DAY 2 (MAY 29, 2025)

There are 5 problems for Day 1 of the competition. Each problem is worth 7 points.
Problem 1 (Byron Walden). Define a sequence {bn } by putting b1 = 1, b2 = 3, b3 = 2 and for
all n ≥ 4, letting bn be the average of the smaller two numbers from the set {bn−1 , bn−2 , bn−3 }.
Find
lim bn .
n→∞
b1 +b2
Solution: Noting that b1 < b3 = 2
< b2 for the basis, we show inductively that
b3n−2 + b3n−1
b3n−2 < b3n = < b3n−1
2
for all n ≥ 1. Suppose that b3n−2 < b3n = b3n−2 +b
2
3n−1
< b3n−1 holds for some n ≥ 1. Then
b3n−2 + b3n
b3n+1 = ,
2
and the correct ordering for the latest three elements of the sequence is b3n+1 < b3n < b3n−2 .
This gives
b3n+1 + b3n
b3n+2 = ,
2
and the correct ordering for the latest three elements: b3n+1 < b3n+2 < b3n . So finally,
b3n+1 + b3n+2
b3n+3 = ,
2
and the correct ordering for the latest three: b3n+1 < b3n+3 < b3n+2 , proving the hypothesis
of our induction.
Having established b3n−2 < b3n = b3n−2 +b2
3n−1
< b3n−1 , we can write dn = b3n − b3n−2 =
b3n−1 − b3n . So
b3n+1 + b3n b3n + b3n+1 b3n − b3n−22+b3n b3n − b3n−2 dn
2dn+1 = b3n+2 −b3n+1 = −b3n+1 = = = = ,
2 2 2 4 4
whence dn+1 = d8n 1 1
and as d1 = 1, we see dn = 8n−1 . As b3n+1 = b3n+3 − 8n is the average of
1
b3n−2 = b3n − 8n−1 and b3n , we get the equation b3n+3 − 81n = b3n − 2·81n−1 or
1 1 3
b3n − b3n+3 = n−1
− n = n.
2·8 8 8
From there,
m−1 m−1 3
X X 3 8
− 83m 3
3 − 8m−1
2 − b3m = b3 − b3m = (b3n − b3n+3 ) = = = .
n=1 n=1
8n 1 − 18 7
Letting m approach ∞ yields
3 11
lim b3m = 2 − = .
m→∞ 7 7
As dm approaches 0 as m approaches ∞ and b3m−1 and b3m−2 are b3m ± dm , the other terms
of the sequence of bn ’s must approach 11
7
as well.
1
2 DAY 2 (MAY 29, 2025)

Problem 2 (Greta Panova). A fly sits on the side AB of the triangle ABC with side lengths
a, b, c, then flies to BC, then to side AC and returns to the point it started from. Suppose
∠A, ∠B, ∠C < 90◦ , what is the minimal possible distance the fly traveled expressed as a
rational function of a, b, c?
Solution: Let the points on the sides be X, Y, Z along the route of the fly. Using the
reflection principle, for fixed X and Z, the minimal distance XY + Y Z occurs when Y
is such that ∠XY B = ∠CY Z =: y. Similarly we obtain ∠AXZ = ∠Y XB =: x and
∠AZX = ∠CZY =: z. Let α = ∠A, β = ∠B, γ = ∠C.
Let I be the incenter of XY Z, i.e. where the angle bisectors meet. We thus get that
∠IXA = ∠IXZ + ∠ZXA = ∠IXY + ∠Y XB and thus have to be 90◦ , and similarly for
the others. The lines AB ⊥ IX, BC ⊥ IY , AC ⊥ IZ. Thus, for a given triangle XY Z,
there is a unique triangle ABC, and I is its orthocenter. Since XBY I lie on a circle (
∠X + ∠Y = 180◦ ), we have 90◦ − y = ∠IBX = ∠ZBA = 90◦ − α. So y = α and similarly
x = γ and z = β. Then AXZ ∼ ACB with proportionality constant r1 , XBY ∼ CBA with
proportionality constant r2 and Y CZ ∼ ACB proportionality constant r3 . Then AX = r1 b,
XB = r2 a, and since they sum up to AB = c, we get the system of equations
r1 b + r2 a = c
r1 c + r3 a = b
r2 c + r3 b = a
and we solve for the rs:
c 2 + b 2 − a2 a2 + c 2 − b 2 a2 + b 2 − c 2
r1 = , r2 = , r3 =
2cb 2ac 2ab
and thus
2(a2 b2 + b2 c2 + c2 a2 ) − a4 − b4 − c4
XY + Y Z + ZX = r1 a + r2 b + r3 c =
2abc
 DAY 2 (MAY 29, 2025) 3

Problem 3 (Greta Panova). Find all pairs of integers p, q, such that

2(p − 1)3 + q = 8pq − 1.
Solution: Write the equation as 2(p − 1)3 − 8q(p − 1) − 7q + 1 = 0, so p − 1|7q − 1 and
let 7q − 1 = a(p − 1), x = p − 1, so we get
2x2 − 8(ax + 1)/7 − a = 0. =⇒ 14x2 − 8ax − 7a − 8 = 0.
Solving this as a quadratic equation we get
49 2
D = (4a)2 + 98a + 8 ∗ 14 = (4a + ) − 492 /16 + 8 ∗ 14
4
D has to be a square of a rational number. After clearing denominators we are left with
(16a+49)2 −(3∗16+1)2 +7∗162 = u2 , =⇒ (16a−49−u)(16a−49+u) = 609 = 3∗203 = 3∗7∗29
Note that if 16a + 49 − u = b and 16a + 49 + u = c, then 32|b + c − 98, so 32|b + c − 2. We
have the following possibilities for b + c modulo 32:
1. b + c ≡ ±(1 + 609) = ±(2) (mod 32).
2. b + c ≡ ±(3 + 7 ∗ 29) = ±(−18) (mod 32)
3. b + c ≡ ±(7 + 3 ∗ 29) = ±(−2) (mod 32)
4. b + c ≡ ±(29 + 3 ∗ 7) = ±(18) (mod 32).
The only possibilities are thus in cases 1 and 3.
From case 1 we have (assuming u > 0) that b = 1 and c = 609, so u = 304 and a = 16.
This gives x = 10 and p = 11 and q = 23 as a solution.
From case 3 we have that b = −3 ∗ 29 and c = −7, so u = 40 but a < 0. This is not
possible since p, q > 1, and so we obtained the only possible solution.
4 DAY 2 (MAY 29, 2025)

Problem 4 (Harm Derksen). The function sinc(x) is defined on R by sinc(x) = sin(x)/x

for x ̸= 0 and sinc(0) = 1. Prove that
Y∞  x  Y ∞ x
sinc = cos
n=1
2n − 1 n=1
2n
for all x ∈ R.
Solution: We first show that all the relevant infinite products converge. The functions
log(x) and sinc(x) are analytic and by computing the first Taylor coefficients we see that
log(sinc(x)) = −x2 /6 + O(x4 ). So the sum ∞
P
n=m log(sinc(x/n))
Q∞ converges absolutely for
|x| < mπ/2. By exponetiating, Q we see that the infinite
Q∞product n=1 sinc(x/n) Q∞ converges for
all x. Similarly, the products ∞ n=1 sinc(x/(2n−1)), n=1 sinc(x/(2n)) and n=1 cos(x/(2n))
converge
Q for all x. Suppose thatQx∞ = πn where n is an integer. If n = 0, then the prod-
ucts ∞ n=1 sinc(x/(2n − 1)) and n=1 cos(x/(2n)) are both equal to 1. If n is nonzero, then
sinc(x) = cos(x/(2n)) = 0 and both products are equal to 0. Now assume that Q x is not an in-
teger multiple of π. Then sin(x/(2n)) is nonzero for all n and the product ∞ n=1 sinc(x/(2n))
converges to a nonzero real number.
We have
x
∞ sin
xn
Y
 x   x
∞ ∞ sin ∞ sin
x
 2n −1 = n=1 n  = Y
 
nx  .
Y Y
sinc = x x
n=1
2n − 1 n=1 ∞ sin n=1 2 sin
2n − 1  x2n 2n
Y

n=1
2n
Using the angle doubling formula sin(2α) = 2 sin(α) cos(α) with α = x/(2n), we see that the
right-hand side is equal to ∞
Q
n=1 cos(x/(2n)).
 DAY 2 (MAY 29, 2025) 5

Problem 5 (Harm Derksen). We define the Fibonacci sequence by F1 = F2 = 1 and

Fn = Fn−1 + Fn−2 for n ≥ 3. Find all real polynomials p(x) of degree 3 for which there exists
infinitely many positive integers n such that both n and p(n) are Fibonacci numbers.
√
Solution: Let ϕ = (1 + 5)/2 (the golden ratio). The roots of the polynomial x2 − x − 1
are ϕ and −ϕ−1 . So ϕ2 = ϕ + 1 and multiplying by ϕn−2 gives ϕn = ϕn−1 + ϕn−2 for all n ∈ Z.
So if An = ϕn satisfies the recurrence relation
(1) An = An−1 + An−2
Similarly, An = (−ϕ)n satisfies (1). Because An = Fn satisfies the recurrence and the
recurrence is linear, An = Fn − 5−1/2 ϕn + 5−1/2 (−ϕ)n satisfies (1). It is easily verified that
A1 = A2 = 0 and using (1) and induction we get An = 0 for all n. So for all n ≥ 1 we have
ϕn − (−ϕ−1 )n
Fn = √ .
5
(This formula is well-known.)
Suppose p(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d has the property that p(Fn ) is a Fibonacci number
for infinitely many positive integers n. Suppose p(x) = ax3 + bx2 + cx + d and there exists
infinite sequences 1 ≤ n1 < n2 < n3 < · · · and m1 , m2 , m3 , . . . such that p(Fnk ) = Fmk for
all k ≥ 1. We have limk→∞ Fmk /ϕmk = 5−1/2 and limk→∞ p(Fnk )/ϕ3nk = a5−3/2 . As k → ∞
mk −3nk ϕmk p(Fnk )
ϕ = ·
Fmk ϕ3nk
converges to 51/2 · a5−3/2 = a/5. This shows that mk − 3nk is eventually constant. So we
have F3n+r = p(Fn ) for infinitely many positive integers n.
Case 1: Suppose that F3n+r = p(Fn ) for infinitely many even positive integers n. For any
such even integer n we have
5−1/2 (ϕ3n+r − ϕ−3n−r ) = p(Fn ) = aFn3 + bFn2 + cFn + d =
= a5−3/2 (ϕ3n − 3ϕn + 3ϕ−n − ϕ−3n ) + b5−1 (ϕ2n − 2 + ϕ−2n ) + c5−1/2 (ϕn − ϕ−n ) + d.
This means that we have an equality of Laurent polynomials
(2) 5−1/2 (ϕr x3 − ϕ−r x−3 ) =
= a5−3/2 (x3 − 3x + 3x−1 − x−3 ) + b5−1 (x2 − 2 + x−2 ) + c5−1/2 (x − x−1 ) + d.
because we have equality for infinitely many values of x of the form ϕn . Comparing coeffi-
cients of x3 and x−3 we get r−1/2 ϕr = a5−3/2 = 5−1/2 ϕ−r , so we must have r = 0 and a = 5.
comparing the coefficents of other powers of x gives b = d = 0 and c = 3. In this case we get
p(x) = 5x3 + 3x. With these choices of a, b, c, d, r, plugging x = ϕn into (2) gives p(Fn ) = F3n
whenever n is even.
Case 2: Suppose that F3n+r = p(Fn ) for infinitely many odd integers n. For any such
integer n we have
5−1/2 (ϕ3n+r + ϕ−3n−r ) = p(Fn ) = aFn3 + bFn2 + cFn + d =
= a5−3/2 (ϕ3n + 3ϕn + 3ϕ−n + ϕ−n ) + b5−1 (ϕ2n + 2 + ϕ−2n ) + c5−1/2 (ϕn + ϕ−n ) + d.
Similar reasoning as in case 1 gives r = 0, b = d = 0, a = 5 and c = −3. So we get
p(x) = 5x3 − 3x and p(Fn ) = F3n for all odd positive integers n.