*01 () − 20*01 ( ) − 10*01 (, - ) + 169.54
3- Noise
• Noise is defined as an unwanted signal that may modify the original signal.
• Noise is the major limiting factor in communications system performance.
• Noise may be divided into four categories: Thermal noise, Intermodulation noise, Crosstalk, and
Impulse noise.
• A. Thermal noise is due to thermal agitation of electrons.
• It is present in all electronic devices and transmission media and is a function of temperature.
• Thermal noise is uniformly distributed across the frequency spectrum and hence is often referred
to as white noise.
• The amount of thermal noise to be found in a bandwidth of 1 Hz in any device or conductor is
-18-
 5 = &6 (7899/;<=9>)
• Where:
No: noise power density in watts per 1 Hz of bandwidth
k: Boltzmann's constant = 1.38 x 10-23 J/K
T: temperature, in kelvins (absolute temperature)
• The thermal noise in watts present in a bandwidth of B Hertz can be expressed as:
5 = 5 ? = &6? (7899)
In decibel Watt:
5./ = 10*01 (&) + 10*01 (6) + 10*01 (?)(?7)
5./ = −228.6 + 10*01 (6) + 10*01 (?)(?7)
Example: Given a receiver with an effective noise temperature of 294 K and 10-MHz bandwidth,
the thermal noise level at the receiver is:
5./ = −228.6 + 10*01 (294) + 10*01 (10A ) = −133?7

• B. Inter-modulation noise: When signals at different frequencies share the same transmission
medium, the result may be inter-modulation noise.
• For example, the mixing of signals at frequencies f1 and f2 might produce energy at the frequency
f1 + f2.
• This derived signal could interfere with another signal at the frequency f3 = (f1 + f2).
• C. Crosstalk: while using the telephone, you can be able to hear another conversation; it is an
unwanted coupling between signal paths.
• It can occur by electrical coupling between nearby twisted pairs or coax cable lines.
• Crosstalk can also occur when unwanted signals are picked up by microwave antennas.
• All of the types of noise discussed above have reasonably predictable and relatively constant
magnitudes.
• D. Impulse noise: This noise is non continuous, consisting of irregular pulses or noise spikes of
short duration and of relatively high amplitude.
• It is generated from external electromagnetic disturbances, such as lightning.
• Impulse noise is generally only a minor annoyance for analog data such as voice. However,
impulse noise is the primary source of error in digital data transmission.
4- Atmospheric Absorption
• Water vapor and oxygen contribute most to attenuation.
• A Peak attenuation occurs in the vicinity of 22 GHz due to water vapor. At frequencies below 15
GHz, the attenuation is less.

-19-
• The presence of oxygen results in an absorption peak in the vicinity of 60 GHz but contributes less
at frequencies below 30 GHz.
• Rain and fog cause scattering of radio waves which results in attenuation.
• Thus, in areas of significant precipitation, either path lengths have to be kept short or lower-
frequency bands should be used.
5- Multipath
• In mobile telephony, the signal can be reflected by obstacles so that multiple copies of the signal
with varying delays can be received.

• So, the composite signal of these copies can be either larger or smaller than the direct signal.
• Reinforcement and cancellation of the multiple path signal can be controlled for communication
between fixed antennas, and between satellites and fixed ground stations.
• For mobile telephony and communication multipath considerations can be dominant.
6- Refraction
• Radio waves are refracted (or bent) when they propagate through the atmosphere.
• The refraction is caused by changes in the speed of the signal with altitude or by other spatial
changes in the atmospheric conditions.

Refracted Signal

Transmitting Antenna Receiving Antenna

7- Fading
• The term fading refers to the time variation of received signal power caused by changes in the
transmission medium or path(s).
• In a mobile environment, where one of the two antennas is moving relative to the other, the
relative location of various obstacles changes over time, creating complex transmission effects.
-20-
III- Multipath Propagation
• Three propagation mechanisms are defined in Wireless domain.

1- Reflection:
• It occurs when an electromagnetic signal encounters a surface that is large relative to the
wavelength of the signal.

2- Diffraction:
• It occurs at the edge of an impenetrable body that is large compared to the wavelength of the radio
wave.
• When a radio wave encounters such an edge, waves propagate in different directions with the edge
as the source.
3- Scattering:
• If the size of an obstacle is on the order of the wavelength of the signal or less, scattering occurs.
• An incoming signal is scattered into several weaker outgoing signals.

-21-
 Spread Spectrum

I- Definition
• An increasingly important form of communications is known as spread spectrum.
• It can be used to transmit either analog or digital data, using an analog signal.
• The spread spectrum technique was developed initially for military and intelligence requirements.
• The essential idea is to spread the information signal over a wider bandwidth to make jamming and
interception more difficult.
• The first type of spread spectrum developed is known as frequency hopping.
• A more recent type of spread spectrum is direct sequence.

• Input is fed into a channel encoder that produces an analog signal with a relatively narrow
bandwidth around some center frequency.
• This signal is further modulated using a sequence of digits known as a spreading code or spreading
sequence.
• Typically, but not always, the spreading code is generated by a pseudonoise, or pseudorandom
number, generator.
• The effect of this modulation is to increase significantly the bandwidth (spread the spectrum) of
the signal to be transmitted.
• On the receiving end, the same digit sequence is used to demodulate the spread spectrum signal.
• Finally, the signal is fed into a channel decoder to recover the data.
1- Benefits of Spread Spectrum
• Several things can be gained from this apparent waste of Spectrum:
• We can gain immunity from various kinds of noise and multipath distortion.
• The earliest applications of spread spectrum were military where it was used for its immunity to
jamming.
• It can also be used for hiding and encrypting signals.
• Only a recipient who knows the spreading code can recover the encoded information.

-22-
 • Several users can independently use the same higher bandwidth with very little interference.
• This property is used in cellular telephony applications, with a technique known as code division
multiplexing (CDM) or code division multiple access (CDMA).

II- Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum:

• With frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS), the signal is broadcast over a random series of
radio frequencies, hopping from frequency to frequency at fixed intervals.
• Radio frequencies, or RF, ranges from 0 Hz till 300 GHz. They cover all bands from ULF till EHF.
• A receiver, hopping between frequencies in synchronization with the transmitter, picks up the
message.
• In case of eavesdropping, the attacker hears only unintelligible signal.
• In case of jamming, the signal is affected only on one frequency, and thus losing few bits.
1- Basic Approach
• A number of channels are allocated for the FH signal.
• Typically, there are 2k carrier frequencies forming 2k channels, where k is the code length for each
channel, e.g., with 4 bits we can encode 24 channels = 16 channels.

• The spacing between carrier frequencies and hence the width of each channel usually corresponds
to the bandwidth of the input signal.
• The transmitter operates in one channel at a time for a fixed interval.
• The IEEE 802.11 wireless LAN standard uses a 300-ms interval.
• During that interval, few bits are transmitted using some encoding scheme.
• The sequence of channels used is dictated by a spreading code.
• Both transmitter and receiver use the same code in synch.
• For transmission, binary data are fed into a modulator using some digital-to-analog encoding
scheme, such as frequency-shift keying (FSK) or binary phase-shift keying (BPSK).
• The resulting signal Sd(t) is centered on some base frequency.

-23-
• A pseudonoise (PN), or pseudorandom number, source serves as an index into a table of
frequencies; this is the spreading code.
• Each k bits of the PN source specifies one of the 2k carrier frequencies.
• Te selected frequency is then modulated by the signal produced from the initial modulator to
produce a new signal s(t) with the same shape but now centered on the selected carrier frequency.

• On reception, the spread spectrum signal is demodulated using the same sequence of PN-derived
frequencies and then demodulated to produce the output data.

2- FHSS Using MFSK

• A common modulation technique used in conjunction with FHSS is Multiple Frequency Shift
Keying (MFSK).
• FSK uses two frequency careers to encode 2 bits. MFSK uses M = 2L different frequencies to
encode the digital input L bits at a time.
• The transmitted signal is of the form:
‫ݏ‬௜ ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ = ‫ݏ݋ܿܣ‬ሺ2ߨ݂௜ ‫ݐ‬ሻ, 1 ≤ ݅ ≤ ‫ܯ‬
where:
݂௜ = ݂௖ + ሺ2݅ − 1 − ‫ܯ‬ሻ݂ௗ
fc : the carrier frequency
fd : the difference frequency

-24-
 M : number of different signal elements = 2L
L : number of bits per signal element

fc - (M-1)∆f fc fc + (M-1)∆f

• For FHSS, the MFSK signal is translated to a new frequency every Tc seconds by modulating the
MFSK signal with the FHSS carrier signal.
• For a data rate of R, the duration of a bit is T = 1/R seconds and the duration of a signal element is
Ts = LT seconds.
• If Tc is greater than or equal to Ts the spreading modulation is referred to as slow FHSS.
• In this case more than one signal element are modulated by the same frequency, i.e., a channel is
held and used by many signal elements.
• If Tc is less than or equal to Ts the spreading modulation is referred to as fast FHSS.

• An example of slow FHSS is shown above.

• With M = 4, the figure shows the frequency transmitted (y-axis) as a function of time (x-axis).
Each column represents a time unit Ts in which a single 2-bit signal element is transmitted.
• The shaded rectangle in the column indicates the frequency transmitted during that time unit.
• A frequency band (Wd) is selected based on a 2-bit PN sequence.
• The first pair of columns, governed by PN sequence 00, the lowest band of frequencies is used.
• For the second pair of columns, governed by PN sequence 11, the highest band of frequencies is
used, and so on.

-25-
 • Here we have M = 4, which means that four different frequencies are used to encode the data input
2 bits at a time.
• The total MFSK bandwidth (or channel) is Wd = Mfd.
• We use an FHSS scheme with k = 2. That is, there are 4 = 2k different channels, each of width Wd.
The total FHSS bandwidth is Ws = 2kWd.
• Each channel is held for a duration of two signal elements, or four bits (Tc = 2Ts = 4T).

• The above figure shows an example of fast FHSS with M = 4 and k = 2.

• In this case, each signal element is represented by two frequency tones, a channel is changed faster
even before completing a signal element.
• Wd = Mfd and Ws = 2kWd and Ts = 2Tc = 2T.
• In general, fast FHSS provides improved performance compared to slow FHSS in the face of noise
or jamming.

III- Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum

• For direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS), each bit in the original signal is represented by
multiple bits in the transmitted signal, using a spreading code.
• The spreading code spreads the signal across a wider frequency band in direct proportion to the
number of bits used (a 10-bit spreading code spreads the signal across a frequency band that is 10
times greater than a 1-bit spreading code).
• One technique for direct sequence spread spectrum is to combine the digital information stream
with the spreading code bit stream using an exclusive-OR (XOR).

-26-
• The XOR obeys the following rule: if C = (A ⊕ B ) then C ⊕ B = A.
• The original signal A is spread (xor) by a signal B (spread code) at the sender resulting in a new
signal C
• The signal C is de-spread (xor) by the same signal B (spread code) at the receiver, and then the
original signal A is restored.

1- DSSS Using BPSK

• In practice, we assume that a BPSK (Binary Phase Shift Keying) modulation scheme is to be used.
• We use +1 and -1 to represent the two binary digits instead of 1 and 0.
• In that case, a BPSK signal can be represented as follows:
‫ݏ‬ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ = ‫݀ܣ‬ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻcos ሺ2ߨ݂௖ ‫ݐ‬ሻ
Where:
A : amplitude of signal
fc : carrier frequency
d(t) : the discrete function that takes on the value of +1 if the corresponding bit in the bit stream is
1 and the value of -1 if the corresponding bit in the bit stream is 0.
• To produce the DSSS signal, we multiply the preceding by c(t), which is the PN sequence taking
on values of +1 and -1:
‫ݏ‬ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ = ‫݀ܣ‬ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻcሺtሻcos ሺ2ߨ݂௖ ‫ݐ‬ሻ
• At the receiver, the incoming signal is multiplied again by c(t). Since c(t) x c(t) = 1, then the
original signal is recovered:
‫ݏ‬ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻܿሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ = ‫݀ܣ‬ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻcሺtሻcሺtሻ cosሺ2ߨ݂௖ ‫ݐ‬ሻ = ‫ݏ‬ௗ ሺ‫ݐ‬ሻ

-27-
2- CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) :
• CDMA is a multiplexing technique used with DSSS.
• It replaces each bit into k chips according to a fixed pattern that is specific to each user, called the
user's code.

• The above figure shows the codes for three users, A, B, and C, each of which is communicating
with the same base station receiver, R.
• Thus, the code for user A is CA = <1, -1, -1,1, -1,1>. User B has code CB = <1,1,-1, -1, 1, 1>, and
user C has Cc = <1,1, -1,1, 1, -1>.

-28-
• We now consider the case of user A communicating with the base station. The base station is
assumed to know A's code.
• If A wants to send a 1 bit, A transmits its code as a chip pattern <1, -1, -1,1, -1,1>. If a 0 bit is to
be sent, A transmits the complement (1s and -1s reversed) of its code, <-1,1,1, -1, 1, -1>.
• At the base station the receiver decodes the chip patterns.
• If the receiver R receives a chip pattern d = <dl, d2, d3, d4, d5, d6>, and the receiver is seeking to
communicate with a user u so that it has at hand u's code, <cl, c2, c3, c4, c5, c6>, the receiver
performs electronically the following decoding function:
‫ݏ‬௨ ሺ݀ሻ = ݀ଵ ܿଵ + ݀ଶ ܿଶ + ݀ଷ ܿଷ + ݀ସ ܿସ + ݀ହ ܿହ + ݀଺ ܿ଺
• If A sends a 1 bit, then d is <1, -1, -1, 1, -1,1> SA(1, -1, -1, 1, -1, 1) = [1 x 1] + [( -1) x (-1)] + [( -
1) x (-1)] +[1 x 1] + [( -1) x (-1)]+ [1 x 1] = 6 (multiple of 6: accepted as the bit 1).
• If A sends a 0 bit, then d is <-1, 1, 1, -1, 1,-1> SA(-1, 1, 1, -1, 1, -1) = [(-1) x 1] + [1 x (-1)] + [1 x
(-1)] +[(-1) x 1] + [1 x (-1)]+ [(-1) x 1] = -6 (multiple of 6: accepted as the bit 0).
• If user B (unwanted like noise or jam) is sending and we try to receive it with SA, that is, we are
decoding with the wrong code, A's.
• If B sends a 1 bit, then d = <1,1, -1, -1, 1, 1>.
• Then SA(1,1,-1,-1,1,1) = [1 x 1] + [1 x (-1)] + [(-1) x (-1) + [(-1) x 1] + [1 x (-1)] + [1 x 1] = 0
(neither 6 nor -6, then rejected).
• In practice, the CDMA receiver can filter out the contribution from unwanted users or they appear
as low-level noise.
• However, if there are many users competing for the channel with the user the receiver is trying to
listen to, the system breaks down.
3- PN Sequences :
• PN sequences are generated by an algorithm using some initial value called the seed.
• The resulting sequences will pass many reasonable tests of randomness.
• Generated numbers are often referred to as pseudorandom numbers, or pseudonoise sequences.
• PN sequences should be uniform: the number of 0s and 1s is equal.
• There are many implementations of PN sequences.
• The PN generator for spread spectrum is usually implemented as a circuit consisting of XOR gates
and a shift register, called a linear feedback shift register (LFSR).
• An initial state of bits is randomly chosen (B0, B1, …, Bn-1).
• A polynomial P(X) = A0 + A1X + A2X2 + … + An-1Xn-1 is defined at both sites, the sender and the
receiver.
• Then, the next generated bit Bn = A0 B0 ⊕ A1 B1 ⊕ A2 B2 ⊕ … ⊕ An-1 Bn-1

-29-
• Next is an example of 4-bit LSFR using the polynomial P(x) = x+1.

-30-
• Next is an example of generating PN sequence with the initial state 1000 and the polynomial P(x)
= x +1.

• With each different initial state, the m-sequence begins at a different point in its cycle, but it is the
same sequence.
Initial State Output Sequence
1000 000100110101111
0100 001001101011110
0010 010011010111100
1001 100110101111000
1100 001101011110001
0110 011010111100010
1011 110101111000100
0101 101011110001001
1010 010111100010011
1101 101111000100110
1110 011110001001101
1111 111100010011010
0111 111000100110101
0011 110001001101011
0001 100010011010111

-31-
 Coding and Error Control

I- Definition
• Three approaches are in common use for coping with data transmission errors:
• 1- Error detection codes
• 2- Error correction codes, also called forward error correction (FEC) codes
• 3- Automatic repeat request (ARQ) protocols
• An error detection code simply detects the presence of an error (Parity, CRC, checksum).
• With an ARQ scheme, a receiver discards a block of data in which an error is detected and the
transmitter retransmits that block of data.
• FEC codes are designed not just to detect but correct errors, avoiding the need for retransmission.
• FEC schemes are frequently used in wireless transmission, where retransmission schemes are
highly inefficient and error rates may be high.

II- Error Detection:

• Parity Check
• Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)
• Chekcsum

-32-
II- Block Error correction Codes:

• In wireless domain, it would be desirable to enable the receiver to correct errors in an incoming
transmission.
• On the transmission end, each k-bit block of data is mapped into an n-bit block (n > k) called a
codeword, using an FEC (forward error correction) encoder.
• The codeword is then transmitted. During transmission, the signal is subject to noise, which may
produce bit errors in the signal.
• At the receiver, the incoming signal is demodulated to produce a bit string that is similar to the
original codeword but may contain errors.
• The resulting block is passed through an FEC decoder, with one of four possible outcomes:
• 1- If there are no bit errors, the input to the FEC decoder is identical to the original codeword, and
the decoder produces the original data block as output.
• 2. For certain error patterns, it is possible for the decoder to detect and correct those errors.
• 3. For certain error patterns, the decoder can detect but not correct the errors.
• 4. For certain rare error patterns, the decoder does not detect any errors.
• Suppose we wish to transmit blocks of data of length k bits. Instead of transmitting each block as k
bits, we map each k-bit sequence into a unique n-bit codeword.
Data Block Codeword
(k=2) (n=5)
00 00000
01 00111
10 11001
11 11110
•

-33-
-34-
• The Hamming distance between two vectors v1 and v2 H(v1, v2) is the number of bits in which v1
and v2 disagree. H(01001, 10011)=3
• So, what shall we do if an invalid codeword is received (00100 for the previous example)?
• We set a rule that correction can be made by extracting the closest valid codeword in terms of
hamming distance.
H(00000, 00100) = 1, H(00111, 00100) = 2, H(11001, 00100) = 4, H(11110, 00100) = 3, so the
correct codeword is 00000 and then the restored data is 00.
• Problem: sometimes many valid codewords might have the same hamming distance vis-à-vis the
invalid codeword.
• Solution: if we chose valid codewords to be far enough from each other than some limited bit
errors can be corrected:
H(00000, 00111) = 3, H(00000, 11001) = 3, H(00000, 11110) = 4, H(00111, 11001) = 4, H(00111,
11110) = 3, H(11001, 11110) = 3.
• In the previous example, the minimum distance between two valid codewords is 3. Thus, an
invalid codeword of 1-bit error is easily corrected.
• In general, to correct t-bit errors, codewords sould be apart from each other by a distance of 2t+1.
• Hamming Code.

-35-
 Satellite Communications

I- Introduction
• The heart of a satellite communications system is a satellite-based antenna in a stable orbit above
the earth.

• In a satellite communications system, two or more stations on or near the earth communicate via
one or more satellites that serve as relay stations in space.
• A transmission from an earth station to the satellite is referred to as uplink, whereas transmissions
from the satellite to the earth station are downlink.
• The component in the satellite that takes an uplink signal and converts it to a downlink signal is
called a transponder.
• Communications satellites are categorized by:
• Coverage area: Global, regional, or national.
• Service type: Fixed service satellite (FSS), broadcast service satellite (BSS), and mobile service
satellite (MSS).
• General usage: Commercial, military, amateur, experimental.

II- Satellite Orbits

• Satellite orbits may be classified in a number of ways:
• 1. The orbit may be circular, with the center of the circle at the center of the earth, or elliptical.

-36-
 • 2. A satellite may orbit around the earth in different planes.
• An equatorial orbit is directly above the earth's equator. A polar orbit passes over both poles. Other
orbits are referred to as inclined orbits.

• 3. The altitude of communications satellites is classified as geostationary orbit (GEO), medium

earth orbit (MEO), and low earth orbit (LEO).

III- Geostationary Satellites

• The most common type of communications satellite today is the geostationary (GEO) satellite
• If the satellite is in a circular orbit 35,863 km above the earth's surface and rotates in the equatorial
plane of the earth, it will rotate at exactly the same angular speed as the earth and will remain
above the same spot on the equator as the earth rotates.

• The GEO orbit has several advantages:

-37-
 • 1. Because the satellite is stationary relative to the earth, there is no problem with frequency
changes due to the relative motion of the satellite and antennas on earth.
• 2. Tracking of the satellite by its earth stations is simplified.
• 3. At 35,863 km above the earth the satellite can communicate with roughly ¼ of the earth; So 3
satellites in geostationary orbit are enough to cover most of the inhabited portions of the entire
earth (except Polar Regions).

• On the other hand, GEO satellite communication has some problems:

• 1. The signal can get weak after traveling over 35,000 km.
• 2. The Polar Regions and the far northern and southern hemispheres are poorly served by
geostationary satellites.
• 3. Even at the speed of light (3x108 m/s), the transmission delay is substantial (~ 0.24 s).

IV- LEO Satellites

• Because the motion of the satellite relative to a fixed point on earth is high, the system must be
able to cope with large Doppler shifts, which change the frequency of the signal.

• The atmospheric drag on a LEO satellite is significant, resulting in gradual orbital deterioration.

-38-
• Practical use of this system requires the multiple orbital planes be used, each with multiple
satellites in orbit.
• Communication between two earth stations typically will involve handing off the signal from one
satellite to another.
• LEO satellites have a number of advantages over GEO satellites.
• 1. Reduced propagation delay.
• 2. A received LEO signal is much stronger than that of GEO signals.
• LEO coverage can be better localized so that spectrum can be better conserved.
• On the other hand, to provide broad coverage over 24 hours, many satellites are needed.
1- Little LEOs:
• Communication frequencies below 1 GHz using no more than 5 MHz of bandwidth and supporting
data rates up to 10 kbps.
• These systems are aimed at paging, tracking, and low-rate messaging.
• They use the frequencies 148.00 to 150.05 MHz to the satellites, and 137.00 to 138.00 MHz from
the satellites.
• They have over 30 satellites in low earth orbit.
• They support subscriber data rates of 2.4 kbps to the satellite and 4.8 kbps down.
2- Big LEOs:
• Work at frequencies above 1 GHz and support data rates up to a few megabits per second.
• These systems tend to offer the same services as those of small LEOs, with the addition of voice
and positioning services.
• Unlike some of the little LEO systems, it has no onboard processing or communications between
satellites. Most processing is done by the system's earth stations.
• They uses CDMA for coding and the S band (about 2 GHz) for the downlink to mobile users.
Globalstar is tightly integrated with traditional voice carriers.
• All calls must be processed through earth stations.

-39-
V- MEO Satellites
• MEO satellites require much fewer handoffs than LEO satellites.

• MEO’s propagation delay is still substantially less than for GEO satellites.
• Some implementations (New ICO) uses twelve satellites are planned in 10,400-km-high orbits.
• Proposed applications are digital voice, data, and messaging services.
• Next table summarizes the characteristics of the three types of communication satellites:
Orbits LEO MEO GEO
Orbital Period 1.5 to 2 h 5 to 10 h 24 h

Altitude Range 500 to 1.500 km 8.000 to 18.000 35.863 km

km
Visibility Duration 15-20 min/pass 2-8 h/pass Permanent

Round-trip propagation Several Tens of 250 ms

delay milliseconds milliseconds

Instantaneous ground 6000 km 12.000 to 16.000 km

coverage (diameter) 15.000 km

-40-
VI- Types of Satellite Links
• There are two types of satellite links: Point-to-point and broadcast.
• In point-to-point, an earth station uniquely communicates with another earth station via a satellite.

• In broadcast mode, a sending station is communicating with many receiving earth station through a
satellite.

VII- Capacity Allocation:

• All of the allocation strategies fall into one of three categories:
• Frequency division multiple access (FDMA)
• Time division multiple access (TDMA)
• Code division multiple access (CDMA)
1- FDMA :
• The overall capacity of a communications satellite is divided into a number of channels.

-41-
• In the example above, the GEO satellite uses C band frequencies and provides a 500-MHz
bandwidth, which is broken up into 24 40-MHz channels.
• The satellite is able to squeeze 24 channels into the 500 MHz by means of frequency reuse: Each
frequency assignment is used by two carriers with orthogonal polarization.
• Each 40-MHz channel includes a 4-MHz guardband, so each channel is actually 36 MHz wide.
• Two forms of FDMA are possible:
• 1- Fixed-assignment multiple access (FAMA): The assignment of capacity within the overall
satellite channel is distributed in a fixed manner among multiple stations.
• This often results in significant underuse of the capacity, as demand may fluctuate.
• 2- Demand-assignment multiple access (DAMA): The capacity assignment is changed as needed
to respond optimally to demand changes among the multiple stations.
2- TDMA :
• Although FDM techniques are still quite common in satellite transmission, TDM techniques are in
increasingly widespread use. The reasons include:
• a- The continuing drop in the cost of digital components.
• b- The advantages of digital techniques, including the use of error correction.
• c- The increased efficiency of TDM due to the lack of intermodulation noise.
• TDMA is also implemented in two ways: FAMA-TDMA and DAMA-TDMA.
• FAMA-TDMA is in essence the same as synchronous TDM.
• Transmission is in the form of a repetitive sequence of frames, each of which is divided into a
number of timeslots.
• Each slot is dedicated to a particular transmitter.
• Frame periods range from 100 µs to over 2 ms and consist of from 3 to over 100 slots.
• Data rates range from 10 Mbps to over 100 Mbps.

-42-
• Greater efficiencies can be achieved at the higher frequency bands (Ku band (18 to 26.5 GHz) and
K band (26.5 to 40 GHz)).
• At these frequencies, satellite transmission beams can be quite narrowly focused, allowing
multiple beams on the same frequency transmitted to different areas.
• Communication among the stations within a single area is accomplished with ordinary FAMA-
TDMA.
• Communication among stations in different areas can be achieved if the satellite has the ability to
switch time slots from one beam to another. This is known as satellite-switched TDMA
(SS/TDMA).

-43-
-44-
 Cellular Wireless Networks

I- Introduction
• The essence of a cellular network is the use of multiple low-power transmitters.
• Because the range of such a transmitter is small, an area can be divided into cells, each one served
by its own antenna.

• Each cell is allocated a band of frequencies and is served by a base station.

• Adjacent cells are assigned different frequencies to avoid interference or crosstalk. However, cells
sufficiently distant from each other can use the same frequency band.

• The first design decision to make is the shape of cells to cover an area.
• A matrix of square cells would be the simplest implementation, but if the width of a square cell is
d, then a cell has four neighbors at a distance d and four neighbors at a distance √2d.
• A hexagonal pattern provides for equidistant antennas. The radius of a hexagon is defined to be the
radius of the circle that circumscribes it. For a cell radius R, the distance between the cell center
and each adjacent cell center is d = √3R.
1- Frequency Reuse
• In a cellular system, each cell has a base transceiver.
• It is not practical to attempt to use the same frequency band in two adjacent cells.

-45-
• Instead, the objective is to use the same frequency band in multiple cells at some distance from one
another.
• Within a given cell, multiple frequency bands are assigned, the number of bands depending on the
traffic expected.

• A key design issue is to determine the minimum separation between two cells using the same
frequency band, so that the two cells do not interfere with each other.
• Various patterns of frequency reuse are implemented. For instance, if the pattern consists of N
cells and each cell is assigned the same number of frequencies, each cell can have K/N
frequencies, where K is the total number of frequencies allotted to the system.
• For AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System), K = 395, and N = 7 is the smallest pattern that can
provide sufficient isolation between two uses of the same frequency.
• This implies that there can be at most 57 frequencies per cell on average.

2- Increasing Capacity
• In time, as more customers use the system, there will be deficiency in frequency bands assigned to
a cell to handle its calls. Therefore many approaches have been proposed to solve such a problem:
• A- Adding new channels: Unused channels are exploited.
• B- Frequency borrowing: frequencies are taken from adjacent cells, i.e., the frequencies can also
be assigned to cells dynamically.
• C- Cell splitting: Cells in areas of high usage can be split into smaller cells. Generally, the original
cells are about 6.5 to 13 km in size, and they can themselves be split (1.5-km cells).
-46-
 • To use a smaller cell, the power level used must be reduced to keep the signal within the cell.
• Also, as the mobile units move, they pass from cell to cell, which requires transferring of the call
from one base transceiver to another. This process is called a handoff.
• As the cells get smaller, these handoffs become much more frequent.
• A radius reduction by a factor of F reduces the coverage area and increases the required number of
base stations by a factor of F2.
• D- Cell sectoring: With cell sectoring, a cell is divided into a number of sectors, each with its own
set of channels, typically 3 or 6 sectors per cell.
• Each sector is assigned a separate subset of the cell's channels, and directional antennas at the base
station are used to focus on each sector.
• E- Microcells: Microcells (very small cells) are useful in city streets in congested areas and inside
large public buildings.
• The use of smaller cells enables the use of lower power and provides superior propagation
conditions.
Macro cell Micro cell
Cell Radius 1 to 20 km 0.1 to 1 km
Transmission Power 1 to 10 W 0.1 to 1 W
Average delay spread 0.1 to 10 µs 10 to 100 ns
Maximum bit rate 0.3 Mbps 1 Mbps

II- Operation of Cellular Systems

• In the center of each cell there is a base station (BS).
• The BS includes an antenna, a controller, and a number of transceivers, for communicating on the
channels assigned to that cell.
• The controller is used to handle the call process between the mobile unit and the rest of the
network.

-47-
• At any time, a number of mobile units may be active and moving about within a cell,
communicating with the BS. Each BS is connected to a mobile telecommunications switching
office (MTSO), with one MTSO serving multiple BSs.

• Typically, the link between an MTSO and a BS is by a wire line.

• The MTSO connects calls between mobile units.
• The MTSO is also connected to the public telephone or telecommunications network and can make
a connection between a fixed subscriber to the public network and a mobile subscriber to the
cellular network.
• Two types of channels are available between the mobile unit and the base station (BS): control
channels and traffic channels.
• Control channels are used to exchange information having to do with setting up and maintaining
calls and with establishing a relationship between a mobile unit and the nearest BS.
• Traffic channels carry a voice or data connection between users.
• A cellular call passes through 6 possible stages:
1- Monitoring for strong signal:

• When the mobile unit is turned on, it scans and selects the strongest setup control channel used for
this system, so the mobile unit has automatically selected the BS antenna.
• Then a handshake takes place between the mobile unit and the MTSO controlling this cell, through
the BS in this cell.
• The handshake is used to identify the user and register its location.
• As long as the mobile unit is on, this scanning procedure is repeated periodically to account for the
motion of the unit.

-48-
• If the unit enters a new cell, then a new BS is selected.
2- Mobile-originated call:
• A mobile unit originates a call by sending the number of the called unit on the preselected setup
channel.
• The receiver at the mobile unit first checks that the setup channel is idle, and may transmit on the
corresponding reverse (to BS) channel.
• The BS sends the request to the MTSO.
3- Paging:

• The MTSO sends a paging message to certain BSs depending on the called mobile unit number.
• Each BS transmits the paging signal on its own assigned setup channel.
4- Call accepted:
• The called mobile unit recognizes its number on the setup channel being monitored and responds
to that BS, which sends the response to the MTSO.
• The MTSO sets up a circuit between the calling and called BSs.
• At the same time, the MTSO selects an available traffic channel within each BS's cell and notifies
each BS, which in turn notifies its mobile unit.
• The two mobile units tune to their respective assigned channels.
5- Ongoing call:
• While the connection is maintained, the two mobile units exchange voice or data signals, going
through their respective BSs and the MTSO.

6- Handoff:
• Handoff is the procedure for changing the assignment of a mobile unit from one BS to another as
the mobile unit moves from one cell to another.
-49-
 • Handoff is handled in different ways in different systems and involves a number of factors.
• Handoff may be network initiated, in which the decision is made solely by the network
measurements of received signals from the mobile unit.
• Alternatively, mobile unit assisted handoff schemes enable the mobile unit to participate in the
handoff decision by providing feedback to the network concerning signals received at the mobile
unit.
• These are now referred to as first-generation systems.

III- First Generation: Analog

• Since the early 1980s the most common first-generation system in North America has been the
Advanced Mobile Phone Service (AMPS) developed by AT&T.
1- Spectral Allocation
• In North America, two 25-MHz bands are allocated to AMPS, one for transmission from the base
station to the mobile unit (869-894 MHz), the other for transmission from the mobile unit to the
base station (824-849 MHz).
• Each of these bands is split in two. An operator is allocated only 12.5 MHz in each direction for its
system.
• The channels are spaced 30 kHz apart, which allows a total of 416 channels per operator.
• 21 channels are allocated for control, leaving 395 to carry calls.
• The control channels are data channels operating at 10 kbps.
• The conversation channels carry the conversations in analog using frequency modulation.
• Control information is also sent on the conversation channels in bursts as data.
• For AMPS, frequency reuse is exploited.
Base station transmission band 869-894 MHz
Mobile unit transmission band 824-849 MHz
Spacing between forward and backward channels 45 MHz
Channel bandwidth 30 kHz
Number of full-duplex voice channels 790
Number of full-duplex control channels 42
Mobile unit maximum power 3w
Modulation, voice channel FM
Modulation, control channel FSK
Data rate transmission 10 kbps

-50-
2- Operation
• Each AMPS cellular telephone includes a numeric assignment module (NAM).
• The NAM contains the telephone number of the phone, which is assigned by the service provider,
and the serial number of the phone, which is assigned by the manufacturer.
• When the phone is turned on, it transmits its serial number and phone number to the MTSO.
• the MTSO maintains a database with information about mobile units that have been reported stolen
and uses serial number to lock out stolen units.
• The MTSO uses the phone number for billing purposes.
• When a call is placed, the following sequence of events occurs:
• 1. The subscriber initiates a call by keying in the telephone number of the called party and presses
the send key.
• 2. The MTSO verifies that the telephone number is valid and that the user is authorized to place the
call; some service providers require the user to enter a PIN (personal identification number) as well
as the called number to counter theft.
• 3. The MTSO issues a message to the user's cell phone indicating which traffic channels to use for
sending and receiving.
• 4. The MTSO sends out a ringing signal to the called party.
• 5. When the called party answers, the MTSO establishes a circuit between the two parties and
initiates billing information.
• 6. When one party hangs up, the MTSO releases the circuit, frees the radio channels, and
completes the billing information.
3- AMPS Control Channels
• Each AMPS service includes 21 full-duplex 30-kHz control channels, consisting of 21 reverse
control channels (RCCs) from subscriber to base station, and 21 forward channels base station to
subscriber.
• These channels transmit digital data using FSK. Data are transmitted in frames.

• The reverse control channel (RCC) frame begins with a 48-bit precursor, consisting of a 30-bit bit
sync field of alternating ones and zeros, an 11-bit word sync field (11100010010), and a 7-bit
-51-
 digital color code (DCC): a unique identifier of a base station and acts as a destination address for
an RCC frame.
• Following the precursor, the frame contains from one to 5 words of data.
• Each word contains 36 data bits and is encoded using a shortened version of BCH block code.
• In this shortened version, 12 check bits are added to the 36 data bits to form a 48-bit word.
• To further increase reliability, each word is transmitted five times in the same frame, and a
majority logic is used to recover the word at the base station.
• When all the overhead is taken into account, the data rate is on the order of a few hundred bits per
second.
• Examples of RCC messages include origination, page response, and order confirmation.
• The forward control channel (FCC) frame structure starts with a 10-bit bit sync and an 11-bit word
sync.

• Each frame contains two words of data. Each word is encoded using BCH and contains 28 data
bits and 12 check bits.
• For reliability, each word is repeated five times.
• In addition, each FCC frame provides information about the status (idle or busy) of the
corresponding RCC frame through the busy/idle bits that are inserted every tenth bit in the frame.
• The total frame size to 463 bits. At the 10-kbps signaling rate, the data rate (excluding overhead) is
about 1.2 kbps.
• FCC messages include paging messages and frequency assignment messages.
• Finally, control information can be transmitted over a voice channel during a conversation.
• The mobile unit or the base station can insert a burst of data by turning off the voice FM
transmission for about 100 ms and replacing it with an FSK encoded message.
• These messages are used to exchange urgent messages, such as change power level and handoff.

IV- Second Generation: Digital (TDMA)

• First-generation (1G) cellular networks, such as AMPS, quickly became highly popular.
• Second-generation (2G) systems have been developed to provide higher quality signals, higher
data rates for support of digital services.
-52-
 • The First (1G) and the Second generations (2G) differs in:
1- Digital traffic channels:
• 1G systems are almost purely analog (FM for voice, FSK for data), whereas second generation
systems are digital.
• 2G systems provide digital traffic channels. Voice traffic is first encoded in digital form before
transmitting (sampling).
• However, for 2G systems, the user traffic (data or digitized voice) must be converted to an analog
signal for transmission between the mobile unit and the base station.
2- Encryption:
• In 2G, Traffic can be encrypted to prevent eavesdropping, whereas 1G systems send user traffic in
the clear, providing no security.
3- Error detection and correction:
• With the digital traffic of 2G systems, error detection and correction techniques (CRC, …) can be
easily performed.
4- Channel access:
• In 1G systems, each cell supports a number of channels. At any given time, a channel is allocated
to only one user.
• 2G systems also provide multiple channels per cell, but each channel is dynamically shared by a
number of users using time division multiple access (TDMA) or code division multiple access
(CDMA).
• Beginning around 1990, a number of different 2G systems have been deployed.
GSM IS-136 IS-95
Year introduced 1990 1991 1993
Access method TDMA TDMA CDMA
Channel bandwidth 200 kHz 30 kHz 1250 kHz
Number of duplex channels 125 832 20
Users per channel 8 3 35
Modulation GMSK π/4 DQPSK QPSK
Carrier bit rate 270.8 kbps 48.6 kbps 9.6 kbps

Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM)

• GSM was developed to provide a common 2G technology for Europe so that the same subscriber
units could be used throughout the continent.
• The technology has been extremely successful and is probably the most popular standard,
worldwide.

-53-
• GSM first appeared in 1990 in Europe. Similar systems have been implemented in North and
South America, Asia, North Africa, the Middle East, and Australia.
1- GSM Network Architecture
• A mobile station communicates across the Um interface, also known as the air interface, with a
base station transceiver in the same cell in which the mobile unit is located.
• The mobile equipment (ME) refers to the physical terminal, such as a telephone or PCS (personal
communications service) device, which includes the radio transceiver, digital signal processors,
and the subscriber identity module (SIM).
• The SIM is a portable device in the form of a smart card or plug-in module that stores the
subscriber's identification number, the networks the subscriber is authorized to use, encryption
keys, and other information specific to the subscriber.
• A base station subsystem (BSS) consists of a base station controller and one or more base
transceiver stations.
• Each base transceiver station (BTS) defines a single cell; it includes a radio antenna, a radio
transceiver, and a link to a base station controller (BSC) similar to MTSO.
• A GSM cell can have a radius of between 100 m and 35 km, depending on the environment.
• The BSC reserves radio frequencies, manages the handoff of a mobile unit from one cell to another
within the BSS, and controls paging.

2- Network Subsystem
• The network subsystem (NS) provides the link between the cellular network and the public
switched telecommunications networks.
• The NS controls handoffs between cells in different BSSs, authenticates users and validates their
accounts.

-54-
• The central element of the NS is the mobile switching center (MSC).
• It is supported by four databases that it controls:
• A- Home location register (HLR) database: The HLR stores information, both permanent and
temporary, about each of the subscribers.
• B- Visitor location register (VLR) database: One important, temporary piece of information is the
location of the subscriber.
• The visitor location register maintains information about subscribers that are currently physically
in the region covered by the switching center.
• C- Authentication center database (AuC): This database is used for authentication activities of the
system.
• For example, it holds the authentication and encryption keys for all the subscribers in both the
home and visitor location registers.
• GSM transmission is encrypted, so it is private. A stream cipher, A5, is used to encrypt the
transmission from subscriber to base transceiver.
• However, the conversation is in the clear in the landline network.
• D- Equipment identity register database (EIR): The EIR keeps track of the type of equipment that
exists at the mobile station.
• It also plays a role in security, e.g., blocking calls from stolen mobile stations.

3- TDMA Format
• GSM uses a complex hierarchy of TDMA frames to define logical channels.
• Fundamentally, each 200-kHz frequency band is divided into 8 logical channels defined by the
repetitive occurrence of time slots.
• A time slot, also called a burst period, which has a duration of 15/26 ms, or approximately 0.577
ms. With a bit rate of 270.833 kbps, each time slot has a length of 156.25 bits.

-55-
• The time slot includes the following fields:
• A-Trail bits: Allow synchronization of transmissions from mobile units located at different
distances from the base station.
• B- Encrypted bits: Data is encrypted in blocks by conventional encryption of 114 plaintext bits into
114 ciphertext bits; the encrypted bits are then placed in two 57-bit fields in the time slot.
• C- Stealing bit: Used to indicate whether this block contains data or is "stolen" for urgent control
signaling.
• D- Training sequence: Used to select the strongest signal in case of multipath propagation.
• The training sequence is used for multipath equalization, which is used to extract the desired signal
from unwanted reflections.
• E- Guard bits: Used to avoid overlapping with other bursts due to different path delays.

-56-
V- Third Generation: 3G
• The objective of the third-generation (3G) of wireless communication is to provide fairly high
speed wireless communications to support multimedia, data, and video in addition to voice.
• 3G systems were designed with following guidelines:
• 1- Voice quality comparable to the public switched telephone network.
• 2- 144 kbps data rate available to users in high-speed motor vehicles.
• 3- 384 kbps available to pedestrians standing or moving slowly over small areas.
• 4- Support for 2.048 Mbps for office use.
• 5- Symmetrical and asymmetrical data transmission rates.
• 6- Support for both packet switched and circuit switched data services.
• 7- An adaptive interface to the Internet.
• 8- Support for a wide variety of mobile equipment
• 9- Flexibility to allow the introduction of new services and technologies.

• The above figure shows the evolution of the cellular wireless systems from 1G to 4G.
• The dominant technology for 3G systems is code division multiple access (CDMA). Although
three different CDMA schemes have been adopted (cdma2000 1X, cdma2000 1X EV-DO, and
WCDMA), they share some common design issues.
• A- Bandwidth: An important design goal for all 3G systems is to limit channel usage to 5 MHz.
• 5 MHz is adequate for supporting data rates of 144 and 384 kHz, the main targets for 3G services.
• B- Chip rate: Given the bandwidth, the chip rate depends on desired data rate, the need for error
control, and bandwidth limitations.
• A chip rate of 3 Mcps (mega-chips per second) or more is reasonable.
• C- Multirate: The term multirate refers to the provision of multiple fixed-data-rate logical channels
to a given user, in which different data rates are provided on different logical channels.
• The advantage of multirate is that the system can flexibly support multiple simultaneous
applications from a given user.

-57-
 • Multirate can be achieved with a TDMA scheme within a single CDMA channel, in which a
different number of slots per frame are assigned to achieve different data rates.
• An alternative is to use multiple CDMA codes, with separate coding and interleaving, and map
them to separate CDMA channels.
CDMA2000 1X EV-DO
• What differentiates this scheme from other 3G technologies is that it is designed for data only
(DO).
• It is geared toward the use of IP for packet transmission and for Internet access.
• With voice over IP (VoIP) technology, CDMA2000 1X EV-DO can support voice traffic.
• A well-engineered 1X EV-DO network delivers average download data rates of between 600 kbps
and 1.2 Mbps during off-peak hours and between 150 kbps and 300 kbps during peak hours.
• These data rates are achieved using a bandwidth of only 1.25 MHz, one quarter of what is required
for WCDMA (5 MHz).
• The 1X EV-DO design focuses on integration with IP-based networks.

VI- Fourth Generation: 4G

• The fourth generation of wireless standards for cellular systems is 4G, the planned successor to the
3G standard.
• The ITU (International Telecommunications Union) has specified that the peak speed requirements
for the 4G standard are to be 100Mbps for a mobile connection (such as in a car) and 1Gbps for
stationary connections (such as sitting at a computer).
• The 4G service is set to offer a fast and secure IP applications, providing high internet access with
speed intensive facilities being made available, including on-demand HD television, IP telephony,
on-demand gaming and, of course, high speed internet access.

-58-
• Next is a table that summarizes some implementations of 4G technology:
Standard Family Primary use Radio Downlink Uplink
technology
WiFi 802.11n Mobile OFDM 300-600 300-600
Internet /MIMO Mbps Mbps
WiMax 802.16 Mobile SOFDMA 128 Mbps 56 Mbps
Internet
LTE UMTS/4GSM General 4G OFDMA/MIMO 100 Mbps 50 Mbps
HiperMan Hiperman Mobile OFDM 56.9 Mbps 56.9 Mbps
Internet

-59-
 Mobile IP

I- Mobile IP
• Mobile IP was developed to enable mobile stations to maintain Internet connectivity while moving
from one Internet attachment point to another.
• Mobile IP is particularly suited to wireless connections, despite that it can work with wired
connections.
• A mobile user is connected to one or more applications across the Internet. When the user's point
of attachment changes (dynamically) all connections are automatically maintained despite the
change.
1- Operation of Mobile IP
• With a mobile host, the IP address may change while one or more TCP connections are active.
• A mobile node is assigned to a particular network, known as its home network. Its IP address on
that network, known as its home address, is static.

• When the mobile node moves its attachment point to another network, that network is considered a
foreign network for this host.
• Once the mobile node is reattached, it makes its presence known by registering with a network
node, typically a router, on the foreign network known as a foreign agent.
• The mobile node then communicates with a similar agent on the user's home network, known as a
home agent, giving the home agent the care-of address of the mobile node; this address identifies
the foreign agent's location.

-60-
 • When IP datagrams are exchanged over a connection between the mobile node and another host (a
server X for example), the following operations occur:
• 1. Server X transmits an IP datagram destined for mobile node A, with A's home address in the IP
header. The IP datagram is routed to A's home network.
• 2. At the home network, the incoming IP datagram is intercepted by the home agent. The home
agent encapsulates the entire datagram inside a new IP datagram that has the A's care-of address in
the header, and retransmits the datagram.
• The use of an outer IP datagram with a different destination IP address is known as tunneling.
• This IP datagram is routed to the foreign agent.
• 3. The foreign agent strips off the outer IP header, and delivers the original IP datagram to A
across the foreign network.
• 4. When A sends IP traffic to X, it uses X's IP address.
• 5. The IP datagram from A to X travels directly across the Internet to X, using X's IP address.

II- Operations to support Mobile IP

• In order to support mobile IP, three operations are needed:
• Discovery: A mobile node uses a discovery procedure to identify prospective home agents and
foreign agents.
• Registration: A mobile node uses an authenticated registration procedure to inform its home agent
of its care-of address.
• Tunneling: Tunneling is used to forward IP datagrams from a home address to a care-of address.

1- Discovery:
• The discovery process in Mobile IP is very similar to the router advertisement process defined in
ICMP.
• A router that can act as an agent periodically issues a router advertisement ICMP message with an
advertisement extension.
• The router advertisement portion of the message includes the IP address of the router.
• The advertisement extension includes additional information about the router's role as an agent.
-61-
 • A mobile node listens for these agent advertisement messages.

Advertisement Message Format:

• The agent advertisement extension follows the ICMP router advertisement fields and consists of
the following fields:
• Type: (=16), indicates that this is an agent advertisement.
• Length: Number of bytes in the extension, excluding the Type and Length fields. The value is (6 +
4N), where N is the number of care-of addresses advertised.
• Sequence Number: The count of agent advertisement messages sent since the agent was initialized.
• Lifetime: The longest lifetime, in seconds, that this agent is willing to accept a registration request
from a mobile node.
• R: Registration with this foreign agent is required. Even those mobile nodes that have already
acquired a care-of address from this foreign agent must re-register.
• B: Busy. The foreign agent will not accept registrations from additional mobile nodes.
• H: This agent offers services as a home agent on this network.
• F: This agent offers services as a foreign agent on this network.
• M: This agent can receive tunneled IP datagrams that use minimal encapsulation.
• G: This agent can receive tunneled IP datagrams that use GRE encapsulation.
• r: reserved.
• T: Foreign agent supports reverse tunneling.
• Care-Of Address: The care-of address or addresses supported by this agent on this network. There
must be at least one such address if the F bit is set. There may be multiple addresses.
-62-
 Agent Solicitation:
• Foreign agents are expected to issue agent advertisement messages periodically. If a mobile node
needs agent information immediately, it can issue an ICMP router solicitation message.
• Any agent receiving this message will then issue an agent advertisement.
Co-Located Addresses
• In some cases a mobile node may move to a network that has no foreign agents or on which all
foreign agents are busy.
• In this case, the mobile node may act as its own foreign agent by using a co-located care-of
address, i.e., an IP address obtained by the mobile node that is associated with the mobile node's
current interface to a network.

2- Registration
• Once a mobile node has recognized that it is on a foreign network and has acquired a care-of
address, it needs to alert a home agent on its home network and request that the home agent
forward its IP traffic.
• The registration process involves four steps:
• 1. The mobile node requests the forwarding service by sending a registration request to the foreign
agent that the mobile node wants to use.
• 2. The foreign agent forwards this request to the mobile node's home agent.
• 3. The home agent either accepts or denies the request and sends a registration reply to the foreign
agent.
• 4. The foreign agent forwards this reply to the mobile node.
Registration Request Message:

• Type: (=1), indicates that this is a registration request.

• S: When simultaneous bindings are in effect, the home agent will forward multiple copies of the IP
datagram, one to each care-of address currently registered for this mobile node.
• Multiple simultaneous bindings can be useful in wireless handoff situations, to improve reliability.

-63-
• B: Broadcast datagrams: It indicates that the mobile node would like to receive copies of broadcast
datagrams.
• D: Decapsulation by mobile node. The mobile node is using a co-located care-of address and will
decapsulate its own tunneled IP datagrams.
• M: Indicates that the home agent should use minimal encapsulation.
• G: Indicates that the home agent should use GRE encapsulation.
• r: Reserved.
• T: Reverse tunneling requested.
• x: Reserved.
• Lifetime: The number of seconds before the registration is considered expired. A value of zero is a
request for de-registration.
• Home Address: The home IP address of the mobile node. The home agent can expect to receive IP
datagrams with this as a destination address, and must forward those to the care-of address.
• Home Agent: The IP address of the mobile node's home agent. This informs the foreign agent of
the address to which this request should be relayed.
• Care-Of Address: The home agent should forward IP datagrams that it receives with mobile node's
home address to this destination address.
• Identification: A 64-bit number generated by the mobile node, used for matching registration
requests to registration replies and for security purposes.
• Extensions: used for authentication (MD5 hashing).

Registration Reply Message:

• Type: (=3), indicates that this is a registration reply.

• Code: Indicates result of the registration request (0 to 1: Successful, 64 to 88: denied by foreign
agent, 128 to 136: denied by home agent).
• Lifetime: The number of seconds before the registration (if accepted) is considered expired. A
value of zero indicates that the mobile node has been de-registered.
• Home Address: The home IP address of the mobile node.

-64-
• Home Agent: The IP address of the mobile node's home agent.
• Identification: A 64-bit number used for matching registration requests to registration replies, for
security purposes.
• Extensions: used for authentication (MD5 hashing).

3- Tunneling
• Once a mobile node is registered with a home agent, the home agent must be able to forward IP
datagrams via tunneling.

• For example, suppose that a router R3 in the above figure is acting as the home agent for a mobile
node that is attached to a foreign network elsewhere on the Internet.
• There is a mobile host H whose home network is LAN Z that is now attached to some foreign
network.
• If host D has traffic for mobile host H, it will generate an IP datagram with H's home address in
the IP destination address field.
• The IP module in host D recognizes that this destination address is on LAN Z and so passes the
datagram down to the link layer with instructions to deliver it to a particular MAC-level address on
Z.
• R3 has already informed the IP layer at D that datagrams destined for that particular address
should be sent to R3.
• Thus, D inserts the MAC address of R3 in the destination MAC address field of the outgoing MAC
frame.
• Similarly, if an IP datagram with the mobile host H‘s home address arrives at router R2, it
recognizes that the destination address is on LAN Z and will attempt to deliver the datagram to a
MAC-level address on Z.
• Again, R2 has previously been informed by R3 that the MAC-level address it needs corresponds to
R3.

-65-
 • To forward an IP datagram to a care-of address, the home agent encapsulates the entire IP
datagram into an outer IP datagram.
• Three options for encapsulation are allowed for Mobile IP: IP-within-IP Encapsulation, Minimal
Encapsulation, and Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE).

IP-within-IP Encapsulation
• With this approach, the entire IP datagram becomes the payload in a new IP datagram.
• In the inner IP header, the source address refers to the host that is sending the original datagram,
and the destination address is the home address of the intended recipient.
• In the outer IP header, the source address typically is the IP address of the home agent, and the
destination address is the care-of address for the intended destination.

Minimal Encapsulation
• With minimal encapsulation, the new header is inserted between the original IP header and the
original IP payload.

-66-
• Minimal encapsulation results in less overhead and can be used if the mobile node, home agent,
and foreign agent all agree to do so. The new header includes the following fields:
• Protocol: Copied from the destination address field in the original IP header.
• S: If 0, the original source address is not present, and the length of this header is 8 octets. If 1, the
original source address is present, and the length of this header is 12 octets.
• Header Checksum: Computed over all the fields of this header.
• Original Destination Address: Copied from the destination address field in the original IP header.
• Original Source Address: Copied from the source address field in the original IP header. This field
is present only if the S bit is 1. The field is not present if the encapsulator is the home agent.
• The following fields in the original IP header are modified to form the new outer IP header:
• Total Length: Incremented by the size of the minimal forwarding header (8 or 12).
• Protocol: 55; this is the protocol number assigned to minimal IP encapsulation.
• Header Checksum: Computed over all the fields of this header.
• Source Address: The IP address of the encapsulator, typically the home agent.
• Destination Address: This is the care-of address and may either be the IP address of the foreign
agent or the IP address of the mobile node (in the case of a co-located care-of address).

Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE)

• In contrast to IP-within-IP tunneling, GRE tunneling can transport multicast and IPv6 traffic
between networks.

-67-
 WiFi and IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN Standard

I- Introduction
• A wireless LAN is one that makes use of a wireless transmission medium.
• With time, the popularity of wireless LANs has grown rapidly.
• Four application areas for wireless LANs have been proposed: LAN extension, crossbuilding
interconnect, nomadic access, and ad hoc networks.
1- LAN Extension
• A wireless LAN saves the cost of the installation of LAN cabling and eases the task of relocation
and other modifications to network structure.
• A wireless LAN provides an effective and more attractive alternative.
2- Cross-Building Interconnect
• Another use of wireless LAN technology is to connect LANs in nearby buildings, be they wired or
wireless LANs.
• In this case, a point-to-point wireless link is used between two buildings.
3- Nomadic Access
• Nomadic access provides a wireless link between a LAN hub and a mobile data terminal equipped
with an antenna, such as a laptop computer or notepad computer.
• Nomadic access is also useful in an extended environment such as a campus or a business
operating out of a cluster of buildings.
• Users may move around with their portable computers and may wish access to the servers on a
wired LAN from various locations.

-68-
4- Ad Hoc Networking
• An ad hoc network is a peer-to-peer network (no centralized server) set up temporarily to meet
some immediate need.
• For example, a group of employees, each with a laptop or palmtop computer, may convene in a
conference room for a business or classroom meeting.
• The employees link their computers in a temporary network just for the duration of the meeting.

5- Wireless LAN Requirements

• A wireless LAN must meet the same sort of requirements typical of any LAN, including high
capacity, ability to cover short distances, full connectivity among attached stations, and broadcast
capability.
• A- Throughput: The medium access control protocol should make as efficient use as possible of
the wireless medium to maximize capacity.
• B- Number of nodes: Wireless LANs may need to support hundreds of nodes across multiple cells.
• C- Connection to backbone LAN: In most cases, interconnection with stations on a wired
backbone LAN is required.
• D- Service area: A typical coverage area for a wireless LAN has a diameter of 100 to 300 m.
• E- Battery power consumption: Mobile workers use battery-powered workstations that need to
have a long battery life when used with wireless adapters.
• Typical wireless LAN implementations have features to reduce power consumption while not
using the network, such as a sleep mode.
• F- Transmission robustness and security: A wireless LAN may be interference prone and easily
eavesdropped. The design of a wireless LAN must permit reliable transmission even in a noisy
environment and should provide some level of security from eavesdropping.

-69-
 • G- Collocated network operation: As wireless LANs become more popular, it is quite likely for
two or more wireless LANs to operate in the same area or in some area where interference between
the LANs is possible.
• H- License-free operation: Users would prefer to buy and operate wireless LAN products without
having to buy a license for the frequency band used by the LAN.
• I- Handoff/roaming: The MAC protocol used in the wireless LAN should enable mobile stations to
move from one cell to another.
• J- Dynamic configuration: The MAC addressing and network management aspects of the LAN
should permit dynamic and automated addition, deletion, and relocation of end systems without
disruption to other users.

II- IEEE 802.11 Standards

-70-
III- IEEE 802.11 Architecture
• The smallest building block of a wireless LAN is a basic service set (BSS), which consists of some
number of stations executing the same MAC protocol and competing for access to the same shared
wireless medium.
• A BSS may be isolated or it may connect to a backbone distribution system (DS) through an access
point (AP).

• The AP functions as a bridge and a relay point.

• In a BSS, client stations do not communicate directly with one another even if they are near each
other (like cell phones).
• If a station S1 in the BSS wants to communicate with another station S2 in the same BSS, the MAC
frame is first sent from the originating station to the AP, and then from the AP to the destination
station.

-71-
 AP

Station 1

Station 2

• Similarly, a MAC frame from a station in the BSS to a remote station is sent from the local station
to the AP and then relayed by the AP over the DS on its way to the destination station.

DS

BSS 1 BSS 2
AP 1 AP 2

Station 1 Station 2

• The BSS generally corresponds to a cell.

• The DS can be a switch, a wired network, or a wireless network.

IV- IEEE 802.11 Services

• IEEE 802.11 defines nine services that need to be provided by the wireless LAN to provide
functionality equivalent to that which is inherent to wired LANs.
1- Association-Related Services
• The IEEE 802.11 standard defines three transition types based on mobility:
• A- No transition: A station of this type is either stationary or moves only within the direct
communication range of the communicating stations of a single BSS.
• B- BSS transition: This is defined as a station movement from one BSS to another BSS within the
same ESS. In this case, delivery of data to the station requires that the addressing capability be able
to recognize the new location of the station.
• C- ESS transition: This is defined as a station movement from a BSS in one ESS to a BSS within
another ESS.
-72-
 • A station must maintain an association with the AP within its current BSS. Three services relate to
this requirement:
• A- Association: Establishes an initial association between a station and an AP Before a station can
transmit or receive frames on a wireless LAN, its identity and address must be known.
• For this purpose, a station must establish an association with an AP within a particular BSS.
• The AP can then communicate this information to other APs within the ESS to facilitate routing
and delivery of addressed frames.
• B- Reassociation: Enables an established association to be transferred from one AP to another,
allowing a mobile station to move from one BSS to another.
• C- Disassociation: A notification from either a station or an AP that an existing association is
terminated.
2- Access and Privacy Services
• A- Authentication: Used to establish the identity of stations to each other.
• B- Deauthentication: This service is invoked whenever an existing authentication is to be
terminated.
• C- Privacy: Used to prevent the contents of messages from being read by other than the intended
recipient. The standard provides for the optional use of encryption to assure privacy.

V- IEEE 802.11 Medium Access

1- The MAC sublayer:

• The lower sublayer of the MAC layer is the distributed coordination function (DCF).
• DCF uses a contention algorithm (for collision) to provide access to all traffic.
• Ordinary asynchronous traffic directly uses DCE.
• The DCF sublayer makes use of a simple CSMA (carrier sense multiple access) algorithm.

-73-
• The DCF does not include a collision detection function (i.e., CSMA/CD) because collision
detection is not practical on a wireless network. Rather, it uses the CSMA/CA algorithm (collision
avoidance)
• The point coordination function (PCF) is a centralized MAC algorithm used to provide contention-
free service.
• PCF is an alternative access method implemented on top of the DCF.
• The operation consists of polling by the centralized polling master (point coordinator).
• With PCF, the medium is usually controlled by a central unit, and then collision usually does not
occur (contention free).

-74-
2- The CSMA/CA protocol:

• To ensure the smooth and fair functioning of this algorithm, DCF includes a set of delays that
amounts to a priority scheme.
• For instance, a single delay is known as an interframe space (IFS). Other forms include SIFS
(Short IFS), DIFS (Distributed coordinated function IFS), and PIFS (Point coordination function
IFS).

3- Frame Types:
• A- Request to Send (RTS): A station can ensure that its data frame will get through by first issuing
a small Request to Send (RTS) frame.
• All other stations receive the RTS and defer using the medium.
• B- Clear to Send (CTS): The station to which a RTS frame is addressed should immediately
respond with a CTS frame if it is ready to receive.
• All other stations receive the CTS and defer using the medium.
• C- Acknowledgment (ACK): When a station receives a frame addressed only to itself (not
multicast or broadcast) it responds with an ACK frame after waiting only for an SIFS gap (short
IFS).
• D- Poll response: This is used in PFC between a station and a central unit.
-75-
• E- Data: This is the simplest data frame.
4- The MAC Frame Format:

• Frame Control (FC): Indicates the type of frame and provides control information.
• Duration/Connection ID: If used as a duration field, indicates the time (in microseconds) the
channel will be allocated for successful transmission of a MAC frame (in CTS or RTS). In some
control frames, this field contains an association, or connection identifier.
• Addresses (48 bits): 4 addresses are provided in IEEE 802.11 standard to fulfill the requirement of
three modes:
1- Ad hoc architecture (2 addresses for sending and receiving stations).
2- 2 stations in the same BSS (2 addresses for sending and receiving stations and 1 address for the
AP).
3- 2 stations in different BSSs (2 addresses for sending and receiving stations and 2 addresses for
the corresponding APs)
• Sequence Control (16 bits): Contains a 4-bit fragment number subfield used for fragmentation and
reassembly, and a 12-bit sequence number used to number frames sent between a given transmitter
and receiver.
• Frame Body: Contains an MSDU (MAC Data Unit) or a fragment of an MSDU.
• Frame Check Sequence: A 32-bit cyclic redundancy check.
• The frame control field consists of the following fields

• Protocol Version: 802.11 version, currently version 0.

• Type: Identifies the frame as control, management, or data.
• Subtype: Further identifies the function of frame (association, deassociation, authentication,…).
• To DS: The MAC coordination sets this bit to 1 in a frame destined to the distribution system.
• From DS: The MAC coordination sets this bit to 1 in a frame leaving the distribution system.
• More Fragments: Set to 1 if more fragments follow this one.
• Retry: Set to 1 if this is a retransmission of a previous frame.
• Power Management: Set to 1 if the transmitting station is in a sleep mode.
-76-
 • More Data: Indicates that a station has additional data to send. Each block of data may be sent as
one frame or a group of fragments in multiple frames.
• WEP: Set to 1 if the optional wired equivalent protocol is implemented. WEP is used in the
exchange of encryption keys for secure data exchange. This bit also is set if the newer WPA (Wi-
Fi protected access) security mechanism is employed (TKIP and CCMP).
• Order: Set to 1 in any data frame sent using the Strictly Ordered service, which tells the receiving
station that frames must be processed in order.

VI- The Wi-Fi Alliance

• The Wireless Ethernet Compatibility Alliance (WECA), an industry consortium, was formed in
1999.
• This organization, subsequently renamed the Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity) Alliance, created a test
suite to certify interoperability for 802.11b products.
• The term used for certified 802.11b products is Wi-Fi.
• Wi-Fi certification has been extended to 802.11g products, and 57 vendors have so far been
qualified.

WiFi Protection Access WPA:

• For privacy 802.11 defined the Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) algorithm.
• WEP makes use of the RC4 encryption algorithm using a 40-bit key.
• A later revision enables the use of a 104-bit key.
• The privacy portion of the 802.11 standard contained major weaknesses.
• Even the 104-bit key proved to be vulnerable, due to a variety of weaknesses both internal and
external to the protocol supporting WEP.
• In order to accelerate the introduction of strong security into WLANs, the Wi-Fi Alliance
promulgated Wi·Fi Protected Access (WPA) as a Wi-Fi standard.
• WPA is a set of security mechanisms that eliminates most 802.11 security issues and was based on
the current state of the 802.11i standard.
• The scheme provides a long-term solution makes use of the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)
with 128-bit keys.
• IEEE 802.11i defines two schemes for protecting data transmitted in 802.11 MAC PDUs.
• The first scheme is known as the Temporal Key Integrity Protocol (TKIP) or WPA-l.
• TKIP is designed to require only software change to devices that are implemented with WEP and
uses the same RC4 encryption algorithm as WEP.

-77-
• The second scheme is known as Counter Mode-CBC MAC Protocol (CCMP) or WPA2.
• CCMP makes use of the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) encryption protocol.

-78-
 WiMAX and IEEE 802.16 Broadband Wireless
Access Standards

I- Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)

• OFDM, also called multicarrier modulation, uses multiple carrier signals at different frequencies,
sending some of the bits on each channel.
• In the case of OFDM, all of the subchannels are dedicated to a single data source.
• Suppose we have a data stream operating at R bps and an available bandwidth of BW=Nfb,
centered at f0. The entire bandwidth could be used to send the data stream, in which case each bit
duration would be 1/R.
• The alternative is to split the data stream into N substreams, using a serial-to-parallel converter.
• Each substream has a data rate of R/N bps and is transmitted on a separate subcarrier, with bit
duration of N/R.

-79-
 • The OFDM scheme uses advanced digital signal processing techniques to distribute the data over
multiple carriers at precise frequencies.
• OFDM is characterized by using a large number of parallel narrow-band subcarriers instead of a
single wide-band carrier to transport information.
• The precise relationship among the subcarriers is referred to as orthogonality. It means that cross-
talk between the sub-channels is eliminated and inter-carrier guard bands are not required.
• The result is that the peaks of the power spectral density of each subcarrier occurs at a point at
which the power of other subcarriers is zero.

• Applications of OFDM:
• 1-Digital Television
• 2-Wireless Local Area Networks (LANs)
• 3-ADSL (asymmetric digital subscriber loop)
• 4-Telephone lines

II- Wireless Local Loop (WLL)

-80-
 • For residential subscribers, twisted pair has been and continues to be the standard means of
connection. For business and government subscribers, twisted pair, coaxial cable, and optical fiber
are in use.
• As subscribers have demanded greater capacity, particularly to support Internet use, traditional
twisted pair technology has become inadequate.
• Telecommunications providers have developed a number of technologies to meet the need,
including ISDN (integrated services digital network), and a family of digital subscriber loop
technologies, known as xDSL.
• However, increasing interest is being shown in competing wireless technologies for subscriber
access. These approaches are generally referred to as wireless local loop (WLL), or fixed wireless
access.
• WLL alternatives are narrowband, which offer a replacement for existing telephony services, and
broadband, which provide high-speed two-way voice and data service.

III-WiMAX and IEEE 802.16 (Broadband Wireless Access Standards)

• With the growing interest in WLL services, a need was recognized within the industry to develop
standards for this service.
• In response to this need the IEEE 802 committee set up the 802.16 working group in 1999 to
develop broadband wireless standards. The standard was built on some basics:
• 1- Use wireless links with microwave or millimeter wave radios.
• 2- Use licensed spectrum.
• 3- Are metropolitan in scale.
• 4- Provide public network service to fee-paying customers.
• 5- Use point-to-multipoint architecture with stationary antennas.
• 6- Provide efficient transport of heterogeneous traffic supporting quality of service (QoS).
• 7- Are capable of broadband transmissions (>2 Mbps)

-81-
• An industry group, the WiMAX (Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access) Forum, has
been formed to promote the 802.16 standards and to develop interoperability specifications.
• Wireless 4G WiMAX technology delivers fast, city-wide access to the Internet at speeds four to
ten times faster than 3G.
• WiMAX is an IP based, wireless broadband access technology that provides performance similar
to 802.11/Wi-Fi networks with the coverage and QOS (quality of service) of cellular networks.
• WiMAX is intended for wireless "metropolitan area networks".
• WiMAX can provide broadband wireless access up to 30 miles (50 km) for fixed stations, and 3-10
miles (5 - 15 km) for mobile stations. In contrast, the WiFi/802.11 wireless local area network
standard is limited in most cases to only 100 - 300 feet (30 - 100m).

1- IEEE 802.16 Architecture

• IEEE 802.16 provides a communications path between a subscriber site (Individuals, LANs) and a
core network (the the public telephone network and the Internet).
• IEEE 802.16 standards are concerned with the air interface between the subscriber's transceiver
station and the base transceiver station.

-82-
2- Protocol Architecture

• The lowest two layers of the 802.16 protocol model (Physical and Transmission) correspond to the
physical layer of the OSI model and include such functions as:
• 1- Encoding/decoding of signals.
• 2- Preamble generation/removal (for synchronization)
• 3- Bit transmission/reception.
• Above the physical and transmission layers are the functions associated with providing service to
subscribers. These functions are grouped into a medium access control (MAC) layer, and they
include:
• 1- On transmission, assemble data into a frame with address and error detection fields.
• 2- On reception, disassemble frame, and perform address recognition and error detection.
• 3- Govern access to the wireless transmission medium.
• The MAC protocol is responsible for sharing access to the radio channel. The MAC protocol
defines how and when a base station or subscriber station may initiate transmission on the channel.
• Because some of the layers above the MAC layer, such as ATM, require specified service levels
(QoS), the MAC protocol must be able to allocate radio channel capacity so as to satisfy service
demands.
• In the downstream direction (base station to subscriber stations), there is only one transmitter and
the MAC protocol is relatively simple.
• In the upstream direction, multiple subscriber stations are competing for access, resulting in a more
complex MAC protocol.
• Above the MAC layer is a convergence layer that provides functions specific to the service being
provided.
• A convergence layer protocol may do the following:

-83-
• 1- Encapsulate PDU (protocol data unit) framing of upper layers into the 802.16 MAC/PHY
frames.
• 2- Map an upper layer's addresses into 802.16 addresses.
• 3- Translate upper layer QoS parameters into 802.16 MAC format.
• In some cases, such as digital audio and video, no convergence layer is needed and the stream of
digital data is presented to the transmission layer.
• Upper-layer services that make use of a PDU structure (TCP/IP) do require a convergence layer.
3- Services
• IEEE 802.16 is designed to support the following bearer services:
• 1- Digital audio/video multicast: Transports one-way digital audio/video streams to subscribers.
The principal example of this service is a broadcast radio and video similar to digital broadcast
cable TV and digital satellite TV. A special case of this service is two-way video such as in
teleconferencing.
• 2- Digital telephony: Supports multiplexed digital telephony streams. This service is a classic
WLL service that provides a replacement for wired access to the public telephone network.
• 3- ATM: Provides a communications link that supports the transfer of ATM cells as part of an
overall ATM network.
• 4- Internet protocol: Supports the transfer of IP datagrams.
• 5- Bridged LAN: A bridge LAN service enables transfer of data between two LANs with
switching at the MAC layer.
• 6- Back-haul: For cellular or digital wireless telephone networks. An 802.16 system may be a
convenient means to provide wireless trunks for wireless telephony base stations.
• 7- Frame relay: Similar to ATM. Frame relay uses variable-length frames in contrast to the fixed-
length cells of ATM.
• WiMax services are grouped in three broad categories:
• 1- Circuit based: These services provide a circuit-switching capability, in which connections are
set up to subscribers across a core network.
• 2- Variable packet: IP and frame relay are examples of services that make use of variable-length
PDUs. Another example is MPEG video, which is a video compression scheme in which
successive blocks of digital video information may be of varying sizes.
• 3- Fixed-length cell/packet: This service is for ATM.

-84-
4- Frame Format

• The frame consists of three sections:

• A- Header: Contains protocol control information needed for the functioning of the MAC protocol.
• B- Payload: The payload may be either higher-level data (e.g., an ATM cell, an IP packet, a block
of digital speech) or a MAC control message.
• C- CRC: The cyclic redundancy check field contains an error-detecting code.

5- MAC Management Messages

• IEEE 802.16 defines a number of control messages that are used by the base station and the
subscriber to manage the air interface and manage the exchange of data over the various
connections.
• Messages are used to exchange operating parameters and status and encryption-related information
and for capacity management.
• A- Uplink and downlink channel descriptor: Transmits characteristics of the physical channel.
• B- Uplink and downlink access definition: Allocates access to the uplink and downlink channels.
• C- Ranging request and response: The request is used by the subscriber to determine network delay
and to request power and/or modulation adjustment. The response from the BS contains the
requested parameters.
• D- Privacy key management request and response: Used to exchange information about encryption
keys.
• E- ARQ acknowledgment: Used to acknowledge successful receipt of one or more packets.

-85-