GXEST203

FOUNDATIONS OF COMPUTING: FROM

HARDWARE ESSENTIALS TO WEB
DESIGN

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Module 1

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Von Neumann Architecture
• Modern computers are based on a stored-program concept
introduced by John Von Neumann.
• So-called Von Neumann Architecture/ISA(instruction set
Architecture)
• In this stored-program concept, programs and data are stored
in the same memory.
• This novel idea meant that a computer built with this
architecture would be much easier to reprogram

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Mainly consist of
1. The Central Processing Unit (CPU)
2. The Main Memory Unit
3. The Input/Output Unit

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 CPU
• CPU [Central Processing Unit]. It is the brain of the computer. It
is the part that does most of the work in a computer system
• A CPU is hardware that performs data input/output,
processing, and storage functions for a computer system.
• A CPU can be installed into a CPU socket. These sockets are
generally located on the motherboard.
• CPU can perform various data processing operations.
• CPU can store data, instructions, programs, and intermediate
results.

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CPU Consist of
Control Unit(CU):A control unit (CU) handles all processor
control signals. It directs all input and output flow, fetches code
for instructions, and controls how data moves around the
system.
Arithmetic and Logic Unit(ALU):Performs arithmetic (addition,
subtraction, multiplication) and logical operations (comparisons, AND,
OR).
Variety of Registers:Small, fast storage locations inside the CPU that
temporarily hold data and instructions during
processing.Eg.Accumulator,Program Counter,Instruction
Register,Memory Address Register ,Memory data register

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Main Functions of a CPU:

1. Fetch: Retrieves an instruction from the memory.

2. Decode: Translates the instruction into a format that can be
executed.
3. Execute: Carries out the instruction, such as performing a
calculation or moving data.
4. Store: Saves the result to memory if needed

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 Classification of CPUs Based on the Number of Processing Units
CPUs can be classified based on the number of processing units or cores they have.
Each core can execute instructions independently, allowing for better multitasking and
performance. They are
Single-Core CPU:A single-core CPU has one processing unit (core). It can only execute
one instruction at a time. While itis suitable for basic tasks like browsing the web or
word processing, it struggles with multitasking or running multiple heavy
applications simultaneously.
Dual-Core CPU:A dual-core CPU has two processing units (cores). It can execute
two instructions simultaneously, allowing for better multitasking and improved
performance over a single-core processor. This type of CPU is ideal for moderate
multitasking and handling more demanding tasks like casual gaming or video
streaming.
Multi-Core CPU:A multi-core CPU has more than two processing units, such as four
cores (quad-core), six cores (hexa-core), or eight cores (octa-core). These CPUs can
handle multiple tasks at once, making them ideal for heavy multitasking, gaming,
video editing, and other resource-intensive tasks. The more cores a CPU has, the
better it can manage complex workloads. 10
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 Memory
• Memory in computing refers to the system components, devices, and
media that store data and instructions for processing by the CPU. It is
essential for holding both the programs being executed and the data
they operate on.
There are two main types of memory:
1. Primary Memory : Primary memory also known as “main
memory” or “internal memory” which is located in the mother
board of system.This includes memory that is directly accessible by
the CPU, such as RAM (Random Access Memory),ROM(Read Only
Memory) and Cache Memory.
2. Secondary Memory : This includes storage devices such as
Hard Drives (HDD),Magnetic tapes, Solid-State Drives (SSD), and
optical drives.
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Differences

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What is a Hard Disk Drive(HDD)?
An HDD consists of a spinning disk (platter) coated with a
magnetic material and a read/write head that reads and
writes data on the disk’s surface. The read/write head moves
back and forth across the spinning disk to access different
parts of the data stored on the disk. HDDs have been around
for decades and are the more traditional type of storage
device.
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What is Solid State Drive(SSD)?
SSDs, use flash memory to store data instead of a
spinning disk. SSDs have no moving parts, making
them much faster, more durable, and less susceptible
to mechanical failure than HDDs.

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What do DVDs stand for?
The DVD (common abbreviation for
digital video disc or digital versatile disc)
is a digital optical disc data storage format.

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DDR stands for double data rate, a type of computer
memory technology that increases the speed of data
transfer between the memory and the processor. DDR
is also known as DDR SDRAM (Synchronous Dynamic
Random Access Memory).

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 RAM
• RAM also known as “random access memory” it stores the
data which the user currently uses or as we say it stores the
data temporary in it. RAM needs power or electricity to work
when the computer power is turned off then all the data in it
will be erased automatically.
• This is a circuit which have its separate space or slot in
motherboard.

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Dynamic RAM(DRAM)
• Uses capacitors for storing bits as electric charge.
• Each bit of data is stored in a single capacitor, and the charge can leak
away over time.
• Needs to be refreshed thousands of times per second
• DRAM works slower than SRAM. Mostly used because it is much
cheaper than SRAM and requires less space.
• Eg DDR1,DDR2,DDR3,etc..

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Static RAM(SRAM)
• SRAM stores data using flip-flops, which are circuits made up of
multiple transistors. Each bit of data requires a separate flip-flop.
• SRAM is faster than DRAM because it does not need to be refreshed
and can provide immediate access to stored data.
• Requires less power than dynamic RAM but is much more expensive.
• Used for CPU cache memory

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ROM (Read-Only Memory)
• ROM (Read-Only Memory) is a type of non-volatile memory, meaning
it retains its data even when the power is turned off. Unlike RAM
(Random Access Memory), which is used for temporary storage, ROM
is used to store permanent or semi-permanent data, such as firmware
or software that doesn't change often.
Mainly there are three types of ROM :-
1. ROM
2. EPROM
3. EEPROM

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PROM (Programmable ROM):
• PROM is a type of ROM that can be programmed once after
manufacturing.
• It is blank when created, and data can be written to it by a special
device (PROM programmer).
• Used for applications where data doesn't need to be modified
frequently

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EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM):

• EPROM can be erased and reprogrammed. It uses ultraviolet light to

erase the data and then can be rewritten with new data.
• Often used in applications where data might need to be updated, but
not very frequently (e.g., in embedded systems or early computer
BIOS).

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 EEPROM(Electrically Erasable PROM

• EEPROM can be erased and reprogrammed electrically (without

needing UV light like EPROM). It can be rewritten multiple times, but
not as quickly as regular RAM.
• Used in situations where small amounts of data need to be stored or
updated, like in microcontrollers, configuration settings, and some
types of firmware.

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 SECONDARY MEMORY
• Refers to storage devices that are used to store data permanently
outside as computer’s primary memory (RAM). Unlike primary
memory, which is fast and temporary, secondary memory is slower
but provides large storage capacity.
• Secondary memory is non-volatile, meaning it retains data even when
the power is turned off.

• Examples of secondary memory include:

• Hard Disk Drives (HDDs)
• Solid-State Drives (SSDs)
• Optical Discs (CDs, DVDs)
• Magnetic Tapes

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There are two methods for accessing the data from secondary memory

1. Sequential – This is the method in which we search the data

sequentially or line by line until you find the desired data. E.g..
Magnetic tape, etc.
2. Direct – This is the method in which computer can go directly to the
information that the user wants. e.g. magnetic disk, optical disk, etc.

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• Magnetic Disk refers to storage devices that store data using magnetization
on a rotating disk. Data is written or read by a read/write head.
• Examples:
• Hard Disk Drives (HDDs): These are the most common magnetic disks used for
secondary storage in computers. They have large storage capacities and relatively
slow read/write speeds compared to modern SSDs.
• Floppy Disks: Older, portable magnetic disks with much smaller storage capacity
(obsolete today).
Advantages:
• Large storage capacity.
• Non-volatile, meaning data is retained without power.
Disadvantages:
• Slower access speeds than SSD’s.
• More susceptible to physical damage due to moving parts.

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 Magnetic Tape:
• Magnetic Tape is a type of secondary storage that stores data in a
sequential manner using a magnetic coating on a long strip of plastic tape.
• It is mainly used for backup, archival, and storage of large amounts of data
in enterprises and data centers due to its cost-effectiveness and high
capacity.
Advantages:
• Very high storage capacity at a low cost.
• Good for long-term storage of data.
Disadvantages:
• Data access is slower because it's sequential (you must read through the
tape to get to the desired data).
• Limited random access capabilities.

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Magnetic tape is a medium for magnetic storage made
of a thin, magnetizable coating on a long, narrow strip
of plastic film

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Optical Storage Devices
• Uses laser light to read and write data on optical discs such as CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs.
• Data is stored in the form of tiny pits and lands (reflective and non-reflective areas) on the surface
of the disc.
Examples:
• CDs (Compact Discs): Used for music, software, and data storage. Limited storage capacity (700
MB).
• DVDs (Digital Versatile Discs): Offer higher storage capacity (4.7 GB for a single layer, 9.4 GB for
dual layer)
• Blu-ray Discs: Used for high-definition video and large data storage (25 GB to 100 GB per disc).
Advantages:
• Durable and portable.
• Non-volatile storage with good data integrity.
Disadvantages:
• Slower data access compared to hard drives or SSDs.More prone to scratches and damage if not
properly stored

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 Memory Hierarchy
• refers to the structured arrangement of different types of memory in a
computer system, organized based on their speed, size, cost, and
proximity to the processor.
• The primary goal of the memory hierarchy is to optimize the system's
performance by providing faster access to frequently used data(locality of
reference) while balancing cost and capacity.
• In a typical memory hierarchy, faster and smaller memory types are placed
closer to the processor, while slower and larger memory types are placed
further away.
• This hierarchy helps improve overall system performance, as the processor
can quickly access small, fast memory when needed, while less frequently
used data can reside in slower, larger memory.
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Registers: Registers are small, high-speed memory units located
in the CPU. They are used to store the most frequently used
data and instructions. Registers have the fastest access time and
the smallest storage capacity, typically ranging from 16 to 64
bits.
Cache Memory: A small, fast memory located between the CPU and
main memory (RAM) that stores frequently accessed data or
instructions.
Main Memory: Random Access Memory (RAM) is the primary
memory used by the computer to store data and instructions that are
currently in use. Provides fast, temporary storage for running programs
and data.

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Magnetic Disks: A magnetic disk is a secondary storage device that
uses rotating platters coated with magnetic material to store data. It
provides long-term storage for data.
Optical Disk (CD, DVD, Blu-ray): Optical disks use laser technology to
read and write data on the surface of discs like CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray
discs. Used for media storage, software distribution, and data backup.
Magnetic Tape: Magnetic tape is a sequential storage medium that
stores data on a long strip of plastic tape coated with magnetic
material.Used primarily for backup and archival purposes due to its
large storage capacity.

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 Registers
• CPU registers are small, high-speed storage units inside the CPU that
allow quick access to data, instructions, and memory addresses
during program execution. They are faster than other memory types,
like RAM, and play a crucial role in enhancing the performance of the
computer by providing immediate access to necessary information.
Important Registers in a CPU:
Program Counter (PC):Stores the address of the next instruction to be
executed. It helps the CPU know where to fetch the next instruction
from in memory.
Accumulator Register (A):Often used in arithmetic and logic
operations. For example, in a CPU, when adding two numbers, the
result is typically stored in the accumulator.

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• Instruction Register (IR):Holds the instruction that is currently
being executed. After fetching an instruction from memory, it is
loaded into the IR for decoding and execution
• Stack Pointer (SP):Points to the current top of the stack. The stack is
used for function calls, local variables, and returning to previous
states in the program.
• Flags/Status Register:Contains status flags such as Zero (Z),
Carry (C), and Overflow (O). These flags are set or cleared based
on the result of an operation
• Memory Address Register (MAR):Holds the address in memory
where data is to be fetched or written.Used to specify the memory
location during read or write operations.
• Memory Data Register (MDR):Holds the data that is being
transferred to or from memory.
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Cache Memory

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 Cache(Cont.)
• Extremely fast memory type that is placed between main memory
and the CPU.
• Holds frequently requested data and instructions, ensuring that they are
immediately available to the CPU when needed.
• Whenever the CPU needs to access memory for a data/ instruction , it first
checks the cache memory. If the data is not found in cache memory, then the
CPU checks into the main memory.
• Costlier than main memory or disk memory but more economical than CPU
registers.
• Used to speed up processing and synchronize with the high-speed CPU.

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• Cache memory is divided into different levels based on proximity to the CPU and
size.

L1 Cache: The smallest and fastest cache, located directly inside the CPU, stores the most
frequently used data and instructions
L2 Cache: Larger and slower than L1, it stores data that isn't in the L1 cache but is still needed
frequently, located either inside or near the CPU.
L3 Cache: The largest and slowest cache, shared between multiple CPU cores, provides
additional storage for data that supports multi-core processing.
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 Virtual memory
• A program needs to be in main memory when it is executed
• Virtual memory is a memory management technique used by operating systems
to give the appearance of a large, continuous block of memory to applications,
even if the physical memory (RAM) is limited. It allows larger
applications to run on systems with less RAM.
• The main objective of virtual memory is to support multiprogramming, The
main advantage that virtual memory provides is, a running process does not
need to be entirely in memory.
• Programs can be larger than the available physical memory. Virtual Memory
provides an abstraction of main memory, eliminating concerns about
storage limitations.

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• Virtual memory – separation of user logical memory from physical
memory
• Only part of the program needs to be in memory for execution
• Logical address space can therefore be much larger than physical
address space
• Allows address spaces to be shared by several processes
• Allows for more efficient process creation
• More programs running concurrently
• The MMU is responsible for converting logical address to physical
address
• Virtual memory can be implemented via:
• Paging
• Segmentation 42
Virtual Memory That is Larger Than Physical Memory

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• The virtual address space is divided into small, fixed-size blocks called pages
(typically 4 KB or 8 KB in size).
• The physical memory (RAM) is divided into blocks of the same size, called
frames. The idea is to map virtual pages to physical frames in the system's
RAM.
• The operating system maintains a page table to map virtual pages to physical
frames. The page table contains entries that tell the system where each page
resides in physical memory or whether it is stored in secondary storage (e.g., a
hard disk or SSD).
• When a program accesses a virtual address, the virtual memory manager checks
the page table to determine whether the corresponding page is in physical
memory.If the page is not in memory (a page fault), the operating system needs
to bring the required page from secondary storage (e.g., disk) into RAM.To make
space in physical memory, the OS may swap out a less frequently used page to
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disk, a process called paging or swapping.
 Motherboard
A computer is an electronic device that processes the data with
respect to the user’s requirements using IO devices. The data
processing takes place in a processor, an important component.
The processor is situated in a hardware circuit board
called the motherboard or printed circuit board (PCB).
• It connects the CPU, memory, hard drives, optical drives, video card,
sound card, and other parts. It also connects expansion cards directly
or via cables.

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Motherboard Components
CPU Socket: A slot where the central processing unit (CPU) is installed.
It allows communication between the CPU and other components.
RAM Slots (DIMM Slots): Slots for inserting memory modules (RAM),
which provide temporary storage for data actively being used by the
CPU.
Chipset: A collection of integrated circuits that manage data flow
between the CPU, memory, and other peripheral devices. It typically
consists of two main parts: the northbridge (for high-speed
components like RAM and CPU) and southbridge (for lower-speed
components like storage and I/O).

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Motherboard Components(Cont.)
• Power Connectors: Connectors for supplying power from the
power supply unit (PSU) to the motherboard and its components.
• Expansion Slots (PCI, PCIe): Slots used for adding expansion cards
like graphics cards (GPU), sound cards, network cards, etc.
• Storage Connectors (SATA, M.2): Ports for connecting storage
devices like hard drives, SSDs, and optical drives. SATA is for
traditional drives, while M.2 supports faster NVMe SSDs.
• Integrated Graphics (GPU): Some motherboards have built-in
graphics capabilities, eliminating the need for a separate GPU in
basic systems.

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Motherboard Components(Cont.)
• BIOS/UEFI Chip: A firmware chip that stores the system’s basic
input/output system (BIOS) or Unified Extensible Firmware Interface
(UEFI), which is responsible for booting the computer and configuring
hardware settings.
• Heat Sinks and Cooling Fans: Components designed to dissipate heat
from the CPU, chipset, and other components to maintain safe
operating temperatures.
• USB Headers: Pins for connecting internal USB ports, which can be
used for front panel USB ports or additional devices.

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 Motherboard Components(Cont.)
• Audio and LAN Ports: Built-in ports for connecting audio devices
and network cables, often located on the rear I/O panel.
• CMOS Battery: A small battery that powers the motherboard's
CMOS chip, which stores system settings like time and date even
when the computer is powered off.
• I/O Ports: External ports like USB, HDMI, Ethernet, audio jacks,
etc., located on the back of the motherboard to connect various
peripherals.

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 Computer Peripherals
• This term refers to all hardware devices attached to the computer and
are controlled by the computer system.
• Peripherals can be classified into IO Devices(Input Output Devices)
and Storage Devices .
TYPES OF PERIPHERALS:
• Input devices: Used to interact with or send data to the computer. For
instance., mouse ,keyboard etc..
• Output devices: It provides output to the user from the computer. For
instance ., monitor ,printer etc..
• Storage devices: Store data processed by computer. Example: hard
drivers ,Flash drive etc.
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1. Input Devices:
The input device is defined as it converts incoming data and instructions into a
pattern of electrical signals in binary code that are comprehensible to a digital
computer.
Example:Keyboard, mouse, scanner, microphone etc.
• Keyboard: A keyboard is an input device that allows users to enter text and
commands into a computer system.
• Mouse: A mouse is an input device that allows users to control the cursor on
a computer screen.
• Scanner: A scanner is an input device that allows users to convert physical
documents and images into digital files.
• Microphone: A microphone is an input device that allows users to record
audio.
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2. Output Devices:
Output devices: It provides output to the user from the computer

Example:Monitors, headphones, printers etc.

• Monitor: A monitor is an output device that displays visual

information from a computer system.

• Printer: A printer is an output device that produces physical copies

of documents or images.

• Speaker: A speaker is an output device that produces audio.

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3. Storage Devices:
Storage devices are used to store data in the system which is required for performing any
operation in the system. The storage device is one of the most required devices and also
provides better compatibility. Example:Hard disk, magnetic tape, Flash memory etc.
• Hard Disk Drive (HDD) :uses rotating magnetic platters to read and write data. It
offers large storage capacities at a lower cost, but is slower and more prone to
mechanical failure compared to newer storage technologies like SSDs..
• USB Drive: is a small, portable storage device that connects to a computer system to
provide additional storage space.
• A Solid State Drive (SSD) :uses flash memory to store data, providing faster read and
write speeds than traditional HDDs. It has no moving parts, making it more durable
and energy-efficient.
• Optical Storage Devices: uses laser technology to read and write data on discs.
Examples include CDs (Compact Discs), DVDs (Digital Versatile Discs), and Blu-
ray discs. 54
 HARD DISK DRIVE(HDD)
• It is a data storage device in a computer.
• It is a secondary storage device.
• Its stored in 0 (or) 1.
• The operating system, software and most files are stored in
the HDD.
• Its invented in 1954 by ibm.
• Nowaday,HDD with3.5 inch or 5.25 inch platters in different
capacities, such as 10GB,20GB,40GB,80GB etc.
• Modern HDDs have Terrabytes of capacity

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 Cover Mounting Holes
(Cover not shawn)

Base Casting

Spindle

Slider (and Head)

Mounting
Holes

Ribbon Cable
(attaches heads
SCSI Interface to Logic Board)
Connector

Tape Seel
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 Main components for Hard disk drive
• Disk platter
• Stepper motor
• Spindle motor
• Read and write head
• Arm

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Disk Platter:Made of glass or aluminum and coated with a magnetic
material.Stores data magnetically. Multiple platters are stacked to increase storage
capacity.
Spindle: Holds the platters in place and spins them at a constant speed,
typically ranging from 5,400 to 15,000 RPM (Revolutions Per Minute).
stepper motor : used in older HDDs, moves the actuator arm in precise steps to
position the read/write head over the correct track on the platter. It provides
accurate track alignment but is slower and less precise compared to modern voice
coil motors.
Read/Write Head: reads data by detecting magnetic changes on the platter and
writes data by altering the platter's magnetic orientation. It operates extremely
close to the platter surface for precise data manipulation.
Actuator arm holds the read/write head and moves it across the platter surface
to access the desired data track. It ensures fast and accurate positioning for
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efficient data retrieval and storage.
Disk structures

(A)Track
(B sector
(C) Cylinder
(D) Storage capacity

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Track:A circular path on the surface of a platter where data is
magnetically stored. Tracks are concentric and numbered from the
outer edge to the inner edge.
Sector: The smallest unit of storage on a track, typically holding 512
bytes or 4 KB of data. Each track is divided into multiple sectors.
Cylinder:A vertical stack of corresponding tracks across all plattersin
the HDD. It represents all the tracks at the same radius.
Storage Capacity: The total amount of data the HDD can
store, calculated as:
Capacity =Number of Cylinders × Number of Heads × Number of
Sectors per Track × Sector Size.
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 solid-state drive(SSD)
• A solid-state drive(SSD) is a data storage device that uses solid state
memory to store persistent data.
• It is flash based storage device and
• It uses same I/O interface developed for hard disk drives.
• SSDs do not have any moving mechanical components, which
distinguishes them from traditional magnetic disks such as hard disk
drives(HDDs).
• SSDs use microchips that retain data in non-volatile memory chips.
• SSD uses non volatile NAND Flash Memory , which enables it to
retain data when the power is removed. 61
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 Optical Drives
• An optical drive is a hardware device used to read and write data to
optical discs, such as CDs, DVDs, and Blu-ray discs. These drives use
laser
technology to read and write data by focusing a laser beam onto the
disc’s
surface. Following are a few examples of optical drive
1.Compact Discs (CDs):
CD-ROM (Read-Only Memory): Used for storing data that cannot
be modified. It is typically used for software, music, and video.
CD-R (Recordable): A type of CD that allows users to record data once,
but it cannot be erased or rewritten. 63
2. Digital Versatile Discs (DVDs):
DVD-ROM (Read-Only Memory): Similar to CD-ROM, but it holds more data
(about 4.7 GB) and is typically used for movies, software, and data storage.
DVD-R (Recordable): A type of DVD that can be written to once.
DVD-RW (Rewritable): Allows users to write and erase data multiple times, like
CD-RW but with a higher storage capacity.
Dual-Layer DVDs: These discs can hold about 8.5 GB of data by using two
layers of data storage.
3.Blu-ray Discs (BD):
BD-ROM (Read-Only Memory): Blu-ray discs are used for high-definition video
and large data storage. A single-layer Blu-ray disc can hold 25 GB of data, while a
dual-layer disc can store up to 50 GB.
BD-R (Recordable): Allows users to record data once, with high storage
capacity (ideal for HD video and large files). 64
I/O Communication and Device Management

• I/O Communication and Device Management are essential aspects of

computer system operations that enable efficient interaction
between the CPU, memory, and peripheral devices.

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I/O Communication and Device Management

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Methods of I/O Communication and Device Management
includes:

1.Programmed I/O:
2.Interrupt-Driven I/O:
3.Direct Memory Access (DMA):
4.Memory-Mapped I/O:

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Programmed I/O:
➢ Programmed I/O (PIO) is a data transfer technique where the CPU
directly manages input/output operations by actively polling the
status of the I/O device.
➢ The CPU waits until the device is ready for data transfer and then
executes the data transfer instructions.
Advantages
➢Simple
➢Does not require additional hardware like interrupt controllers or
DMA, reducing hardware costs.
Disadvantages
➢Inefficient CPU Utilization:The CPU remains idle while polling the
device, wasting valuable processing time.
➢Slow data transfer 68
Interrupt-Driven I/O:

Interrupt-driven I/O is a data transfer technique where the CPU

interacts with I/O devices only when the device sends an
interrupt signal indicating it is ready for communication.
Unlike programmed I/O, the CPU is free to perform other
tasks while waiting for the device, improving efficiency.

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Advantages:
➢Improved Efficiency: The CPU is utilized more effectively, performing other
tasks while waiting for the device.
➢Scalability: Can handle multiple devices efficiently by prioritizing interrupts.
➢Real-Time Responsiveness: Devices are serviced promptly when they send an
interrupt.
Disadvantages
➢Interrupt Overhead: Frequent interrupts may cause overhead,
slowing down overall system performance.
➢Complexity: Requires an interrupt controller and more complex software
for handling multiple interrupts.
➢Latency: A slight delay may occur before the interrupt is serviced,
depending on the system's priority levels.
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71
 DMA (Direct Memory Access)
• Direct memory access (DMA) is a method for transferring data
between devices and memory without using the CPU. It's used
in many devices, including graphics cards, disk drives, and
network cards.
Advantages
➢Reduced CPU Load: DMA allows peripherals to transfer data directly
to memory, freeing up the CPU to perform other tasks, which
enhances system performance.
➢Faster Data Transfer: DMA facilitates faster data
transfers compared to CPU-based transfers, as it bypasses
the CPU and directly communicates with memory.
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Efficient Multitasking: Since the CPU is not involved in
data transfer, it can handle multiple tasks simultaneously,
improving multitasking capabilities.

Disadvantages
➢Complexity: Implementing DMA requires additional hardware, such as
a DMA controller, which can increase the complexity of the system
design.
➢Cost: Adding DMA hardware and controllers increases the cost of the
system, making it less cost-effective for simpler applications.

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DMA CONTROLLER
DMA Controller : It has the work
of transferring the data between
Input Output devices and main
memory with very less interaction
with the processor.

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Memory Mapped IO
• The I/O device is mapped to a range of memory addresses.
• The CPU can then read from or write to these addresses to interact with
the
device, just like it does with normal memory locations.
• No special I/O instructions are needed; standard load and store
instructions are used.
• A simple example of memory-mapped I/O would be controlling a digital
LED on a microcontroller by treating the LED's control register as a
memory location, where writing a value of "1" to that address turns the
LED on and writing a "0" turns it off
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Advantages
➢Faster communication
➢No need for special IOPorts
➢Disadvantages
➢Consumes address space
➢Hardware complexity
➢Potential Conflicts

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 Device Management

• Device Management refers to how the operating system

manages and coordinates access to I/O devices. It
ensures that devices are used efficiently, with minimal
conflict and maximum performance.

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 Functions of Device management include
• Device Allocation: Assigning appropriate hardware resources
to different processes or applications as needed.
• Device Initialization: Initializing newly connected devices to
make them accessible to the operating system and
applications.
• Device Configuration: Configuring device settings and
parameters to optimize performance and compatibility.
• Device Monitoring: Monitoring the status and performance of
hardware devices to detect and resolve issues promptly.
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• Device Control: Controlling the operation of devices, including
starting, stopping, pausing, or resetting them as required.
• Interrupt Handling: Managing interrupts generated by hardware
devices to ensure timely processing of events and requests.
• Device Driver Management: Loading, unloading, and updating
device drivers responsible for facilitating communication
between the operating system and hardware devices.
• Error Handling: Detecting and handling errors or failures
occurring during device operation to minimize system downtime
and data loss.

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 Interface Cards
Interface cards are hardware components that connect a computer to
other devices or networks. These cards are essential for allowing
communication between the computer's internal system and external
devices, such as printers, displays, storage devices, and networks.
They provide the necessary connections, protocols, and drivers for the
devices to work seamlessly with the computer.

Here are some examples

• Network Interface Cards (NIC): Connects a computer to a
network, such as a local area network (LAN) or the internet.
• Graphics Card (GPU):Provides output for video displays and is
essential for rendering graphics
• Sound Card:Allows audio input and output, connecting
speakers, microphones, and other audio devices to the computer.
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 Buses
• A bus is a set of physical connections (cables, circuits, etc.) that can be
shared by multiple hardware components to communicate with one
another.
• Memory and input/ output devices are connected to the Central
Processing Unit through a group of lines called a bus. These lines are
designed to transfer data between different components.

Types of Computer Bus

1. Address Bus
2. Data Bus
3. Control Bus 81
1. Address Bus
• carries the addresses of memory locations to be accessed by the CPU
• It tells the system where data should be read from or written to in
memory.
• The address bus is unidirectional, meaning data flows in one direction:
from the CPU to the memory.
Width:
The width of the address bus (i.e., the number of lines it has) determines
how much memory or how many devices can be addressed. For example:
• A 16-bit address bus can address 2^16 = 65,536 locations.
• A 32-bit address bus can address 2^32 = 4,294,967,296 locations
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2. Data Bus
• The data bus is responsible for the actual transfer of data between
the CPU, memory, and peripheral devices. It carries the data that the
system reads from or writes to memory or I/O devices
• The data bus is bidirectional, meaning data can flow in both
directions: from the CPU to memory or I/O devices, or from memory
or I/O devices to the CPU.
Width:
The width of the data bus (number of lines) determines how much data
can be transferred at once. A wider data bus allows more data to be
transferred simultaneously, improving the overall system performance.
• For example, a 32-bit data bus can transfer 32 bits of data in one cycle. 83
3. Control Bus

• carries control signals that manage and synchronize the operations of

the CPU, memory, and peripheral devices. These signals ensure that
the correct operation (read, write, fetch, etc.) is carried out at the
appropriate time.
• The control bus is unidirectional in most cases, but it can also be
bidirectional depending on the system design.

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Types of Control Signals:
• Read/Write Signal: Indicates whether the operation is a read or a
write.
• Clock Signal: Synchronizes the timing of operations.
• Interrupt Signals: Notify the CPU of external events requiring
attention.
• Memory or I/O Signals: Specify whether the operation is being
performed on memory or I/O devices.
• Status Signals: Provide status information, such as ready or busy
states of a device.

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 Firmware

• Firmware is a specialized type of software that is embedded into

hardware devices to control their operations. It is often referred to
as the "middle layer" between hardware and higher-level software
(like operating systems or applications).
• Firmware is also called the “software for hardware”.
• Firmware is a form of microcode or program embedded into
hardware devices to help them operate effectively. Hardware
like cameras, mobile phones, network cards, optical drives,
printers, routers, scanners, and television remotes rely on
firmware built into their memory to function smoothly. 86
Firmware
• Unlike regular software that can be installed or updated easily, firmware
is typically stored in non-volatile memory (such as ROM, flash
memory, or EEPROM) and is closely tied to the hardware it controls.
Some common type of firmware
• Basic Input/Output System (BIOS): The BIOS sits on a chip in a
computer’s motherboard and issues a set of instructions that enables the
device’s operating system to load. It is also responsible for looking after a
device’s hardware components and ensuring they function correctly upon
startup.
• Extensible Firmware Interface (EFI): Unified EFI (UEFI)is a piece of
firmware designed to replace the BIOS in new Windows computers. UEFI is
used to load and start up operating systems in devices that run Windows 8 and
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beyond.
Boot Process
• The boot process is the sequence of steps that a computer follows when
it is powered on or restarted to load the operating system and make the system
ready for use.
• When a computer is turned on,
➢ the BIOS launches instructions that check the machine’s startup process for
potential errors.
➢ It starts by checking the random access memory (RAM) and processor for
faults,
➢ then checks connected devices, such as a keyboard and mouse, for any
problems.
➢ It then checks for a boot sequence, such as Boot from Compact Disc Read-
Only Memory (CD-ROM) and Boot from Hard Drive.
➢ Finally, the BIOS connects to the bootloader program, which wakes up the
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computer’s operating system and loads it in the RAM.
89
1.Power On
• When the power button is pressed, electricity flows into the computer and
the hardware components receive power.
• This initiates the power-on sequence where the motherboard and other
essential components, like CPU, RAM, etc., are powered up.

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2.BIOS/UEFI Initialization
• The BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) or UEFI (Unified Extensible
Firmware Interface), a firmware stored in ROM on the motherboard,
takes over at this stage.
• It performs a series of low-level hardware checks, such as:
• Initializing the CPU, RAM, and other hardware components.
• Configuring settings based on the BIOS/UEFI settings (date, time,
boot sequence, etc.).
• The BIOS/UEFI also loads any essential firmware required to interact
with the hardware.

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3.Power-On Self-Test (POST)

• After the hardware initialization, the POST process runs.

• POST is a diagnostic process where the BIOS checks whether
the key hardware components (like RAM, CPU, storage
devices, and other peripherals) are functioning properly.
• If everything passes, the boot process continues. If there’s an
issue, an error message or a beep code is displayed
(depending on the BIOS type).

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4.Bootloader Loading
• Once POST is successful, the BIOS/UEFI looks for a boot
device (this could be a hard drive, SSD, USB, optical disk, or
network).
• The boot device is identified based on the order set in the
BIOS/UEFI settings (e.g., HDD first, then USB).
• The BIOS/UEFI then loads the bootloader program from the
boot device into memory.
• The bootloader is responsible for starting the operating system.

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5.Operating System Loading
• The bootloader, once loaded, takes over control and begins loading
the operating system.
• It typically loads the kernel, which is the core of the operating system,
into memory. The kernel manages system resources and interacts
directly with the hardware.
• During this stage, the kernel initializes essential system components
and prepares the system for the user environment.
• The file system is also mounted so that the operating system can
access files and directories.

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6. System Configuration
• After the kernel is loaded, the operating system configures system
settings, detects hardware, and installs drivers needed for peripherals
like the graphics card, network interfaces, and storage devices.
• It also sets up system services that run in the background (e.g.,
networking, security software).
7. System Utility and Services Loading
• The operating system then loads system utilities and services, such as
antivirus programs, system monitoring tools, and background
processes that keep the system running efficiently.
• The operating system also initializes user interfaces (such as the
graphical desktop environment or command line). 95
8.User Authentication
• Before the user can access the system, authentication (if configured) is required
to verify the user's identity. This can involve entering a password, using a
fingerprint scanner, facial recognition, or other methods like multi-factor
authentication (MFA).
• Once authenticated, the system grants the user access to their account.
9. User Environment Initialization
• The final stage of the boot process is the loading of the user environment, which
includes:
• Loading user-specific settings (e.g., desktop configuration, application
preferences).
• Launching any startup applications (e.g., messaging apps, email clients).
10.System Ready for Use
• At this point, the system is fully operational and the user is presented with the
login screen or the desktop environment, depending on the OS and configuration.
• The system is now ready for the user to interact with and begin using applications
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