CHAPTER ONE STRESS

Chapter one
Stress
1-1 Normal Stress:
The most basic concepts in mechanics of materials are stress and strain. These
concepts can be shown in their most elementary form by considering a prismatic
bar subjected to axial forces. A bar is a straight structural member having the
same cross section throughout its length, and an axial force is a load directed
along the axis of the member, resulting in either tension or compression in the
bar. Examples are shown in Fig. 1-1, where the tow bar is a prismatic member
in tension and the landing gear strut is a member in compression. Other
examples are the members of a bridge truss, connecting rods in automobile
engines, spokes of bicycle wheels, columns in buildings, and wing struts in
small airplanes.
For discussion purposes, we will consider the tow bar of Fig. 1-1, and isolate a
segment of it as a free body (Fig. 1-1a). When drawing this free-body diagram,
we disregard the weight of the bar itself and assume that the only active forces
are the axial forces P at the ends. Next we consider two views of the bar, the
first showing the same bar before the loads are applied (Fig. 1-1b) and the
second showing it after the loads are applied (Fig. 1-1c). Note that the original
length of the bar is denoted by the letter L, and the increase in length due to the
loads is denoted by the Greek letter d (delta). The internal actions in the bar are
exposed if we make an imaginary cut through the bar at section mn (Fig. 1-1c).
Because this section is taken perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the bar, it
is called a cross section. We now isolate the part of the bar to the left of cross
section mn as a free body (Fig. 1-1d). At the right-hand end of this free body
(section mn), we show the action of the removed part of the bar (that is, the part
to the right of section mn) upon the part that remains. This action consists of

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continuously distributed stresses acting over the entire cross section, and the
axial force P acting at the cross section is the resultant of those stresses. (The
resultant force is shown with a dashed line in Fig. 1-1d.)

FIG. 1-1 Prismatic bar in tension :(a) free-body diagram of a segment of the bar, (b) segment of the bar
before loading, (c) segment of the bar after loading, and (d) normal stresses in the bar.

Stress has units of force per unit area and is denoted by the Greek letter σ
(sigma). In general, the stresses σ acting on a plane surface may be uniform
throughout the area or may vary in intensity from one point to another. Let us
assume that the stresses acting on cross section mn(Fig. 1-1d) are uniformly
distributed over the area. Then the resultant of those stresses must be equal to
the magnitude of the stress times the cross-sectional area A of the bar, that is,
P= σA. Therefore, we obtain the following expression for the magnitude of the
stresses:

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This equation gives the intensity of uniform stress in an axially loaded,

prismatic bar of arbitrary cross-sectional shape. When the bar is stretched by the
forces P, the stresses are tensile stresses; if the forces are reversed in direction,
causing the bar to be compressed, we obtain compressive stresses. In as much
as the stresses act in a direction perpendicular to the cut surface, they are called
normal stresses. Thus, normal stresses may be either tensile or compressive.
When a sign convention for normal stresses is required, it is customary to
define tensile stresses as positive and compressive stresses as negative.
Because the normal stress s is obtained by dividing the axial force by the cross-
sectional area, it has units of force per unit of area. When SI units are used,
force is expressed in newtons (N) and area in square meters (m2). Consequently,
stress has units of newtons per square meter (N/m2), that is, pascals (Pa).
However, the pascal is such a small unit of stress that it is necessary to work
with large multiples, usually the megapascal (MPa).
Example (1-1): In Figure (1-1) a bar has a diameter d of 20.0mm and the load P
has a magnitude of 50KN. Then the stress in the bar is

In this example the stress is tensile, or positive.

Example (1-2): A hollow steel tube with an inside diameter of 100mm must
carry a tensile load of 400KN. Determine the outside diameter of the tube if the
stress is limited to 120MN/m2 .

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Example (1-3): the bar in figure below has a constant width of 35mm and a
thickness of 10mm. determine the maximum average normal stress in the bar
when it is subjected to the loading shown.

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Answer:

Example (1-4): The 80 kg lamp is supported by two rods AB and BC as shown

in figure below. If AB has a diameter of 10mm and BC has a diameter of 8mm.
determine the average normal stress in each rod.

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Example (1-5): Member AC shown in figure below is subjected to a vertical

force of 3kN. Determine the position x of this force so that the average
compressive stress at smooth support C is equal to the average tensile stress in
the tie rod AB. The rod has a cross sectional area of 400mm2 and the contact
area at C is 650mm2.

Solution:

Example (1-6): A homogeneous 800 kg bar AB is supported at either end by a

cable as shown in Figure below. Calculate the smallest area of each cable if the
stress is not to exceed 90 MPa in bronze and 120 MPa in steel.

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Solution:

1-2 Shear Stress:

Shear stress is defined as forces parallel to the area resisting the force. It differs
to tensile and compressive stresses, which are caused by forces perpendicular to
the area on which they act. Shearing stress is also known as tangential stress.

Where V is the resultant shearing force which passes through the centroid of the
area As being sheared. Shearing stresses are found in bolts, pins, or rivets
connecting two structural members or machine components. There are two
types of shear such as single shear and double shear, For example, single shear
acts in the rivet between lap joint, as shown in Figure (1.2A). While figure (1-
2B) shows double shear acts in the rivet between lap joint.

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Figure (1-2) shearing stresses acting on rivets.

Example 1-3: The yoke-and-rod connection is subjected to a tensile force of 5

kN. Determine the average normal stress in each rod and the average shear
stress in the pin A between the members.

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Example 1-4: The circular punch B exerts a force of 2 kN on the top of the
plate A. Determine the average shear stress in the plate due to this loading.

Ans.:

Example 1-5: A punch for making holes in steel plates is shown in Fig. below.
Assume that a punch having diameter d =20 mm is used to punch a hole in an

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8mm plate, as shown in the cross-sectional view (shown in figure below).If a

force P= 110 kN is required to create the hole, what is the average shear stress
in the plate and the average compressive stress in the punch?

Sol.:

1-3 Bearing Stress

Bolts, pins, and rivets create stresses in the members they connect, along the
bearing surface, or surface of contact. For example, consider again the two
plates A and B connected by a bolt CD. The bolt exerts on plate A a force P
equal and opposite to the force F exerted by the plate on the bolt (Fig.A1).

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Figure (A1)

The force P represents the resultant of elementary forces distributed on the

inside surface of a half-cylinder of diameter d and of length t equal to the
thickness of the plate. Since the distribution of these forces—and of the
corresponding stresses is quite complicated, one uses in practice an average
nominal value of the stress, called the bearing stress, obtained by dividing the
load P by the area of the rectangle representing the projection of the bolt on the
plate section (Fig. A2).

Figure (A2)

Since this area is equal to td, where t is the plate thickness and d the diameter of
the bolt.

Example 1-6:
In figure as shown below, assume that a 20mm diameter rivet joint the plates
which are each 100mm wide.

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(a)if the allowable stresses 140 MPa for bearing in the plate material and 80
MPa for shearing of the rivet, determine the minimum thickness of each plate.
(b)Under the conditions specified in part (a) what is the largest average tensile
stress in the plate.

Sol:

(a)

(b)

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Example 1-7: Determine the average punching shear stress the circular shaft
creates in the metal plate through section AC and BD. Also, what is the bearing
stress developed on the surface of the plate under the shaft?

SOL.

1-4 Allowable Stress Design

To ensure the safety of a structural member or mechanical element, it is
necessary to restrict the applied load to one that is less than the load the member
(or element) can fully support. There are many reasons for doing this. For

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example, the intended measurements of a structure or machine may not be

exact, due to errors in fabrication or in the assembly of its component parts.
Unknown vibrations, impact, or accidental loadings can occur that may not be
accounted for in the design. Atmospheric corrosion, decay, or weathering tend
to cause materials to deteriorate during service. And finally, some materials,
such as wood, concrete, or fiber-reinforced composites, can show high
variability in mechanical properties.
One method of specifying the allowable load for a member is to use a number
called the factor of safety. The factor of safety (F.S.) is a ratio of the failure
load Ffail to the allowable load Fallow. Here Ffail is found from experimental testing
of the material, and the factor of safety is selected based on experience so that
all the above mentioned uncertainties are accounted for when the member is
used under similar conditions of loading and geometry. Stated mathematically,

If the load applied to the member is linearly related to the stress developed
within the member, as in the case of using σ = P/A and τ = V/A, then we can
also express the factor of safety as a ratio of the failure stress σfail (or τfail ) to the
allowable stress σallow (or τallow ). * Here the area A will cancel,

Example 1-8: The joint is fastened together using two bolts. Determine the
required diameter of the bolts if the failure shear stress for the bolts is τfail = 350
MPa. Use a factor of safety for shear of F.S. = 2.5.

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Example 1-9: A single rivet holds three sheets of steel together, and is loaded
as shown below. If the maximum shear stress allowed for the material is
125MPa, and factor safety of 3 is required by the design standards, find the
minimum rivet diameter.

Solution:

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Solution:

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Reference:

1-Mechanics of Materials ,by R.C. HIBBELER.

2-Mechanics of Materials ,by J. M. GERE

3-Mechanics of Materials ,by Hearn

4-Mechanics of Materials ,by F. P. Beer

5-Strength of materials, by F. L. Singer.

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