Recap of Matrix Types

Order of a Matrix: The order of a matrix refers to its dimensions, denoted as m × n,

where m is the number of rows and n is the number of columns.
 
b11 b12
B3×2 = b21 b22 
b31 b32

Square Matrix: A square matrix is a matrix where the number of rows equals the

la
number of columns, denoted as n × n.
 
a11 a12 · · · a1n
 a21 a22 · · · a2n 

uk
An×n =  ..
 
.. .. .. 
 . . . . 
an1 an2 · · · ann

Zero Matrix: A zero matrix of size m × n


0 0
0 0
Zm×n =  .. ..

. .
0 0
Sh
is a matrix where all elements are zero.

··· 0
· · · 0



. . .. 
. .
··· 0
ay
Identity Matrix: An identity matrix of size n × n is a square matrix where all
diagonal elements are 1 and all off-diagonal elements are 0.
in

 
1 0 ··· 0
0 1 · · · 0
In =  .. .. . . .. 
 
. . . .
V

0 0 ··· 1

Diagonal Matrix: A diagonal matrix is a square matrix where only the diagonal
elements are non-zero.
r.

 
d1 0 ··· 0
0 d2 · · · 0 
Dn×n =  ..
 
.. . . .. 
D

. . . .
0 0 · · · dn

Symmetric Matrix: A symmetric matrix is a square matrix where aij = aji .

 
a11 a12 · · · a1n
 a12 a22 · · · a2n 
Sn×n =  ..
 
.. .. .. 
 . . . . 
a1n a2n · · · ann

21
Skew-Symmetric Matrix: A skew-symmetric matrix is a square matrix where
K T = −K and all diagonal elements are zero.
 
0 −b12 · · · −b1n
 b12 0 · · · −b2n 
Kn×n =  ..
 
.. . . .. 
 . . . . 
b1n b2n · · · 0

Upper Triangular Matrix: An upper triangular matrix is a matrix where all

elements below the diagonal are zero.

la
 
u11 u12 · · · u1n
 0 u22 · · · u2n 

uk
Um×n =  ..
 
.. . . .. 
 . . . . 
0 0 · · · umn

Lower Triangular Matrix: A lower triangular matrix is a matrix where all ele-
ments above the diagonal are zero.


 .
..
.
.
Sh
l11 0 · · · 0
 l21 l22 · · · 0 
Lm×n =  ..

. .



.. 
. 
ay
lm1 lm2 · · · lmn

Echelon Matrix (Row Echelon Form)

in

A matrix A is called an Echelon matrix or is said to be in Row Echelon Form, if the

following two condition hold (where a leading non-zero element (pivot) of a row of
A is the first non-zero element in the row).
V

(1) All zero rows, if any, are at the bottom of the matrix.

(2) Each leading non-zero entry in a row is to the right of the leading non-zero entry
in the preceding row.
r.

Following are the examples of matrices in row echelon form. The boxed
entries are the pivot entries.
D

Example 1
 
1 2 0 0 3 4 5
0 3 0 0 6 7 8
 
0 0 5 0 9 10 11
 
0 0 0 7 12 13 14
0 0 0 0 0 0 0

22
Example 2  
1 0 2 4
0 6 1 3
 
0 0 3 5
0 0 0 7

Example 3
 
1 2 0 0 3
0 4 4 0 5
 

la
0 0 5 6 7
 
0 0 0 7 8
 
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0

uk
Following are examples of matrices that are not in row echelon form.

Example 1

Sh
 
1 2 3 4
0 1 5 6
 
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 2

Example 2
ay
 
1 2 3 4
0 0 5 6
0 0 7 8
in

Example 3  
1 0 0 2 3
4 5 6 7 8
V

 
0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 2

Exercise: For each of the following matrices, determine whether it is in row echelon
r.

form and identify the pivot entries.

1.  
1 2 3
D

0 1 4
0 0 0
Solution: Yes

2.  
1 0 2 4
0 1 0 5
 
0 0 1 6
0 0 0 1
Solution: Yes

23
 3.  
1 2 3 4
0 0 5 6
 
0 0 1 7
0 0 0 1
Solution: No

4.  
0 0 0 0
0 0 6 8 

la
0 0 0 12
Solution: No

uk
Row Canonical Form (Reduced Row Echelon Form)
A matrix A is said to be in row canonical form if it is an echelon matrix and if it
satisfies the following two additional properties.

(3) Each pivot is equal to 1.

(4) Each pivot is the only non-zero entry in the column.

Sh
Following are the examples of matrices in row canonical form.
ay
Example 1  
1 0 0 2
0 1 0 −1
in

0 0 1 3

Example 2
V

 
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0
 
0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0
r.

Example 3  
1 0 0 4
D

0 1 0 2
0 0 1 −1

Example 4  
1 0 0 0 2
0
 1 0 0 −1
0 0 1 0 3
0 0 0 1 1
Following are examples of matrices that are not in row canonical form.

24
Example 1  
1 2 0 4
0 1 0 2
0 0 1 3

Example 2  
1 0 0 4
0 1 2 5
0 0 1 6

la
Example 3  
1 2 3

uk
0 0 1
0 0 0

Example 4  
1 0 1
0
0
0
1
Sh 1
0

Exercise Check whether the following matrices are in row canonical form and identify
the pivot entries.
ay
1.  
1 0 0 4
0 1 0 2 
0 0 1 −1
in

Solution: Yes

2.
V

 
1 2 3
0 0 1
0 0 0
Solution: No
r.

3.  
1 2 0 4
0 1 0 2
D

0 0 1 3
Solution: No

4.  
1 0 0 0 2
0
 1 0 0 −1

0 0 1 0 3
0 0 0 1 1
Solution: Yes

25
 All the systems of equations involve scalars as both coefficients and constants. In our
case, these scalars come from the set of real numbers, i.e., K = R.

Linear Equations and solutions

A linear equation in unknowns x1 , x2 , · · · , xn is an equation that can be put in the
standard form
a1 x 1 + a2 x 2 + · · · + an x n = b (2)
where a1 , a2 , · · · , an and b are constants. The constants ai is called the coefficients of

la
xi and b is called the constant term in the equation.
A solution of the linear equation (2) is a list of values of unknowns

uk
x1 = k1 , x2 = k2 , · · · , xn = kn

such that
a1 k1 + a2 k2 + · · · + an kn = b

Example 1.1. Consider x + 2y − 3z = 6,

• x = 5, y = 2, z = 1 is a solution of equation.

• x = 1, y = 2, z = 3 is not a solution.
Sh
ay
Linear Equation in One unknown
Consider the linear equation ax = b

1. If a ̸= 0, then x = b/a is a unique solution of ax = b.

in

2. If a = 0, but b ̸= 0, then ax = b has no solution.

3. If a = 0 and b = 0, then every scalar k is a solution of ax = b, i.e., there are

V

infinitely many solutions.

Example 1.2. • Unique Solution x = 2

• No Solution
r.

0x = 2 (No solution)

• Infinitely Many Solutions

D

0x = 0 (Infinitely many solutions)

Linear system of two equations in two unknowns

Consider a system of two linear equations in two unknowns x1 and x2

A1 x1 + B1 x2 = C1 ,
A2 x1 + B2 x2 = C2 .

26
 1. The system has exactly one solution
A1 B1
̸=
A2 B2

2. The system has no solution

A1 B1 C1
= ̸=
A2 B2 c2

3. The system has infinite number of solutions

la
A1 B1 C1
= = .
A2 B2 c2

uk
Example 1.3.
2x1 − 3x2 = −8,
3x1 + 4x2 = 5.
Example 1.4.

Example 1.5.
Sh
x1 − 3x2 = 4,
2x1 − 6x2 = 5.

x1 − 3x2 = 4,
ay
−2x1 + 6x2 = −8.

General system of m linear equations in n unknowns

in

Consider the system of m linear equations in n unknowns

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = b1 ,

V

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn = b2 ,

.. (3)
.
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn = bm .
r.

• The system is called m × n system. It is called a square system if m = n, i.e. if the

number of equations is same as the number of unknowns.
D

• The system is said to be Homogeneous if all the constant term are zero, i.e. if
b1 = 0, b2 = 0, · · · , bm = 0. Otherwise system is said to be Non-Homogeneous.

• The system (3) of linear equations is said to be consistent if it has one or more
solutions, and it is said to be inconsistent if it has no solutions.

27
Degenerate linear equation
A linear equation is said to be degenerate if all the coefficients are zero, i.e. if it has the
form
0x1 + 0x2 + · · · + 0xn = b.
The solution of such equation depends on the value of b.

1. If b ̸= 0, then the equation has no solution.

2. If b = 0, then every x1 = k1 , x2 = k2 , · · · , xn = kn is a solution.

la
uk
System of Linear Equations

Inconsistent Sh
Consistent
ay
Infinitely Many
No Solution Unique Solution
in

Solutions

This system (3) can be written in matrix form as

V

Ax = b,
where
     
a11 a12 ... a1n x1 b1
r.

 a21 a22 ... a2n   x2   b2 

A =  .. ..  , x =  ..  , b =  .. 
     
.. ..
 . . . .  .  . 
D

am1 am2 . . . amn xn bm

Augmented Matrix for the General System

Consider the system of m linear equations in n unknowns:

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + · · · + a1n xn = b1 ,

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + · · · + a2n xn = b2 ,
..
.
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + · · · + amn xn = bm ,

28
 The corresponding augmented matrix is
 
a11 a12 ... a1n b1
 a21 a22 ... a2n b2 
 
 .. .. .. .. .. 
 . . . . . 
am1 am2 ... amn bm

Example 1.6. Consider the system

2x1 − 3x2 + x3 = 4,

la
x1 + x2 − 2x3 = −3.
The corresponding augmented matrix is

uk
 
2 −3 1 4
1 1 −2 −3
Example 1.7. Consider the system

x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 = 5,

Sh
4x1 + 5x2 + 6x3 = 10,
7x1 + 8x2 + 9x3 = 15.
The corresponding augmented matrix is
ay
 
1 2 3 5
 4 5 6 10 
7 8 9 15
in

Elementary Row Operations

Suppose A is a matrix with rows R1 , R2 , · · · , Rm . Elementary row operations are fun-
V

damental tools in linear algebra used to manipulate matrices. There are three types of
elementary row operations:

1. Row Switching (Swapping)

r.

Operation: Interchange two rows of the matrix.

Notation: Ri ↔ Rj
Example: If you switch the first and second rows of matrix A, it would be denoted as
D

R1 ↔ R2 .

2. Row Multiplication (Scaling)

Operation: Multiply a row by a non-zero scalar.
Notation: Ri → kRi where k is a non-zero scalar.
Example: If you multiply the second row by 3, it would be denoted as R2 → 3R2 .

29
3. Row Addition (Replacement)
Operation: Add a multiple of one row to another row.
Notation: Ri → Ri + kRj where Ri is the row being replaced, Rj is the row being
multiplied by k, and k is a scalar.
Example: If you replace the first row with the sum of the first row and 2 times the
second row, it would be denoted as R1 → R1 + 2R2 .

Example 1.8. Suppose you have the following matrix

 
1 2 3

la
A = 4 5 6
7 8 9
Apply the elementary row operations to obtain a new matrix.

uk
Row Switching (Swapping)
Swap the first and third rows, i.e R1 ↔ R3 . We obtain the resulting matrix

Row Multiplication (Scaling)


7 8
A ∼ 4 5
1 2 Sh 9


6
3
ay
Multiply the second row by 41 , i.e. R2 → 14 R2 .
 
7 8 9
A ∼ 1 45 32 
in

1 2 3

Row Addition (Replacement)

V

Replace the third row with the third row minus the first row, i.e. R3 → R3 − R1 . We
obtain the resulting matrix
 
7 8 9
r.

5 3 
A∼ 1 4 2
−6 −6 −6
Exercise 1.1. Consider the following matrix
D

 
2 4 6
A = 1 3 5 
0 −2 2
Apply the following elementary row operations

• Swap the first and second rows.

• Multiply the third row by − 12 .

• Replace the second row with the sum of the second row and twice the first row.

30
Exercise 1.2. Given the matrix
 
1 2 3 4
B = 2 4 6 8 
3 6 9 12
Perform the following elementary row operations

• Multiply the first row by −3.

• Replace the second row with the second row minus 2 times the first row.

la
• Replace the third row with the third row minus 3 times the first row.

uk
Gaussian Elimination Method with Row Operations
Gaussian Elimination is a method used to solve systems of linear equations by trans-
forming the system’s augmented matrix into an upper triangular form (row echelon form,

Steps of Gaussian Elimination Sh

REF). Once in this form, solutions can be found by back-substitution.

Form the Augmented Matrix: Write the system of equations as an augmented matrix.
ay
Forward Elimination
Start with the first row and make the leading coefficient (pivot) non-zero by swapping
rows if necessary. Eliminate all entries below the pivot by subtracting appropriate mul-
tiples of the pivot row from the rows below. Move to the next pivot (the first non-zero
in

element in the next row and column) and repeat the process for the entire matrix.
Back Substitution
Once the matrix is in row echelon form (REF), start with the last row and solve for
the variables using back-substitution. Substitute the values obtained from each row into
V

the rows above to find the remaining variables.

Interpret the Solution

• If the system has a unique solution, each variable will have a specific value.
r.

• If a row reduces to a false statement (like 0 = 1 ), the system has no solution

(inconsistent).
D

• If there are free variables (variables that can take any value), the system has in-
finitely many solutions.

Example 1.9. Consider the system of linear equations

2x1 + 3x2 = 8,
x1 − x2 = 1.

31
 Solution: Step 1: Form the Augmented Matrix
 
2 3 8
A=
1 −1 1

Step 2: Forward Elimination

1
Row Operation 1: Eliminate the x1 term in the second row by subtracting 2
times
the first row from the second row
1
R2 → R2 − R1
2

la
 
2 3 8
A=
0 −2.5 −3

uk
Step 3: Back Substitution

x2 = 1.2, x1 = 2.2

Hence
x1 = 2.2,

Sh
x2 = 1.2

Example 1.10. Consider the system of equations

x1 + 2x2 = 3,
2x1 + 4x2 = 7.
ay
Solution: Step 1: Form the Augmented Matrix
 
1 2 3
A=
in

2 4 7

Step 2: Forward Elimination

Row Operation 1: Eliminate the x1 term in the second row by subtracting 2 times
V

the first row from the second row

R2 → R2 − 2R1
 
1 2 3
A=
r.

0 0 1
The system is inconsistent and has no solution.
D

Example 1.11. Consider the system of equations

x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 = 5,
2x1 + 4x2 + 6x3 = 10,
x1 − x3 = 1.

Solution Step 1: Form the Augmented Matrix

 
1 2 3 5
A =  2 4 6 10 
1 0 −1 1

32
 Step 2: Forward Elimination
Row Operation 1: Eliminate the x1 term in the second row by subtracting 2 times
the first row from the second row:

R2 → R2 − 2R1
 
1 2 3 5
A= 0 0 0 0 
1 0 −1 1
Row Operation 2: Eliminate the x1 term in the third row by subtracting the first

la
row from the third row
R3 → R3 − R1
 
1 2 3 5

uk
A= 0 0 0 0 
0 −2 −4 −4
Row Operation 3: Simplify the third row by multiplying by − 12


1
R3 → − R3
2
1 2 3 5
A= 0 0 0 0 
0 1 2 2
 Sh
ay
Step 3: Back Substitution
Let x3 = t (a free variable)

x2 = 2 − 2t, x1 = 1 − t.
in

Solution
(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (1 − t, 2 − 2t, t), t ∈ R.
V

Understanding Free Variables in Linear Systems

Free variables are a concept that arises when solving systems of linear equations, par-
r.

ticularly in the context of underdetermined systems or systems where the number of

equations is less than the number of unknowns.
D

In a row echelon form

• Any variable that is not a leading variable (correspond to pivot entry) is called a
free variable.

• Free variables correspond to columns that do not have any pivot entry.

• Free variables can take any value, and the system of equations will still hold true.
Hence, they introduce degrees of freedom into the solution set, which can lead to
infinitely many solutions.

33
Example 1.12. Consider the system

x1 + 2x2 = 4,
2x1 + 3x2 = 7.

Augmented Matrix  
1 2 4
2 3 7
After performing Gaussian elimination, this system reduces to:

la
 
1 2 4
0 1 1

uk
Here, x1 and x2 are both leading variables (no free variables), so the system has a
unique solution:
x1 = 2, x2 = 1.

Example 1.13. Consider the system

Augmented Matrix 
1 2 1 4
Sh
x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 4,
2x1 + 4x2 + 2x3 = 8.


ay
2 4 2 8
After performing Gaussian elimination, this system reduces to
 
1 2 1 4
in

0 0 0 0

This matrix corresponds to the equations

V

x1 + 2x2 + x3 = 4,
0 = 0.

In this system
r.

• x1 is the leading variable (pivot variable).

• x2 and x3 are free variables because their columns do not have pivot entries.
D

Expressing the Solution The first equation can be solved for x1 in terms of x2 and
x3 :
x1 = 4 − 2x2 − x3
Taking x2 = a and x3 = b, the general solution can then be expressed as

(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (4 − 2a − b, a, b)

This indicates that the system has infinitely many solutions.

34
Example 1.14. Consider the system

x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 = 5,
x2 + 2x3 = 4.

Augmented Matrix  
1 2 3 5
0 1 2 4
Here, after row reduction, the system already reflects the REF:

la
• x1 and x2 are leading variables.

• x3 is a free variable because its column does not have a pivot entry.

uk
Expressing the Solution The system can be solved as

x2 = 4 − 2x3 ,
x1 = 5 − 2x2 − 3x3 .

Sh
Substituting x2 = 4 − 2x3 into the equation for x1 , we get

x1 = 5 − 2(4 − 2x3 ) − 3x3 = −3 + 4x3

Taking x3 = a, the general solution is

ay
(x1 , x2 , x3 ) = (−3 + 4a, 4 − 2a, a)

.
in

Exercise 1.3. Given the system of equations

2x1 − 3x2 + x3 = 5,
V

4x1 − 6x2 + 2x3 = 10.

1. Write the augmented matrix for the system.

2. Perform Gaussian elimination to bring the matrix to row echelon form (REF).
r.

3. Identify the free variables and express the solution in terms of the free variables.

Exercise 1.4. Consider the system

D

x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 = 6,
2x1 + 4x2 + 6x3 = 12,
3x1 + 6x2 + 9x3 = 18.

1. Write the augmented matrix for the system.

2. Use Gaussian elimination to reduce the matrix to row echelon form.

3. Determine the free variables and provide the general solution to the system.

35
Exercise 1.5. Solve the following 3 × 3 system of equations

2x1 + 3x2 − x3 = 7,
−3x1 + 4x2 + 2x3 = 1,
x1 − 5x2 + 3x3 = −2.

1. Write the augmented matrix for the system.

2. Perform row operations to reduce the matrix to row echelon form (REF).

3. Solve for x1 , x2 , and x3 .

la
Exercise 1.6. Given the system

uk
x1 + 3x2 = 7,
2x1 + 6x2 = 15.

1. Write the augmented matrix for the system.

Sh
2. Use Gaussian elimination to determine if the system is consistent or inconsistent.

3. If the system is inconsistent, explain why there is no solution.

Exercise 1.7. Consider the system

x1 − x2 + 2x3 = 3,
ay
2x1 − 2x2 + 4x3 = 6,
−x1 + x2 − 2x3 + x4 = −3.
in

1. Write the augmented matrix for the system.

2. Perform Gaussian elimination to reduce the matrix to row echelon form.

V

3. Identify the free variables and express the solution in terms of a and b.

Rank of the Matrix

The rank of a matrix A, written rank(A), is equal to the number of pivots in an echelon
r.

form of A. To determine the rank of a matrix, one can perform row operations to convert
the matrix into row echelon form and then count the number of pivot entries.
D

Remark 1.2. The rank is an important property of a matrix, and it can be defined in
different ways depending on the context. However, all these different definitions will give
the same result.

Example 1.15. Find the rank of matrix

 
1 2 −1
A = 2 4 −3
1 3 −2
Solution: Convert the matrix to Row Echelon Form.

36
 • Perform the following row operations
R2 → R2 − 2R1 , R3 → R3 − R1 .
The resulting matrix is  
1 2 −1
0 0 −1
0 1 −1
• Next, perform the following row operation

la
R3 ←→ R2
The resulting matrix is  
1 2 −1

uk
0 1 −1 
0 0 −1
• Finally the row echelon form is

1
0
0
Sh
2
1
0
−1


−1 
−1
Since there are 3 pivot entries in the row echelon form, the rank of the matrix is 3.
ay
Example 1.16. Find the rank of matrix
 
2 4 −2 2
1 2 −1 1
in

B= .
3 6 −3 3
1 3 2 0
Solution: Convert the matrix to Row Echelon Form.
V

• Use the first row as the pivot. Perform the following row operations
1 3 1
R2 → R2 − R1 , R3 → R3 − R1 , R4 → R4 − R1 .
2 2 2
r.

The resulting matrix is  

2 4 −2 2
0 0 0 0
D

 
0 0 0 0
0 1 3 −1
• Perform the following row operation
R4 ←→ R2 .
The resulting matrix is  
2 4 −2 2
0
 1 3 −1
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0

37
 • Finally, the row echelon form is
 
2 4 −2 2
0
 1 3 −1
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0

Since the row echelon form has 2 pivot entries, the rank of the matrix is 2.
Example 1.17. Find the rank of the given matrix

la
 
1 0 2 −1 3
2
 1 3 −2 4  
C= −1 −1 −1 1 −1

uk

 
0 2 1 0 5
3 0 6 −3 9
.
Solution: Convert the matrix to Row Echelon Form.

The resulting matrix is

R3 → R3 + R1 ,
Sh
• Use the first row as a pivot. Perform the following row operations

R2 → R2 − 2R1 , R5 → R5 − 3R1 .
ay
 
1 0 2 −1 3
0
 1 −1 0 −2
0
 −1 1 0 2
0 2 1 0 5
in

0 0 0 0 0

• Perform the following row operations

V

R3 → R3 + R2 , R4 → R4 − 2R2

The resulting matrix is  

1 0 2 −1 3
0 1 −1 0 −2
r.

 
0 0 0 0 0
 
0 0 3 0 9
0 0 0 0 0
D

• Perform the following row operations

R3 ←→ R4

The resulting matrix is  

1 0 2 −1 3
0
 1 −1 0 −2
0 0 3 0 9
 
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0

38
 • Finally, the row echelon form of the matrix is
 
1 0 2 −1 3
 0 1 −1 0 −2
 
0 0 3 0 9
 
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0

Since the row echelon form has 3 pivot entries, the rank of the matrix is 3.

la
Exercise 1.8. Find the rank of the following matrices.

(i)

uk
 
1 2 3
A= 4 5 6 
7 8 9

(ii)
Solution: 2


1 1 2
Sh


B =  1 2 −1 
1 3 1
ay
Solution: 3

(iii)
in

 
2 4 6 8
C= 1 3 5 7 
0 2 4 6
V

Solution: 2

(iv)
r.

 
1 2 1 3
D= 3 6 3 9 
2 4 2 5
D

Solution: 2

(v)
 
1 1 1
E= 2 3 4 
1 2 2

Solution: 3

39
Application to Existence and Uniqueness Theorem (Rank Crite-
rion of Matrix and Augmented Matrix)
Consider a system of m linear equations in n unknowns with augmented matrix M =
[A : b]. Then

(a) The system has infinitely many solutions if and only if

rank(A) = rank(M ).

la
1. The system has a unique solution if and only if

rank(A) = rank(M ) = n.

uk
2. The system has no solution if and only if

rank(A) < rank(M ).

Example 1.18. Consider the system of equations


x + y + z = 3




2x + 3y + 4z = 7
x + 2y + 2z = 4
Sh
ay
Solution: The augmented matrix M = [A : b] for this system is
 
1 1 1 3
in

M = 2 3 4 7 
1 2 2 4
Let us convert M to its row-echelon form
V

• Subtract 2 times the first row from the second row (R2 −→ R2 − 2R1 )
 
1 1 1 3
 0 1 2 1 
1 2 2 4
r.

• Subtract the first row from the third row (R3 −→ R3 − R1 )

D

 
1 1 1 3
 0 1 2 1 
0 1 1 1

• Subtract the second row from the third row (R3 −→ R3 − R2 )

 
1 1 1 3
 0 1 2 1 
0 0 −1 0

40
From the row-echelon form, we observe that
rank(A) = 3, rank(M ) = 3 and n = 3 (number of unknowns).
Since rank(A) = rank(M ) = n, the system has a unique solution.
Example 1.19. Consider the system of equations

x + y + z = 6

2x + 5y + 5z = 15

2x + 3y + 8z = 17


la
Solution: The augmented matrix M = [A : b] is given by
 
1 1 1 6
M =  2 5 5 15 

uk
2 3 8 17
Let us convert M to its row-echelon form
• Subtract 2 times the first row from the second row (R2 −→ R2 − 2R1 )

1 1 1 6

Sh
 0 3 3 3 
2 3 8 17


• Subtract 2 times the first row from the third row (R3 −→ R3 − 2R1 )
ay
 
1 1 1 6
 0 3 3 3 
0 1 6 5
in

• Subtract 1
3
times the second row from the third row (R3 −→ R3 − 13 R1 )
 
1 1 1 6
V

 0 3 3 3 
0 0 5 4

From the row-echelon form, we observe that

rank(A) = 3, rank(M ) = 3 and n = 3 (number of unknowns).
r.

Since rank(A) = rank(M ) = n, the system has a unique solution.

Example 1.20. Consider the system of equations
D


x + y + z = 1

2x + 2y + 2z = 2

x+y+z =4


Solution: The augmented matrix M = [A : b] is

 
1 1 1 1
M= 2 2 2
 2 
1 1 1 4
Let us convert M to its row-echelon form

41
 • Subtract 2 times the first row from the second row (R2 −→ R2 − 2R1 )
 
1 1 1 1
 0 0 0 0 
1 1 1 4

• Subtract the first row from the third row (R3 −→ R3 − R1 )

 
1 1 1 1
 0 0 0 0 

la
0 0 0 3

From the row-echelon form, we observe

uk
rank(A) = 1, rank(M ) = 2 and n = 3 (number of unknowns).
Since rank(A) < rank(M ), the system has no solution.
Example 1.21. Consider the system of equations

Sh

x + y + z + w = 4

2x + 3y + z + w = 7

x + 2y + 3z + w = 6


Solution: The augmented matrix M = [A : b] for this system is

ay
 
1 1 1 1 4
M = 2 3 1 1 7 
1 2 3 1 6
Let us convert M to its row-echelon form using elementary row operations
in

• Subtract 2 times the first row from the second row (R2 −→ R2 − 2R1 )
 
1 1 1 1 4
V

 0 1 −1 −1 −1 
1 2 3 1 6

• Subtract the first row from the third row (R3 −→ R3 − R1 )

r.

 
1 1 1 1 4
 0 1 −1 −1 −1 
D

0 1 2 0 2

• Subtract the second row from the third row (R3 −→ R3 − R2 )

 
1 1 1 1 4
 0 1 −1 −1 −1 
0 0 3 1 3

From the row-echelon form, we observe that

rank(A) = 3, rank(M ) = 3 and n = 4 (number of unknowns).
Since rank(A) = rank(M ) < n, the system has infinitely many solutions.

42
Example 1.22. Consider the system of equations

x + y + z + w = 2

2x + 2y + 2z + 2w = 5

3x + 3y + 3z + 3w = 8


Solution: The augmented matrix M = [A : b] for this system is

 
1 1 1 1 2
M = 2 2 2 2 5 

la
3 3 3 3 8
Let us convert M to its row-echelon form using elementary row operations

uk
• Subtract 2 times the first row from the second row (R2 −→ R2 − 2R1 )
 
1 1 1 1 2
 0 0 0 0 1 

Sh
3 3 3 3 8

• Subtract 3 times the first row from the third row (R3 −→ R3 − 3R1 )
 
1 1 1 1 2
 0 0 0 0 1 
ay
0 0 0 0 2

From the row-echelon form, we observe that

rank(A) = 1, rank(M ) = 2 and n = 4 (number of unknowns).
in

Since rank(A) < rank(M ), the system has no solution.

Exercise 1.9. Using the rank criterion for the matrix and its augmented matrix, deter-
mine which of the following systems has a unique solution, infinitely many solutions, or
V

no solution.

(a)

x − 3y + z = 4
r.

−x + 2y − 5z = 3
5x − 13y + 13z = 8
D

Solution: No Solution

(b)

2x + 4y + 6z = 10
4x + 8y + 12z = 20
6x + 9y + 15z = 25

Solution: Infinitely many solutions

43
 (c)

x+y+z =6
2x + 3y + 5z = 15
4x + 6y + 8z = 24

Solution: Unique Solution

(d)

la
2x + 3y + z = 7
4x + 6y + 5z = 19
6x + 9y + 8z = 30

uk
Solution: No Solution

(e)

Sh
x + 2y − 3z + w
2x + 4y − 6z + 2w
−3x − 6y + 9z − 3w
x + y − z + 2w
=4
=8
= −12
=5
ay
Solution: Infinitely many solutions

(f )
in

x − y + 2z − w =0
2x + y − z + 3w =7
3x − 2y + 4z − 2w =5
V

−x + 3y − 2z + 4w = −3

Solution: Unique Solution

Application to Finding the Inverse of a Square Matrix of Order

r.

n
The input is a square matrix A of order n. The output is the inverse of A or that inverse
D

does not exists.

Step 1: Form the n × 2n matrix

M = [A|I],
where A is the left half of M and I is the right half of M .

Step 2: Row reduce M to echelon form. If the process generates a zero row in the A half
(left half) of M , then STOP.

A has no inverse.

44
Step 3: If not, the further reduce M to its row canonical form

M ∼ [I : B],

where Identity matrix I has replaced A in the left half of M .

Step 4: Set A−1 = B, the matrix that is now the right half of M .

Example 1.23. Find the inverse of the matrix

 
1 0 2

la
A =  2 −1 3 
4 1 8

uk
Solution: First form the matrix M = [A|I] and reduce M to echelon form
 
1 0 2 1 0 0
M =  2 −1 3 0 1 0 
4 1 8 0 0 1
On applying the row operations R2 −→ R2 − 2R1 and

1 0
M ∼  0 −1 −1 −2
0 1
2

0 −4
1 Sh R3 −→ R3 − 4R1 , we get

0 0


1 0 
0 1
ay
Again apply the row operation R3 −→ R3 + R2 , we have
 
1 0 2 1 0 0
M ∼  0 −1 −1 −2 1 0 
in

0 0 −1 −6 1 1

In echelon form, since the left half of M has no zero rows, hence A has an inverse. Next
we further row reduce M to its row canonical form. On applying the row operations
V

R1 −→ R1 + 2R3 and R2 −→ R2 − R3 ,

we have  
1 0 0 −11 2 2
r.

M ∼ 0 −1 0 4 0 −1 
0 0 1 6 −1 1
D

Apply the row operation R2 −→ (−1)R2 , we get

 
1 0 0 −11 2 2
M∼  0 1 0 −4 0 1  = [I|B].
0 0 1 6 −1 1

Hence
 
−11 2 2
B = A−1 =  −4 0 1 
6 −1 −1

45
Example 1.24. Find the inverse of the matrix
 
1 2 3
A = 4 5 6
7 8 9

Solution: First, form the matrix M = [A|I] and begin to reduce it into echelon form
 
1 2 3 1 0 0
M =  4 5 6 0 1 0
7 8 9 0 0 1

la
Applying the row operations R2 −→ R2 − 4R1 and R3 −→ R3 − 7R1 , we get
 
1 2 3 1 0 0

uk
M ∼ 0 −3 −6
 −4 1 0
0 −6 −12 −7 0 1

Next, apply the row operation R3 −→ R3 − 2R2 , we get


1 2 3
M ∼  0 −3 −6 −4 1 0
0 0 0
1

Sh
0 0

1 −2 1


At this point, we observe that the third row of the left half of the matrix contains
ay
only zeros. This indicates that the matrix A is singular, meaning it does not have an
inverse.

A has no inverse.
in

Exercise 1.10. Check whether the inverse of the following matrices exists. If yes, then
calculate the inverse.
V

(a)
 
1 −3
A=
−2 4

Solution:
r.

−2 − 32
 
−1
A =
−1 − 12
D

(b)
 
1 2 3
B= 0 1 4 
0 0 1

Solution:
 
1 −2 5
B −1 =  0 1 −4 
0 0 1

46
 (c)
 
1 1 2
C= 2 3 8 
−3 −1 2

Solution: Inverse does not exist.

(d)
 
1 2 −4

la
D =  −1 −1 5 
2 7 −3

uk
Solution:
 
−16 −11 3
D−1 =  7
2
5
2
− 12 
− 25 − 32 1

(e)

1 3 −4
E =  1 5 −1 
3 13 −6
 Sh 2
ay
Solution: Inverse does not exist.
in

Determinants
For a square matrix A of order n × n, the determinant is denoted by det(A) or |A|.
V

• For a 2 × 2 matrix  
a b
A=
c d
det(A) = ad − bc
r.

• For a 3 × 3 matrix  
a b c
A= d e f 
D

g h i
det(A) = a(ei − f h) − b(di − f g) + c(dh − eg)

Properties of the Determinants

• Determinant of the identity matrix is 1, i.e.,

det(In ) = 1,

where In is the identity matrix of order n.

47
 • Determinant of a transpose matrix is same the determinant of the original matrix,

det(AT ) = det(A).

• If A is an invertible matrix ( A matrix A is invertible if and only if det(A) = 0).

Then
1
det(A−1 ) = .
det(A)

• If det(A) = 0, then the matrix A is singular and does not have an inverse.

la
• If A is a triangular matrix, then the determinant is the product of diagonal elements.

• Row Operations

uk
– Swapping two rows of a matrix changes the sign of the determinant.
– Multiplying a row by a scalar k multiplies the determinant by k.
– Adding a multiple of one row to another does not change the determinant.

zero.

Example
Sh
• If any row or column of a matrix is entirely zero, the determinant of the matrix is
ay
• Determinant of the Identity Matrix
For the 2 × 2 identity matrix  
1 0
I2 =
0 1
in

The determinant is
det(I2 ) = (1)(1) − (0)(0) = 1
V

• Determinant of the Transpose of a Matrix

For the matrix  
1 2
A=
3 4
r.

The transpose is  
T 1 3
A =
2 4
D

Calculating the determinants

det(A) = (1)(4) − (2)(3) = 4 − 6 = −2

det(AT ) = (1)(4) − (3)(2) = 4 − 6 = −2

Hence, det(AT ) = det(A).

48
 • Determinant of an Invertible Matrix
Let:  
2 1
A=
1 3
The determinant is
det(A) = (2)(3) − (1)(1) = 6 − 1 = 5
Since det(A) ̸= 0, A is invertible. The inverse of A is
   
−1 1 3 −1 1 3 −1
A = · =

la
det(A) −1 2 5 −1 2
The determinant of the inverse is
1 1
det(A−1 ) =

uk
=
det(A) 5
• Singular Matrix
Let:

Sh
 
1 2
A=
2 4
The determinant is:
det(A) = (1)(4) − (2)(2) = 4 − 4 = 0
Since det(A) = 0, A is singular and does not have an inverse.
ay
• Determinant of a Triangular Matrix
For an upper triangular matrix
 
2 3
in

A=
0 4
The determinant is the product of the diagonal elements
V

det(A) = (2)(4) = 8

• Row Operations

– (i) Swapping Two Rows

r.

Consider  
1 2
A=
3 4
D

The determinant is
det(A) = (1)(4) − (2)(3) = 4 − 6 = −2
Swapping the two rows gives
 
′ 3 4
A =
1 2
The new determinant is
det(A′ ) = (3)(2) − (4)(1) = 6 − 4 = 2
Swapping rows changes the sign of the determinant, det(A′ ) = − det(A).

49
 – (ii) Multiplying a Row by a Scalar
Consider:  
1 2
A=
3 4
The determinant is

det(A) = (1)(4) − (2)(3) = −2

Now multiply the first row by 2

la
 
′ 2 4
A =
3 4

The new determinant is

uk
det(A′ ) = (2)(4) − (4)(3) = 8 − 12 = −4

So, multiplying the first row by 2 multiplies the determinant by 2, det(A′ ) =

2 × det(A).

A=

1 2
3 4
 Sh
– (iii) Adding a Multiple of One Row to Another
Consider
ay
The determinant is

det(A) = (1)(4) − (2)(3) = −2

Add twice the first row to the second

in

 
′ 1 2
A =
5 8
V

The new determinant is

det(A′ ) = (1)(8) − (2)(5) = 8 − 10 = −2

The determinant remains the same.

r.

• Zero Row or Column

D

Consider:  
0 0
A=
1 2
Since the first row consists entirely of zeros, the determinant is

det(A) = 0

50
Exercise: Verify Determinant Properties
Let the matrix A be
 
3 5 2
A = 1 4 7
6 2 8

• Identity Matrix  
1 0 0
I3 = 0 1 0

la
0 0 1
Find det(I3 ).

uk
• Transpose of the Matrix Calculate det(AT ) and verify that det(AT ) = det(A).

• Inverse of the Matrix (if it exists)

– Calculate det(A).

• Triangular Matrix Consider the triangular


3 5
T = 0 4
Sh
– If det(A) ̸= 0, find the inverse of A and verify that det(A−1 ) =

matrix T

2


7
1
det(A)
.
ay
0 0 8

Calculate det(T ) and verify that the determinant is the product of the diagonal
elements.
in

• Row Operations: Perform the following row operations on matrix A and verify
how they affect the determinant.
V

– (i) Swapping Rows: Swap rows 1 and 2 of A. Find the determinant of the
resulting matrix and verify that it changes the sign of the determinant.
– (ii) Multiplying a Row by a Scalar: Multiply the first row of A by a scalar
(say 2). Calculate the determinant and verify that it is scaled accordingly.
r.

– (iii) Adding a Multiple of One Row to Another: Add a multiple of the

first row to the second row. Check if the determinant remains the same.
D

• Zero Row or Column: Modify matrix A by replacing the second row with zeros:
 
3 5 2
A′ = 0 0 0
6 2 8

Calculate det(A′ ) and verify that it is zero.

51