Savitribai Phule Pune University

2019 Pattern
( As Per New Revised Syllabus )

ScoreBooster

Mobile Computing For

Semester- VIII
Electronics & Tele. Engineering
 -: Syllabus Topic :-
:-

Unit 3 Network Layer

Syllabus Topics;

Mobile IP, DHCP, AdHoc, Proactive protocol-DSDV, Reactive Routing Protocols: DSR,
AODV, Hybrid routing: ZRP, Multicast Routing: ODMRP, Vehicular Ad Hoc networks
(VANET), MANET Vs VANET: Security.

Unit 4 Mobile IP and Transport Layer

Syllabus Topics:

Mobile IP: Need of mobile IP, IP packet delivery, Agent Discovery, Registration,
Tunnelling and encapsulation, Route optimization, IP Handoff.
Transport Layer: Overview of Traditional TCP and implications of mobility control.
Improvement of TCP: Indirect TCP, Snoop TCP, Mobile TCP, Fast Retransmit/fast
recovery, Time-out freezing, Selective retransmission, Transaction-oriented TCP.

Unit 5 Fading Channels

Syllabus Topics:

Rayleigh Fading and Statistical Characterization, Properties of Rayleigh Distribution, BER

in Fading, Narrowband vs Wideband Channels, Characterization of Multipath Fading
Channels, Choice of Modulation, Coherent versus Differential Detection, BER in Fading ,
Ricean Fading

Unit 6 Operating System & Applications of Mobile Computing

Syllabus Topics :

Operating System: A Few Basic Concepts, Special Constraints and Requirements of Mobile
OS, A Survey of Commercial Mobile Operating Systems, Windows Mobile, Palm OS,
Symbian OS, iOS, Android, Blackberry OS, A Comparative study of Mobile OS, OS for
sensor Network.
Applications: M-Commerce, Business to Consumer (B2C) Applications, Business to Business
(B2B) Applications. Structure of M-Commerce, Pros and Cons of M-Commerce, Mobile
Payment System, Mobile Payment Schemes, Desirable properties of a Mobile Payment
system, Mobile Payment solutions, Process of Mobile Payment, Security Issues.
 -: Imp, Expected & Pyq’s Question :-
:-

Unit 3 Network Layer

Imp, Expected & Pyq’s Question :

1. Explain basic terminologies of mobile IP. [8]

2. Explain MANETs using mobile IP with suitable diagram. [8]

3. What is the basic purpose of DHCP? Explain the protocol with suitable diagram. [8]

4. Explain with suitable data flow diagram, client initialization via DHCP. [8]

5. What is an AdHoc network? Explain its characteristics and applications. [5]

6. Explain the working of Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector (DSDV) protocol with

example. [8]

7. How does Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) route the data? What are its advantages
and disadvantages? [8]

8. How does Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing (AODV) route the data? What
are its advantages and disadvantages? [8]

9. Compare proactive routing protocols with reactive routing protocols. [8]

10. What is hybrid routing? Explain zone routing protocol (ZRP) with suitable diagram. [8]

11. Explain On-Demand Multicast Routing Protocol (ODMRP) with suitable diagram. [8]

12. What is VANET? Explain its architecture and applications. [5]

13. Compare the security challenges in MANET and VANET. [5]

 Unit 4 Mobile IP and Transport Layer

Imp, Expected & Pyq’s Question :

1. Why is Mobile IP needed? Discuss the motivation behind its development. [5]

2. Describe IP packet delivery between two mobile nodes in a mobile IP network. Why
reverse tunneling is required? [8]

3. What is agent discovery in Mobile IP? Explain its role and procedure. [5]

4. Explain with diagram the registration process of a mobile node via foreign agent (FA)
and directly with home agent (HA). [8]

5. What is encapsulation in mobile IP? List different methods of encapsulation and explain
any one of them. [8]

6. Why and when encapsulation is needed? List different methods of encapsulation and
explain any one of them. [8]

7. What is route optimization in Mobile IP? Why is it important? [5]

8. Explain IP handoff in Mobile IP. What challenges does it address? [5]

9. Discuss the limitations of traditional TCP in mobile environments. [5]

10. Explain the modifications of Indirect TCP. What are its advantages and disadvantages?
[8]

11. Explain snooping TCP with proper diagram. List its advantages and disadvantages. [8]
12. Compare indirect TCP, snooping TCP and mobile-TCP. [8]

13. Write short note on mobile-TCP. List its advantages and disadvantages. [8]

14. What is fast retransmit and fast recovery in TCP? How do they help in mobility? [5]

15. Explain the concept of time-out freezing in TCP. Why is it used in mobile networks?
[5]

16. Write short note on selective retransmission, an extension of TCP. List its advantages
and disadvantages. [8]

17. Explain transaction-oriented TCP with suitable diagram. What are its advantages and
disadvantages? [8]

Unit 5 Fading Channels

Imp, Expected & Pyq’s Question :

1. Explain fading in detail? Classify types of fading. [7]

2. Explain Rayleigh distribution. How mean and variance of Rayleigh distribution is

calculated? [7]

3. Explain Ricean fading channel model. Differentiate between Rayleigh fading and Ricean
fading. [7]

4. Compare wideband and narrowband channels. using table List any two channel models
used in mentioned channels. [7]
5. Describe multipath propagation with neat diagram. What is ISI in multipath fading
channels? [7]

6. Explain reflection, scattering and ISI in multipath fading channel with suitable
diagram. [7]

7. How does the choice of modulation scheme affect performance in fading

environments? [5]

8. What is non-coherent detection? Explain with neat diagram, non-coherent detection

of FSK. [7]

Compare coherent and differential detection techniques in the context of wireless

channels. [5]

9. How is Bit Error Rate (BER) affected by fading? Discuss its implications on system
design. [5]

Unit 6 Operating System & Applications of Mobile Computing

Imp, Expected & Pyq’s Question :

1. Explain mobile operating system. What are needs of a mobile OS? List different types
of OS. [7]

2. List and explain in brief the design issues of a mobile OS. [7]

3. What are the special constraints and requirements of mobile operating systems? [7]

4. Provide a comparative study of Windows Mobile, Palm OS, Symbian OS, iOS, Android,
and Blackberry OS. [7]
5. What are the unique features of Symbian OS and how does it differ from Android? [7]

6. Discuss the evolution of commercial mobile operating systems. [7]

7. Describe the architecture and key features of Android OS. [7]

8. Explain the design and components of an operating system for a sensor network. [7]

9. What is M-commerce? List out benefits of M-commerce. Briefly explain any three
applications of M-commerce. [7]

10. What is M-commerce? Explain in brief any five attributes of M-commerce. [7]

11. What is a mobile payment system? Explain payment process using credit card. [7]

12. What is a mobile payment system? Explain payment process using credit card. List
advantages and disadvantages of M-commerce. [10]

13. Draw B2B model and explain any one B2B application. [7]

14. Draw B2C model and explain any one B2C application. [7]

15. Describe the structure of a typical M-commerce system. [7]

16. Explain the process of mobile payment with a suitable example. [7]

17. List and explain various mobile payment schemes. [7]

18. What are the desirable properties of a mobile payment system? [7]

19. Explain various mobile payment solutions and their pros and cons. [7]
20. Discuss the major security issues in mobile payment systems. [7]

21. How can mobile payments be secured against fraud and data theft? [7]

22. What is mobile computing? Describe three components of mobile computing. [7]

23. Write a short note on mobile computing and its three basic components. [7]
 Unit 3 : Network Layer

Mobile Computing:

Pyq Question:
 Explain any five characteristics of mobile computing. [10]

Introduction:
 Mobile computing is a technology that allows transmission of data, voice, and video
via a computer or other wireless-enabled device without being connected to a fixed
physical link.
 It enables users to access data and services from any location, improving flexibility
and real-time communication.

Definition:
 Mobile computing is the process of computing through portable devices that support
mobility and wireless communication technologies such as Wi-Fi, 4G/5G, Bluetooth,
and more.
 These devices allow the user to perform computing tasks without staying at a fixed
location.

Characteristics of Mobile Computing:

 Mobility:
o The user can move from one place to another while maintaining the connection
and accessing information or applications.
o Devices such as smartphones, tablets, and laptops support mobility for real-
time use.
 Wireless Communication:
o Data and services are accessed over wireless networks such as 4G/5G, Wi-Fi,
or satellite networks.
o It removes the need for physical cables, allowing flexible and fast
communication anywhere.
 Portability:
o Devices used in mobile computing are lightweight and easy to carry.
 o This allows users to work or access data on the go, enhancing convenience and
usability.
 Remote Access:
o Mobile computing enables users to access data, applications, and resources
from remote locations.
o This is especially useful for remote workers, travelers, and field
professionals.
 Instant Connectivity:
o Devices can connect instantly to networks and services when in range, without
manual configuration.
o This supports real-time communication and updates, enhancing productivity.

Diagram:

Explanation of Diagram:
 The user interacts with a mobile device like a smartphone or tablet.
 The mobile device contains components like processor, OS, and a wireless adapter
that help in computation and communication.
 It connects to a wireless network using technologies such as Wi-Fi or 4G/5G, which
further connects to the internet or cloud.
 From the internet/cloud, the user can access web applications and cloud storage for
data retrieval and real-time work.
Additional Characteristics (Optional if Asked):
 Data Synchronization:
o Synchronization ensures data consistency across devices and platforms
during mobile computing.
o This is crucial for accessing the most up-to-date information while moving
across different locations.
 Security Concerns:
o As mobile devices often access public networks, security is a critical
characteristic of mobile computing.
o Techniques such as encryption, VPN, and biometric locks are used to protect
data.

Mobile IP:

Pyq Question:
 Explain basic terminologies of Mobile IP. [8]

Introduction:
 Mobile IP is a communication protocol that allows users to move across different
networks while maintaining a permanent IP address.
 It supports seamless internet connectivity for mobile devices, even while they
change their network attachment point.

Definition:
 Mobile IP is a standard protocol developed by IETF (Internet Engineering Task
Force) to facilitate mobility in IP networks without changing the IP address.
 It enables continuous internet sessions during the handover process in mobile
environments.

Basic Terminologies of Mobile IP:

 Mobile Node (MN):
 o A mobile node is a device, such as a smartphone or laptop, that can move from
one network to another while keeping its IP address fixed.
o It sends and receives packets even while changing locations.
 Home Agent (HA):
o A home agent is a router on the mobile node's home network which maintains
information about the device’s current location.
o It forwards the data to the mobile node when it is away from home network.
 Foreign Agent (FA):
o A foreign agent is a router that provides routing services to the mobile node
when it is visiting a foreign network.
o It communicates with the home agent to deliver data to the correct location
of the mobile node.
 Care-of Address (CoA):
o A care-of address is a temporary IP address assigned to the mobile node when
it is connected to a foreign network.
o It identifies the mobile node's current location in the foreign network.
 Correspondent Node (CN):
o A correspondent node is any device that communicates with the mobile node.
o It may be stationary or mobile and located in any part of the internet.

Diagram:
Explanation of Diagram:
 The Correspondent Node (CN) sends packets to the mobile node through the Home
Agent (HA), located in the mobile node’s original home network.
 The Home Agent uses tunneling to forward these packets to the Foreign Agent (FA)
in the foreign network where the mobile node is currently present.
 The Foreign Agent delivers the packets to the Mobile Node using its Care-of
Address (CoA).
 The mobile node can reply directly to the CN, or through the same tunneling route.

Additional Related Concepts:

 Tunneling:
o Tunneling is the process where the home agent encapsulates the original
packet and sends it to the foreign agent or CoA using a tunnel.
o This ensures the mobile node receives packets even when it changes its
network location.
 Binding:
o Binding is the association between a mobile node's home address and its care-
of address.
o The home agent uses binding to track the mobile node’s current location.
 Registration:
o The mobile node registers its care-of address with its home agent whenever
it moves to a new network.
o This process allows the home agent to update its binding table.

Mobile IP in MANETs:

Pyq Question:
 Explain MANETs using Mobile IP with suitable diagram. [8]

Introduction:
 MANET stands for Mobile Ad hoc Network, a wireless network formed by a group
of mobile devices without fixed infrastructure or centralized access points.
  Mobile IP enables seamless data communication and address consistency for devices
moving across different parts of MANETs or external networks.

Definition:
 A MANET is a self-configuring network of mobile nodes connected via wireless links.
Each node acts as both a router and a host.
 Mobile IP allows mobile nodes in MANETs to maintain their IP identity while moving
between networks, ensuring continuous data exchange.

Working of Mobile IP in MANETs:

 Dynamic Node Participation:
o Nodes in a MANET can join or leave the network at any time. Mobile IP
ensures ongoing sessions are not disrupted by such changes.
o It supports dynamic routing updates as nodes move around.
 Address Consistency:
o Mobile IP assigns a permanent IP address to mobile nodes, maintaining
identity across different networks.
o When a mobile node enters or exits a MANET, it registers its care-of address
with its home agent.
 Support for Multihop Communication:
o In MANETs, communication often occurs over multiple hops. Mobile IP
handles routing complexities while the mobile node roams across hops.
o Packets are tunneled from the home agent to the care-of address, even if the
node is deep in the MANET.
 Integration with Infrastructure Networks:
o When a MANET connects to an external network (e.g., the internet), Mobile
IP supports communication with external nodes.
o This enables mobile nodes inside the MANET to communicate with internet-
based services or users.
Diagram:
Explanation of Diagram:
 The Correspondent Node sends data to a mobile node inside a MANET via the Home
Agent, which maintains the mobile node's permanent IP address.
 The Home Agent tunnels the packet to a gateway router that connects the
infrastructure network to the MANET.
 Inside the MANET, the packet is forwarded hop-by-hop (e.g., from Mobile Node A
to D) until it reaches the destination mobile node.
 This structure allows seamless communication between a mobile node in MANET and
an external network.

Use Cases and Applications:

 Military and Rescue Operations:
 o Mobile IP in MANETs supports real-time communication in remote areas
without existing infrastructure.
o Devices stay connected and reachable even during rapid movements or
emergencies.
 Vehicular Ad hoc Networks (VANETs):
o Vehicles form temporary MANETs while moving and connect to infrastructure
using Mobile IP for traffic updates or infotainment systems.
o It provides uninterrupted communication and IP continuity during mobility.
 Disaster Recovery and Emergency Networks:
o In disaster-hit areas, MANETs using Mobile IP offer instant connectivity for
rescue workers and emergency responders.
o It ensures uninterrupted communication with central control stations or cloud
services.

Related Terminologies to Understand Usage:

 Binding Update:
o The mobile node informs its home agent of its current care-of address via a
binding update.
o This allows the home agent to forward packets to the correct location.
 Tunneling Mechanism:
o The encapsulation of packets from the home agent to the care-of address
helps in traversing different networks securely.
o Essential when nodes move between wired and wireless environments.
 Route Optimization:
o Some MANET implementations use route optimization so that data can travel
directly to the care-of address without going through the home agent.
o This reduces delay and bandwidth use in the MANET environment.

Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP):

Pyq Question:
 What is the basic purpose of DHCP? Explain the protocol with suitable diagram. [8]
  Explain with suitable data flow diagram, client initialization via DHCP. [8]

Introduction:
 DHCP stands for Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol, and it is used to
automatically assign IP addresses to hosts in a network.
 It reduces the administrative burden of manually assigning IP configurations like IP
address, subnet mask, default gateway, and DNS.

Definition:
 DHCP is a network management protocol that assigns dynamic IP addresses and
other network configuration details to client devices.
 It follows a client-server model, where a DHCP server provides configuration
parameters to requesting clients.

Purpose of DHCP:
 Automatic IP Allocation:
o DHCP helps in automatically assigning IP addresses to devices joining a
network, ensuring there is no conflict or duplication.
o This automation is essential in networks with hundreds or thousands of
clients.
 Ease of Network Management:
o Network administrators do not need to manually assign and track IP settings,
which simplifies management.
o DHCP can reassign IP addresses after leases expire or clients leave the
network.
 Centralized Control:
o The DHCP server centrally controls the entire pool of available IP addresses
and allocates them as per availability.
o Other settings like DNS server, default gateway, and lease time are also
distributed centrally.
 Supports Dynamic and Manual Allocation:
o DHCP supports both dynamic allocation (IP address assigned for a period) and
manual allocation (fixed IP based on MAC address).
 o This flexibility is helpful in managing both servers (fixed IP) and client
devices (dynamic IP).

DHCP Protocol Process:

 The DHCP protocol follows a four-step message exchange process called DORA:
o D = Discover
o O = Offer
o R = Request
o A = Acknowledgment

Diagram:

(fig. DHCP Protocol Workflow)

Explanation of Diagram:
 In the DHCP Discover step, the client broadcasts a message on the network to find
available DHCP servers.
 In the DHCP Offer step, the server responds with an available IP address and other
configurations.
 The DHCP Request step is where the client accepts the offer and requests that
specific IP.
 Finally, the DHCP Acknowledgment step confirms the assignment and the client can
start using the IP.

Client Initialization Using DHCP:

  Initial State - No IP Address:
o When a client boots up, it has no IP address assigned. It sends out a broadcast
DHCP Discover message on the network.
 Receiving Offer from Server:
o One or more DHCP servers respond with a DHCP Offer. Each offer includes
an IP address, subnet mask, lease duration, etc.
 Requesting Specific Offer:
o The client selects one of the offers and sends a DHCP Request message to
the selected server to accept the configuration.
 Acknowledgment from Server:
o The selected DHCP server replies with a DHCP Acknowledgment message,
finalizing the configuration and allowing the client to operate.
 Lease Period:
o The assigned IP address is valid for a limited period known as the lease. The
client must renew the lease periodically.
 Rebinding and Renewal:
o If the client remains on the network, it may renew its lease before expiry. If
the server is unavailable, it tries other servers.

Real-World Importance:
 DHCP is essential in environments like offices, colleges, or public Wi-Fi zones, where
users frequently join and leave the network.
 It ensures consistent, automatic IP management and reduces configuration errors
across thousands of devices.

Related Concepts:
 DHCP Lease Time:
o It defines how long the IP address is valid for a particular device. When it
expires, the IP can be reassigned.
 DHCP Relay Agent:
o In networks where the DHCP server is on another subnet, a relay agent
forwards DHCP messages between clients and server.
 Static vs Dynamic Configuration:
 o In static mode, an IP is permanently assigned based on MAC address. In
dynamic mode, IPs are assigned temporarily from a pool.

AdHoc Networks:

Pyq Question:
 What is an AdHoc network? Explain its characteristics and applications. [5]

Introduction:
 An AdHoc network is a temporary wireless network formed by a group of mobile
nodes without relying on any fixed infrastructure or centralized access point.
 It is often created spontaneously to enable direct communication between nearby
devices for quick and flexible connectivity.

Definition:
 An AdHoc network is a self-configuring network of mobile or static nodes where
each node communicates directly with others using wireless links.
 All devices in an AdHoc network act as both hosts and routers, forwarding data to
other nodes without any base station.

Key Characteristics of AdHoc Networks:

 Infrastructure-less Network:
o No central devices like routers, switches, or access points are needed.
Devices communicate directly with each other.
 Dynamic Topology:
o The structure of the network changes frequently as nodes move, join, or leave
the network, which requires robust routing protocols.
 Multi-hop Communication:
o If two nodes are not in direct range, intermediate nodes forward data,
enabling communication through multiple hops.
 Self-configuring and Decentralized:
 o Devices in AdHoc networks automatically detect and configure themselves
without manual intervention or pre-established infrastructure.
 Energy-Constrained Operation:
o Most devices are battery-powered, so energy efficiency in data transmission
and routing is essential.
 Limited Bandwidth and Range:
o Due to wireless communication, bandwidth is lower than wired networks, and
range is limited to the transmission capacity of nodes.

Diagram:

(fig. AdHoc Network Topology)

Explanation of Diagram:
 In fig.4.232, mobile nodes A, B, C, D, and E are shown as part of an AdHoc network.
 Node A sends data to Node C using Node B as an intermediate. Similarly, E reaches
B via D and C.
 Each node functions as both a sender and a router, ensuring connectivity through
multi-hop transmission.

Applications of AdHoc Networks:

  Military Communication:
o Used by defense forces in combat zones where no infrastructure exists.
Nodes communicate securely even under movement.
 Emergency and Disaster Relief:
o During natural disasters, emergency teams can use AdHoc networks for
communication when traditional systems are down.
 Vehicular AdHoc Networks (VANETs):
o Cars and roadside units form temporary networks to share traffic data and
road conditions, enhancing safety.
 Mobile Sensing and IoT:
o Sensor nodes form AdHoc networks to monitor environmental conditions or
industrial parameters without fixed connections.
 Personal Area Networks (PAN):
o Devices like phones, laptops, and tablets can form a direct AdHoc network for
file sharing or gaming.

Routing Protocols in AdHoc Networks:

Pyq Question:
 Explain the working of Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector (DSDV) protocol
with example. [8]

Introduction:
 In AdHoc networks, routing protocols decide how data is transferred between
mobile nodes in a decentralized, dynamic environment.
 Proactive protocols maintain up-to-date routing tables even if data is not being
transmitted, ensuring immediate route availability.

Definition:
 Destination-Sequenced Distance-Vector (DSDV) is a proactive routing protocol
designed for AdHoc networks based on the Bellman-Ford algorithm.
  Each node maintains a table with information about all reachable destinations and
the number of hops to reach them.

Diagram:

(fig. Working of DSDV protocol with route update)

Explanation of Diagram:
 In fig.4.232, Node A advertises a route to itself with sequence number 22 and 0
hops to Node B.
 Node B forwards this update to Node C, incrementing the hop count. Similarly, Node
C sends it to Node D.
 Every node updates its routing table only if the received sequence number is newer
or has fewer hops.

Working of DSDV Protocol:

 Routing Table Maintenance:
o Every node maintains a routing table containing destination address, number
of hops, next hop, and sequence number from the destination.
 Sequence Number:
 o Each destination generates a unique and increasing sequence number to avoid
routing loops and ensure the freshness of routes.
 Table Updates:
o Routing updates are sent periodically or when significant changes occur in the
network topology.
o There are two types of updates: full dump (entire table) and incremental (only
changes).
 Loop-Free Routing:
o Sequence numbers ensure loop-free and stable routes by choosing the route
with the highest sequence number.
 Route Selection:
o If two routes have the same destination, the route with the higher sequence
number is selected.
o If sequence numbers are equal, the route with the smaller number of hops is
chosen.

Example:
 Suppose Node A wants to communicate with Node D. Initially, D is unreachable, but
A receives updates from B, which gets information from C.
 If C sends an update with Destination D and sequence number 25, A stores this
route with hop count 3.
 If a later update from another path has Destination D with sequence number 24, A
ignores it since it is older.
 This method ensures the latest and most efficient routes are always used in the
network.

Advantages of DSDV:
 Guaranteed Loop-Free Routing:
o Sequence numbers eliminate routing loops, which are a common problem in
distance-vector protocols.
 Quick Route Availability:
o Since routes are maintained proactively, data can be forwarded immediately
without delay.
  Simple and Predictable Behavior:
o The protocol structure is easy to implement and debug due to its table-driven
approach.

Disadvantages of DSDV:
 Frequent Updates:
o Periodic table broadcasting consumes bandwidth and battery, especially in
highly mobile networks.
 Scalability Issues:
o It is not suitable for very large networks due to high update overhead and
memory usage in maintaining all routes.

Reactive Routing Protocol – DSR:

Pyq Question:
 How does Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) route the data? What are its advantages
and disadvantages? [8]

Introduction:
 In AdHoc networks, reactive routing protocols find routes only when data needs to
be transmitted, reducing overhead compared to proactive approaches.
 Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) is a reactive routing protocol designed for wireless
multi-hop networks, especially where nodes frequently change location.

Definition:
 DSR protocol is an on-demand routing technique where the entire path to the
destination is included in the packet header.
 It uses two main mechanisms: Route Discovery and Route Maintenance, eliminating
the need for periodic routing messages.

Working of DSR Protocol:

 Route Discovery:
 o When a source node needs to send data, it first checks its route cache.
o If no route is found, it broadcasts a Route Request (RREQ) message to all
neighboring nodes.
o Each node receiving the request appends its own address and forwards it until
it reaches the destination.
o The destination replies with a Route Reply (RREP) containing the complete
route back to the source.

Diagram:

(fig. Working of DSR protocol - Route Discovery and Maintenance)

Explanation of Diagram:
 In fig., the source node S initiates a route request (RREQ) by broadcasting to
neighbors.
 Each intermediate node appends its address and forwards it further until it reaches
destination D.
 The destination sends a route reply (RREP) with the complete path, allowing S to
send data along that path.

Route Maintenance:
  While forwarding packets, each node confirms successful transmission using
acknowledgments.
 If a link break is detected, a Route Error (RERR) message is sent to the source.
 The source then removes the invalid route from its cache and may start a new route
discovery process.

Features of DSR:
 Source Routing:
o Each data packet carries the full path to the destination in its header,
eliminating the need for routing tables.
 Caching:
o Nodes maintain route caches to store learned paths, which helps in faster
route discovery in future transmissions.
 No Periodic Updates:
o DSR avoids regular routing updates, saving battery and bandwidth in dynamic
environments.

Advantages of DSR:
 Efficient for Small Networks:
o Works well in small or moderately sized networks with low to moderate
mobility due to minimal overhead.
 Quick Recovery:
o Upon failure, it uses cached alternate paths or initiates new discovery quickly.
 No Periodic Control Packets:
o Reduces unnecessary traffic, which saves energy and improves network
lifetime.
 Route Learning:
o Nodes learn routes through observation, improving routing efficiency over
time.

Disadvantages of DSR:
 Header Overhead:
 o Since each packet carries the complete route, header size increases with path
length, wasting bandwidth.
 Poor Performance in Large Networks:
o Scalability becomes an issue due to increased processing and memory
requirements for maintaining route caches.
 Stale Cache Entries:
o Nodes may store outdated routes, leading to delivery failures or delays until
a new route is found.
 Broadcast Storms:
o Initial route discovery using broadcasting can overload the network, especially
when many nodes are active.

Reactive Routing Protocol – AODV:

Pyq Question:
 How does Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector Routing (AODV) route the data?
What are its advantages and disadvantages? [8]

Introduction:
 AODV is a reactive routing protocol used in mobile AdHoc networks where routes
are established only when required by the source node.
 It supports dynamic topology by minimizing routing overhead and maintains route
information only while actively communicating.

Definition:
 AODV protocol is an on-demand, loop-free, distance-vector routing protocol that
discovers and maintains routes as needed between nodes in a mobile network.
 It uses sequence numbers to ensure the freshness of routing information and
prevent routing loops.

Working of AODV Protocol:

 Route Discovery:
 o When a source needs to send data, it broadcasts a Route Request (RREQ)
packet to nearby nodes.
o The RREQ includes source and destination addresses, current sequence
numbers, and broadcast ID to identify requests.
o Intermediate nodes store reverse path to source and forward the RREQ
further until it reaches the destination or a node with a valid route.
o The destination (or intermediate node) sends a Route Reply (RREP) back to
the source using the reverse path.
o Once the source receives RREP, it starts data transmission through the
established route.

Diagram:

(fig.4.232 Working of AODV protocol - Route Discovery and Reply)

Explanation of Diagram:
 In fig.4.232, the source node S initiates a route request RREQ to destination D by
broadcasting through intermediate nodes A and B.
 Once the destination receives the RREQ, it sends a route reply RREP along the
reverse path to S.
 This establishes a complete forward path for communication from source to
destination.
Route Maintenance:
 If a link in the active route breaks, a Route Error (RERR) message is generated and
sent to the source node.
 The source can then reinitiate route discovery if the route is still needed.
 Active routes are monitored by periodic HELLO messages or link-layer feedback.

Features of AODV:
 On-demand Operation:
o Routes are only discovered when needed, which reduces unnecessary routing
traffic.
 Sequence Numbers:
o Ensures the freshness of routing information and avoids looping by using
destination sequence numbers.
 Scalability:
o Performs well in large networks due to its minimal control message overhead
during idle periods.

Advantages of AODV:
 Efficient Use of Bandwidth:
o By avoiding periodic updates, it conserves battery and reduces unnecessary
bandwidth usage.
 Fresh Routes:
o Sequence numbers ensure the most recent route is always used for packet
forwarding.
 Loop-Free Routing:
o Prevents data looping with the help of updated and unique destination
sequence numbers.
 Scalability and Flexibility:
o Suitable for networks with changing topology due to its adaptive route
discovery and maintenance mechanisms.

Disadvantages of AODV:
 Latency in Route Discovery:
 o Data transmission is delayed until a route is found, especially in high-mobility
environments.
 High Control Overhead in Large Networks:
o Frequent RREQ and RREP messages may cause network congestion as the
number of nodes increases.
 Route Maintenance Issues:
o Frequent topology changes may lead to broken links and require frequent
route rediscovery.
 No Route Caching:
o Unlike DSR, AODV does not maintain multiple routes in cache, which may limit
flexibility.

Comparison of Proactive and Reactive Routing Protocols:

Pyq Question:
 Compare proactive routing protocols with reactive routing protocols using table. [8]

Introduction:
 Routing protocols in AdHoc networks are mainly classified into proactive and
reactive types based on how they manage routing information.
 Understanding their differences helps in choosing the right protocol for specific
network needs.

Definition:
 Proactive routing protocols maintain fresh routes to all nodes at all times by
periodically updating routing tables.
 Reactive routing protocols create routes only when needed by the source node,
discovering routes on-demand.
Comparison Table:
Aspect Proactive Routing Protocols Reactive Routing Protocols
Route Maintains routes continuously Routes created only when
Maintenance through periodic updates needed through route discovery
Route Discovery Low delay since routes are always High delay due to route
Delay available discovery before data sending
Control High due to periodic broadcasting Low during idle, high during
Overhead of routing information route discovery
Scalability Less scalable for large networks More scalable as routing
due to overhead messages are on-demand
Bandwidth Usage Higher bandwidth consumption for Efficient bandwidth usage,
maintaining routes fewer control messages
Routing Table Large routing tables to store all Smaller routing tables with
Size possible routes active routes only
Suitability Suitable for networks with low Best for highly dynamic or large
mobility and stable topology networks
Examples DSDV, OLSR AODV, DSR

Hybrid Routing

Pyq Question:
 What is hybrid routing? Explain zone routing protocol (ZRP) with suitable diagram.
[8]

Introduction
 Hybrid routing combines features of both proactive and reactive routing to get
benefits of both types.
 It reduces control overhead like reactive routing and decreases route discovery
delay like proactive routing.

Definition
  Hybrid routing protocols maintain routing information proactively within a local
region and use reactive methods for distant nodes.
 This approach improves scalability and efficiency in dynamic and large networks.

Zone Routing Protocol (ZRP) :

 ZRP divides the network into overlapping zones based on a defined radius called
zone radius.
 Each node proactively maintains routing info within its own zone.
 For nodes outside the zone, route discovery is done reactively only when needed.
 This reduces the need for flooding the whole network with routing information.
 Inside the zone, nodes use IntrA-zone Routing Protocol (IARP) proactively.
 Between zones, nodes use IntEr-zone Routing Protocol (IERP) reactively to discover
routes.
 Bordercast Resolution Protocol (BRP) is used to efficiently send route requests to
border nodes, minimizing redundancy.

Diagram : (fig.4.78 Zone Routing Protocol structure)

Multicast Routing

Pyq Question:
 Explain On-Demand Multicast Routing Protocol (ODMRP) with suitable diagram. [8]

Introduction
 Multicast routing allows sending data from one source to multiple receivers
efficiently in a network.
 ODMRP is a mesh-based on-demand multicast routing protocol designed for mobile
ad hoc networks (MANETs).

Definition
 On-Demand Multicast Routing Protocol (ODMRP) creates multicast routes
dynamically only when needed.
 It builds and maintains a forwarding mesh rather than a tree to improve robustness
against node mobility.

Working of ODMRP :
 ODMRP works by periodically flooding a Join Query message from the source to
discover multicast group members.
 Nodes that receive the Join Query and are part of the multicast group respond
with Join Reply messages.
 The Join Reply message sets up a mesh of forwarding group nodes that forward
multicast data packets.
 Forwarding group nodes form a redundant mesh instead of a strict tree, which
enhances route reliability.
 The mesh is refreshed periodically to adapt to topology changes caused by mobility.
 Data packets are sent only through the mesh members, reducing overhead compared
to flooding the entire network.

Diagram : (fig.4.101 ODMRP Forwarding Mesh)

Explanation of Diagram :
 Fig.4.101 shows the source node flooding Join Query messages to discover multicast
members.
 Forwarding Group nodes FG1 and FG2 forward queries and replies, forming the
forwarding mesh.
 Receiver nodes R1 and R2 send Join Reply messages indicating membership in the
multicast group.
 Data packets are sent from the source through the mesh of forwarding nodes to all
receivers.

Vehicular Ad Hoc Networks (VANET)

Pyq Question:
 What is VANET? Explain its architecture and applications. [5]

Introduction
 VANET stands for Vehicular Ad Hoc Network, a special type of Mobile Ad Hoc
Network (MANET).
 It enables communication between vehicles and roadside infrastructure without
fixed networks.
 VANET improves road safety, traffic management, and passenger comfort using
wireless communication.
Definition
 VANET is a self-organizing network of vehicles equipped with communication
devices that connect dynamically while moving.
 It uses Vehicle-to-Vehicle (V2V) and Vehicle-to-Infrastructure (V2I)
communication methods.

Architecture of VANET :
 VANET architecture consists of three main components:
o Vehicles: Equipped with On-Board Units (OBUs) to communicate with other
vehicles and infrastructure.
o Roadside Units (RSUs): Fixed units along the road to provide communication
and traffic information.
o Communication links: Wireless links used for V2V and V2I communication
enabling data exchange.

Diagram : (fig.4.215 VANET Architecture)

Explanation of Diagram :
 Fig.4.215 shows vehicles communicating directly with each other using Vehicle-to-
Vehicle links.
  Vehicles also communicate with Roadside Units for information and services via
Vehicle-to-Infrastructure links.
 RSUs connect to internet/cloud for further data services and traffic management.

Applications of VANET :
 Enhances road safety by providing real-time warnings of accidents, traffic jams,
and hazards.
 Supports intelligent traffic management by sharing traffic conditions with
infrastructure.
 Enables infotainment and internet access for passengers inside vehicles.
 Facilitates emergency vehicle communication to clear traffic and reduce response
time.
 Assists in navigation and route planning by exchanging real-time traffic data.

Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANET)

Pyq Question:
 What is MANET? Explain its architecture and applications. [5]

Introduction
 MANET is a self-configuring, infrastructure-less network of mobile devices
connected wirelessly.
 Each device in MANET acts as a router and communicates directly with other
devices within range.
 MANETs are used where fixed infrastructure is not available or impractical.

Definition
 MANET stands for Mobile Ad Hoc Network, a decentralized wireless network
formed by mobile nodes without any fixed infrastructure or centralized
management.

Architecture of MANET :
  MANET architecture mainly includes:
o Mobile Nodes: Devices such as smartphones, laptops, or sensors that move
freely and communicate wirelessly.
o Routing Protocols: Algorithms used to discover and maintain routes between
nodes dynamically.
o Wireless Links: Connections between nodes formed over wireless
communication channels.

Diagram : (fig.4.101 MANET Architecture)

Explanation of Diagram :
 Fig.4.101 shows mobile nodes connected wirelessly forming a network without any
fixed infrastructure.
 Nodes communicate directly or via multi-hop routing through intermediate nodes to
reach distant nodes.
 This dynamic and flexible architecture adapts as nodes move, joining, or leaving the
network.

Applications of MANET :
 Military communications in battlefield where fixed infrastructure is unavailable.
  Disaster recovery and emergency situations for quick deployment of communication
networks.
 Vehicular communication systems for road safety and traffic management.
 Temporary networks for conferences, meetings, and events to share information.
 Wireless sensor networks for environmental monitoring and data collection.

MANET Vs VANET: Security

Pyq Question:
 Compare the security challenges in MANET and VANET using table. [5]

Introduction
 MANET and VANET are types of wireless ad hoc networks with different
environments and mobility patterns.
 Both face unique security challenges due to their decentralized nature and dynamic
topology.
 Understanding these differences is important for designing effective security
solutions.

Security Challenges in MANET and VANET :

 Security in MANET is complicated due to resource constraints and unpredictable
mobility of nodes.
 VANET has high mobility and frequent topology changes, making security more
challenging in fast-moving vehicles.
 Both networks face threats like eavesdropping, impersonation, denial of service, and
data tampering but in varying contexts.

Security Challenges Comparison Table :

Feature MANET VANET

Node Mobility Moderate mobility, nodes Very high mobility, vehicles
move randomly move at high speed
Network Topology Frequent changes, less Rapid topology changes due to
predictable vehicle speed
Resource Constraints Limited battery and Usually sufficient power but
processing power limited by vehicle hardware
Infrastructure Infrastructure-less, fully Some infrastructure support
decentralized like Road Side Units (RSU)
Security Threats Routing attacks, Privacy breaches, message
eavesdropping, tampering, DoS
impersonation
Real-Time Data Moderate Very high, critical for safety
Requirement messages
Privacy Concerns Less focus on privacy High privacy demand due to
tracking risk
 Unit 4 : Mobile IP and Transport Layer

Mobile IP

Pyq Question:
 Why is Mobile IP needed? Discuss the motivation behind its development. [5]

Introduction
 Mobile IP is a protocol designed to enable mobile devices to maintain their Internet
connectivity while moving across different networks.
 It allows devices to change their point of attachment to the Internet without
changing their IP address.

Definition
 Mobile IP is a communication protocol that provides seamless internet access to
mobile devices by managing IP address changes during mobility.

Need of Mobile IP :
 Mobile devices change their network locations frequently, which causes disruption
in ongoing internet sessions without Mobile IP.
 Traditional IP addressing depends on fixed network location, making mobile
communication difficult.
 Without Mobile IP, mobile users lose connectivity or must change IP address,
interrupting applications like video calls or file transfers.
 Mobile IP enables continuous connectivity and session persistence while moving
between different networks.
 It allows mobile devices to remain reachable via a permanent IP address regardless
of their current location.

Motivation Behind Development :

 The rapid increase of mobile devices required a method to maintain internet
sessions without interruption.
 Growing demand for applications like email, web browsing, and real-time
communication while on the move.
  Traditional IP protocols were not designed to handle mobility, causing issues like
dropped connections and inefficient routing.
 Mobile IP was developed to provide transparent mobility management without
changing existing Internet architecture.
 It supports scalability and interoperability between different types of networks
and devices.

Diagram : (fig.4.115 Mobile IP basic working diagram)

Explanation of Diagram :
 Fig.4.115 shows Mobile Node (MN) moving from Home Network (HN) to Foreign
Network (FN).
 Home Agent (HA) in HN tracks MN’s location and tunnels packets to Foreign Agent
(FA) in FN.
 FA receives packets on behalf of MN and delivers them locally.
 This mechanism hides the movement of MN from the rest of the internet,
maintaining a permanent IP address.

Additional points:
 Mobile IP supports both IPv4 and IPv6 networks for mobility.
 It reduces packet loss and latency during handoffs.
 Essential for mobile computing, telematics, and mobile internet services.
Mobile IP Packet Delivery

Pyq Question:
 Describe IP packet delivery between two mobile nodes in a Mobile IP network. Why
is reverse tunneling required? [8]

Introduction
 Mobile IP enables mobile nodes to maintain communication while moving across
different networks.
 Packet delivery between two mobile nodes is complex due to mobility and changing
network locations.

Definition
 IP packet delivery in Mobile IP refers to the process of routing data packets from
one mobile device to another despite their movement across networks.

Packet Delivery Between Two Mobile Nodes :

 Both nodes have permanent home addresses and temporary care-of addresses when
roaming.
 When Mobile Node 1 (MN1) sends a packet to Mobile Node 2 (MN2), the packet is
routed via their Home Agents (HA1 and HA2).
 MN1 sends packets to MN2's home address, which reaches HA2.
 HA2 tunnels the packet to MN2's current care-of address on the foreign network.
 Similarly, MN2 replies by sending packets to MN1’s home address, which HA1
tunnels to MN1's care-of address.
 This process maintains session continuity despite node mobility.

Why Reverse Tunneling is Required :

 Reverse tunneling allows packets from the mobile node to be sent back to its home
network via the home agent.
 It ensures packets are not dropped by firewalls or security filters in foreign
networks.
  Prevents routing issues caused by source IP address mismatches in foreign
networks.
 Helps maintain security and proper routing policies by sending all traffic through
the home agent.
 Supports mobile nodes in networks that only accept packets from registered IP
addresses.

Diagram : (fig.4.230 Mobile IP packet delivery between two mobile nodes)

Explanation of Diagram :
 Fig.4.230 shows MN1 sending a packet to MN2’s home address.
 HA2 intercepts and tunnels the packet to MN2’s care-of address on FN2.
 MN2 receives the packet via CoA2.
 Similarly, MN2’s reply goes through HA1 and is tunneled to MN1’s care-of address
CoA1 on FN1.
 This maintains proper routing despite node mobility and changing IP locations.

Additional points:
 Reverse tunneling maintains communication integrity for bidirectional data flow.
 Without reverse tunneling, packets may be blocked or routed incorrectly.
  Reverse tunneling supports roaming in enterprise or ISP networks with strict
policies.

Agent Discovery in Mobile IP

Pyq Question:
 What is agent discovery in Mobile IP? Explain its role and procedure. [5]

Introduction
 Mobile IP allows mobile devices to stay connected while moving between networks.
 Agent discovery helps a mobile node find its home agent or foreign agent in the
network.

Definition
 Agent discovery is the process by which a mobile node identifies the presence and
availability of home agents or foreign agents on the network.

Role of Agent Discovery :

 Enables the mobile node to detect when it moves into a new network.
 Helps the mobile node find foreign agents for registration when away from the
home network.
 Assists in maintaining seamless connectivity and correct routing of packets.
 Ensures mobile nodes can update their location to their home agents or foreign
agents.
 Helps in selecting the appropriate agent for efficient communication.

Procedure of Agent Discovery :

 Mobile nodes discover agents using agent advertisement and solicitation messages.
 Foreign agents periodically send agent advertisement messages to announce their
presence.
 Home agents also send advertisement messages if configured to do so.
 Mobile nodes listen to these advertisements to identify nearby agents.
  If a mobile node does not receive advertisements, it can send an agent solicitation
message requesting agents to respond.
 Upon receiving agent advertisements or solicitations, the mobile node registers with
the foreign agent or updates its location with the home agent.

Diagram : (fig.4.231 Agent discovery process in Mobile IP)

Explanation of Diagram :
 Fig.4.231 shows the foreign agent periodically sending agent advertisements to the
mobile node.
 The home agent may also send advertisements optionally.
 If the mobile node does not receive any advertisements, it sends an agent
solicitation message to request advertisements.
 Foreign agent responds with advertisements after solicitation.
 Mobile node then sends a registration request to the foreign agent.
 Foreign agent forwards registration to the home agent, enabling mobile node
communication.

Registration in Mobile IP

Pyq Question:
 Explain with diagram the registration process of a mobile node via foreign agent
(FA) and directly with home agent (HA). [8]

Introduction
  Registration is a key process in Mobile IP where a mobile node informs its home
agent about its current location.
 It allows the mobile node to receive packets while moving between different
networks.

Definition
 Registration is the process by which a mobile node updates its home agent with its
current care-of address, either via a foreign agent or directly.

Registration Process via Foreign Agent (FA) :

 Mobile node moves into a foreign network and detects a foreign agent.
 Mobile node sends a registration request to the foreign agent with its home address
and care-of address.
 Foreign agent authenticates the mobile node and forwards the registration request
to the home agent.
 Home agent updates the location binding with the care-of address and sends a
registration reply back to the foreign agent.
 Foreign agent forwards the registration reply to the mobile node confirming the
registration.

Registration Process Directly with Home Agent (HA) :

 Mobile node moves to a foreign network without a foreign agent available.
 Mobile node obtains a co-located care-of address by itself (e.g., via DHCP).
 Mobile node sends a registration request directly to its home agent with its care-
of address.
 Home agent updates the binding and sends a registration reply directly to the
mobile node.

Diagram : (fig.4.232 Registration process in Mobile IP via FA and direct HA)

Explanation of Diagram :
 Fig.4.232 illustrates two registration scenarios: via foreign agent and direct with
home agent.
 In the first scenario, the mobile node sends the registration request to the foreign
agent, which forwards it to the home agent.
 Home agent processes and replies back via foreign agent to the mobile node.
 In the second scenario, the mobile node communicates directly with the home agent
without any foreign agent involvement.
 This direct registration occurs when no foreign agent is present, and mobile node
uses a co-located care-of address.

Additional Points :
 Registration ensures packets are tunneled correctly to the mobile node's current
location.
 Authentication between mobile node, foreign agent, and home agent is essential to
secure registration.
 Registration lifetime specifies how long the registration is valid before renewal is
required.

Tunneling and Encapsulation in Mobile IP

Pyq Question:
 What is encapsulation in mobile IP? List different methods of encapsulation and
explain any one of them. [8]
 Why and when encapsulation is needed? List different methods of encapsulation and
explain any one of them. [8]

Introduction
 Encapsulation is a process in mobile IP to forward packets from the home agent to
the mobile node when it is away from home network.
 It helps to hide original packet details and carry them inside another packet for
delivery.
Definition
 Encapsulation means enclosing the original IP packet within a new IP packet with a
different IP header.
 This allows tunneling the packet through intermediate networks to the mobile
node's current location.

Why and When Encapsulation is Needed:

 Mobile node moves away from home network and receives a care-of address.
 Packets sent to the mobile node’s home address need to be forwarded to the care-
of address.
 Direct routing may not be possible due to network topology or mobility.
 Encapsulation helps redirect packets by tunneling them through the home agent to
the current location.
 It preserves the original packet and allows transparent delivery.

Different Methods of Encapsulation:

 IP-in-IP encapsulation
 Minimal encapsulation
 Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE)

Explanation of IP-in-IP Encapsulation:

 IP-in-IP encapsulation involves wrapping the original IP packet inside a new IP
packet.
 The outer IP header has source as home agent’s IP and destination as mobile node’s
care-of address.
 The inner IP header is the original packet with source and destination as mobile
node's home and correspondent node addresses.
 At the care-of address, the outer IP header is removed and original packet is
delivered to mobile node.
 This method is simple and widely used for mobile IP tunneling.
Route Optimization in Mobile IP

Pyq Question:
 What is route optimization in Mobile IP? Why is it important? [5]

Introduction:
 In Mobile IP, route optimization is introduced to improve routing efficiency when a
mobile node moves away from its home network.
 It reduces the delay and overhead caused by the triangular routing method used in
basic Mobile IP.

Definition:
 Route optimization is a technique in Mobile IP that allows the correspondent node
to send packets directly to the mobile node’s current care-of address.
 It avoids passing all traffic through the home agent, which causes inefficient
routing paths and additional delay.

Need for Route Optimization:

 In traditional Mobile IP, all packets first go to the home agent, then get forwarded
to the care-of address of the mobile node.
 This results in a triangular path which increases latency and unnecessary load on
the home agent.
 Route optimization eliminates this triangle routing by allowing correspondent node
to learn care-of address and communicate directly.
 It enhances the performance, especially for real-time and time-sensitive
applications like VoIP and video conferencing.
 It also reduces packet delay, saves bandwidth, and decreases processing load on the
home agent.

How Route Optimization Works:

 When mobile node moves to a new network, it sends a Binding Update (BU) message
to the correspondent node.
  The correspondent node stores this information in a binding cache that maps mobile
node’s home address to its care-of address.
 Later, packets are directly sent from the correspondent node to the mobile node’s
care-of address without passing through home agent.

Diagram : (fig.4.232 Route Optimization in Mobile IP)

Explanation of Diagram:
 Fig.4.232 shows how the correspondent node sends the data directly to the mobile
node’s care-of address using route optimization.
 The mobile node first informs the correspondent node about its current care-of
address using a Binding Update.
 Once the update is received, the correspondent node maintains this information and
sends all future packets directly to the new location.

Additional Information:
 Route optimization can include security features like authentication to prevent
misuse of binding updates.
 The binding cache entry at the correspondent node has a lifetime, after which it
must be refreshed.
 This method is crucial in mobile environments where delay-sensitive services are
affected by inefficient routing paths.
 Mobile IPv6 has built-in support for route optimization, making it more efficient
compared to Mobile IPv4.
IP Handoff in Mobile IP

Pyq Question:
 Explain IP handoff in Mobile IP. What challenges does it address? [5]

Introduction:
 IP handoff in Mobile IP is the process of maintaining ongoing communication when a
mobile node changes its network point of attachment.
 It ensures that active sessions like calls or downloads continue without interruption
as the device moves between networks.

Definition:
 IP handoff is the mechanism that handles the transition of the mobile node’s IP
connectivity from one network (or access point) to another.
 It allows seamless movement of the mobile node while maintaining the same IP
address using a new care-of address.

Need for IP Handoff:

 When a mobile node moves to a different network, its point of attachment changes
and it must acquire a new care-of address.
 Without handoff, the communication session would break, causing dropped calls or
lost data connections during movement.
 IP handoff enables session continuity and uninterrupted access to services while
roaming across heterogeneous networks.

Types of IP Handoff:
 Hard Handoff : The connection with the old access point is broken before
establishing a new connection. It may cause packet loss or delay.
 Soft Handoff : The new connection is made before the old one is released. This
reduces packet loss and delay, providing smoother transition.

Challenges Addressed by IP Handoff:

  Packet Loss : Without proper handoff, packets may get lost during the transition.
Handoff techniques help minimize or avoid such loss.
 Latency and Delay : Handoff delays may interrupt real-time applications. Efficient
handoff minimizes switching time and delay.
 Address Resolution : Acquiring a new care-of address and registering it with home
agent and correspondent node must happen quickly.
 Security : Mobility signaling must be secured to prevent attacks like session
hijacking during handoff.
 Seamless User Experience : For ongoing services like video call or streaming,
seamless handoff ensures continuity without user intervention.

Diagram : (fig.4.232 IP Handoff Process in Mobile IP)

Explanation of Diagram:
 Fig.4.232 shows a mobile node initially connected to an old network and moving to a
new network.
 After moving, the mobile node acquires a new care-of address and registers it with
the home agent.
 The home agent then redirects packets to the new care-of address, maintaining
seamless communication with the correspondent node.

Additional Information:
 IP handoff is also known as handover and is crucial in both Mobile IPv4 and Mobile
IPv6 networks.
 Techniques like Fast Handover for Mobile IPv6 (FMIPv6) and Hierarchical Mobile
IP (HMIP) are designed to reduce handoff delay.
 These advanced methods improve performance for high-speed mobility scenarios
like vehicular networks or high-speed trains.
Overview of Traditional TCP and Mobility Implications

Pyq Question:
 Discuss the limitations of traditional TCP in mobile environments. [5]

Introduction:
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a reliable transport layer protocol designed
originally for wired, stable networks.
 In mobile networks, the traditional TCP model shows performance issues due to
movement, disconnection, and varying signal quality.

Definition:
 TCP is a connection-oriented protocol that ensures data is delivered in order and
without errors through acknowledgment, retransmission, and congestion control.
 It assumes network topology is stable and packet losses occur only due to
congestion, not mobility.

Limitations of Traditional TCP in Mobile Environments:

 Misinterpretation of Packet Loss: TCP assumes all packet loss is caused by
congestion. In mobile environments, loss is often due to handoffs or signal loss.
 Inefficient Congestion Control: TCP reduces its sending rate after every perceived
loss. In mobile networks, this causes unnecessary slowdowns during normal
handoffs.
 Frequent Disconnections: Mobile devices often face disconnections due to network
change. TCP interprets this as link failure and restarts connection slowly.
 Increased Latency: Handovers in wireless networks introduce delay. TCP's
retransmission timeout increases latency further, degrading application
performance.
 No Support for IP Mobility: TCP connections break when IP address changes due to
movement. It lacks in-built mechanism to support mobile IP changes.
 Poor Throughput in High Mobility: Rapid movement causes frequent route changes,
which reduce throughput and affect real-time applications like video or VoIP.
  Retransmission Overhead: TCP retransmits lost packets multiple times
unnecessarily in mobile networks, increasing network load.
 Slow Start Issue: Every reconnection forces TCP to use the slow start algorithm,
reducing the data rate and delaying the application response.

Diagram : (fig.4.232 TCP Behavior in Mobile Networks)

Explanation of Diagram:
 Fig.4.232 shows a mobile node connected to the TCP sender through a wired network
and base station.
 Initially, data flows through the old network path. When the mobile node moves,
the path changes due to handoff.
 During this handoff, TCP may misinterpret delay as congestion, reduce its rate, or
even drop the connection.

Additional Information:
 Several enhancements like TCP Westwood, TCP Veno, and Mobile TCP (M-TCP) have
been proposed to improve TCP performance over mobile networks.
 Mobile IP helps maintain connection across networks, but TCP still requires
optimization to work efficiently over dynamic links.
 Split-connection approaches separate wireless and wired segments of TCP to isolate
wireless-induced issues.
 TCP-aware handoff techniques aim to notify TCP stack about mobility events, so
unnecessary congestion control is avoided.
Indirect TCP (I-TCP)

Pyq Question:
 Explain the modifications of Indirect TCP. What are its advantages and
disadvantages? [8]

Introduction:
 Traditional TCP fails to perform efficiently in mobile environments due to frequent
disconnections, handoffs, and wireless losses.
 Indirect TCP (I-TCP) is introduced to solve these problems by splitting the
connection at the base station level.

Definition:
 Indirect TCP is a protocol that separates the TCP connection into two parts: one
over a wired network and another over a wireless network.
 It is designed to isolate the mobile-related issues from the fixed host, maintaining
high performance in mobile environments.

Modifications in Indirect TCP:

 Split Connection: I-TCP splits the end-to-end connection into two separate
connections — fixed host to base station and base station to mobile host.
 Base Station Role: The base station maintains both connections independently,
handles retransmissions, and manages acknowledgments.
 Protocol Transparency: I-TCP is designed to be transparent to the fixed host and
the mobile node. It works without changing their TCP stacks.
 Performance Optimization: The wireless segment uses custom optimized TCP
parameters to deal with high loss and delay in wireless networks.
 Buffering Mechanism: Data is buffered at the base station during handoffs,
ensuring no data loss when mobile nodes switch cells.
 Error Recovery: Wireless errors are managed locally by the base station, so that
the fixed host is unaware of these losses.
 Connection Migration: During handoff, the mobile node's connection state is
transferred to the new base station to maintain session continuity.
Diagram : (fig.4.232 Architecture of Indirect TCP)

Explanation of Diagram:
 Fig.4.232 shows that the TCP connection is split into two parts at the base station.
 The fixed host communicates with the base station over a standard wired TCP
connection.
 The base station then communicates with the mobile host using a separate optimized
TCP connection for wireless communication.
 The base station manages buffering, retransmissions, and mobility-related
activities like handoff.

Advantages of Indirect TCP:

 Improved Performance: Wireless-specific problems are handled locally without
affecting the wired TCP performance.
 No Need to Modify TCP at Host: The fixed host continues to use standard TCP with
no changes in its protocol stack.
 Reduced Packet Loss Impact: Losses over the wireless link do not impact the wired
TCP connection, reducing unnecessary retransmissions.
 Fast Handoff Support: Data is buffered at the base station during handoffs,
avoiding data loss and retransmission delays.
 Optimized Wireless Parameters: TCP parameters for congestion and error handling
are tuned specifically for the wireless connection.

Disadvantages of Indirect TCP:

 Breaks End-to-End Semantics: Since TCP is split, acknowledgments may be sent to
the fixed host even if the mobile host has not received the data.
 More Complex Infrastructure: Requires base station to maintain connection states
and manage buffers, increasing overhead.
 Scalability Issues: Maintaining multiple simultaneous I-TCP sessions at the base
station may lead to performance degradation.
  Handoff Overhead: Transferring connection state during handoffs adds complexity
and delay.
 Security Concerns: Splitting connections opens potential vulnerabilities at the base
station where data and control are exposed.

Additional Information:
 Indirect TCP was one of the early approaches for mobile support in TCP, but its
limitations led to development of other protocols like Mobile TCP and M-TCP.
 Modern alternatives often use end-to-end mobility-aware protocols that preserve
TCP’s original design principles while supporting handoffs more smoothly.

Snoop TCP

Pyq Question:
 Explain snooping TCP with proper diagram. List its advantages and disadvantages.
[8]
 Compare indirect TCP, snooping TCP and mobile-TCP using table. [8]

Introduction:
 In mobile environments, traditional TCP faces major performance issues due to
packet loss, mobility, and handoffs.
 Snoop TCP is a protocol designed to improve TCP performance over wireless links by
enhancing error recovery at the base station.

Definition:
 Snoop TCP is a TCP-aware link-layer mechanism where the base station snoops or
monitors the TCP packets and helps with local retransmissions.
 It does not split the TCP connection but acts as a transparent agent between the
mobile node and the fixed host.

Working Principle of Snoop TCP:

  Packet Monitoring: The base station monitors TCP segments passing between the
fixed host and mobile host.
 Caching Data: It stores unacknowledged data packets temporarily for
retransmission in case of wireless packet loss.
 Suppressing Duplicate ACKs: Duplicate acknowledgments generated by the mobile
host are suppressed to avoid false congestion detection.
 Local Retransmission: On detecting loss, the base station retransmits lost packets
without involving the fixed host.
 Maintains End-to-End Semantics: The original TCP connection remains unchanged
and intact end-to-end from fixed to mobile host.
 Acknowledgment Monitoring: It tracks ACKs from the mobile host to clear stored
packets and identify packet losses.

Diagram : (fig.4.232 Architecture of Snoop TCP)

Explanation of Diagram:
 Fig.4.232 shows the placement and function of the snoop agent at the base station.
 The fixed host sends TCP packets to the mobile host through the base station,
where they are cached.
 If the mobile host sends duplicate ACKs, the snoop agent retransmits the lost
packets directly.
 Only necessary ACKs are passed to the fixed host, preserving end-to-end TCP
behavior.

Advantages of Snoop TCP:

 Improved Wireless Performance: It handles wireless losses locally, minimizing delay
and retransmissions from the fixed host.
 Maintains TCP Semantics: Since the connection is not split, end-to-end
acknowledgments and reliability are preserved.
  Transparent Implementation: Works without needing changes in the TCP stacks of
mobile or fixed hosts.
 Efficient Use of Resources: Reduces unnecessary retransmissions and congestion
control from the fixed host.
 Supports Fast Recovery: Local retransmissions are faster than those initiated from
the fixed host.

Disadvantages of Snoop TCP:

 Limited to Same Path ACKs: It assumes data and ACKs flow through the same base
station, which may not always be true.
 Base Station Complexity: It adds processing and storage overhead to the base
station for snooping and caching packets.
 Not Suitable for Encrypted Traffic: Cannot function if TCP headers or payloads are
encrypted (e.g., with IPsec).
 No Support for Frequent Handoffs: The protocol does not efficiently handle
mobility across base stations with fast handoffs.

Comparison of Indirect TCP, Snoop TCP and Mobile TCP:

Feature Indirect TCP Snoop TCP Mobile TCP

Connection Split Yes, at base No No
station
End-to-End No Yes Yes
Semantics Maintained
Local Retransmission Yes, by base Yes, by snoop agent No, only sender
station retransmits
Works with Yes No Yes
Encrypted Traffic
Mobility Support Supports handoff Limited, not ideal Better support with
via state transfer for frequent move feedback to sender
Implementation High, requires Moderate, needs Low, works with
Complexity session tracking packet caching feedback and window
 Fixed Host No No No
Modification
TCP Stack No No Yes, sender must
Modification Needed understand signals

 This table highlights that while Snoop TCP is effective in improving wireless TCP
performance, it is restricted by encryption and mobility issues.
 Mobile TCP was developed to solve mobility problems while maintaining end-to-end
performance without splitting the connection.

Mobile TCP

Pyq Question:
 Write short note on mobile-TCP. List its advantages and disadvantages. [8]

Introduction:
 Traditional TCP does not handle mobility and wireless link issues well, leading to poor
performance during handoffs and wireless losses.
 Mobile TCP (M-TCP) was designed to improve TCP performance in mobile
environments without violating end-to-end TCP semantics.

Definition:
 Mobile TCP is a protocol that separates the connection into two parts using a
"sender proxy" near the wireless edge while keeping end-to-end reliability intact.
 It allows better support for handoffs and wireless errors by pausing the fixed-to-
proxy connection when the mobile device is temporarily unreachable.

Working of Mobile TCP:

 Split Control: The connection is logically divided into fixed-to-proxy and proxy-to-
mobile parts, not breaking the actual end-to-end TCP link.
 No Packet Hiding: Unlike Indirect TCP, it does not hide wireless losses from the
fixed host but manages them intelligently.
  Flow Control Mechanism: M-TCP controls the window size sent to the sender to
pause the flow when the mobile is disconnected.
 Pause and Resume Capability: During handoffs or disconnection, the fixed host’s
data flow is paused and resumed automatically without triggering congestion
control.
 End-to-End ACKs: ACKs from the mobile host still reach the fixed host, maintaining
the standard TCP semantics.

Diagram : (fig.4.232 Mobile TCP Architecture)

Explanation of Diagram:
 Fig.4.232 illustrates the architecture of Mobile TCP, where a proxy near the base
station interacts with both the fixed and mobile host.
 The proxy helps monitor link status and can pause data flow during disconnection to
prevent congestion at the fixed sender.
 ACKs continue to flow from mobile to fixed host through the proxy, ensuring
reliable data delivery.

Advantages of Mobile TCP:

 Supports Handoff and Disconnection: It handles temporary disconnections
gracefully without breaking the TCP connection.
 Maintains TCP End-to-End Semantics: It allows normal TCP operation by preserving
acknowledgment flow and connection integrity.
 Avoids Congestion Misinterpretation: Prevents the fixed host from reducing its
sending rate due to mobility-related losses.
 No Changes Required at Fixed Host: Only proxy and mobile host need slight
modifications, keeping the infrastructure lightweight.
 Adaptive Flow Control: Adjusts the sender’s window size dynamically based on the
connectivity status of the mobile host.
Disadvantages of Mobile TCP:
 Increased Complexity: Adds protocol logic at the proxy and may require kernel-level
changes at the mobile host.
 Resource Usage at Proxy: Proxy must maintain per-connection state, consuming
memory and processing capacity.
 Delay During Handoff: Although handled well, delays can still occur while switching
between networks or base stations.
 Limited Deployment: Mobile TCP is not widely supported in commercial stacks and
may face compatibility challenges.

Additional Notes on Suitability:

 Mobile TCP is well-suited for scenarios with frequent disconnections and re-
connections such as in mobile cellular networks.
 It strikes a balance between performance improvement and compatibility by
preserving end-to-end semantics while optimizing wireless behavior.

Fast Retransmit / Fast Recovery

Pyq Question:
 What is fast retransmit and fast recovery in TCP? How do they help in mobility?
[5]

Introduction:
 In TCP, data transmission may face packet loss due to congestion or mobility-
related issues such as handoffs or link errors.
 Fast retransmit and fast recovery mechanisms are designed to improve TCP
performance by responding quickly to such events.

Definition:
 Fast retransmit is a TCP technique that triggers retransmission of a lost segment
before the retransmission timer expires.
  Fast recovery is used to avoid unnecessary reduction of the congestion window
during loss, thus maintaining better throughput.

Concept of Fast Retransmit:

 When a TCP sender receives three duplicate ACKs, it assumes a segment is lost
without waiting for the timeout.
 It immediately retransmits the missing segment, hence reducing the delay caused
by the timer-based retransmission.
 This is crucial in mobile environments where packet loss may occur not due to
congestion but due to mobility or weak wireless links.

Concept of Fast Recovery:

 After fast retransmit, instead of reducing the congestion window to one, TCP
reduces it moderately and enters fast recovery phase.
 It allows transmission of new data packets for each duplicate ACK received until a
full acknowledgment is received.
 This prevents TCP from going into slow start unnecessarily, keeping the network
pipe filled efficiently.

Usefulness in Mobility:
 Avoids Long Delays: In mobile networks, retransmission timers may delay recovery;
fast retransmit reduces this wait.
 Minimizes Throughput Drop: Fast recovery prevents sudden drops in sending rate
during handoffs or link errors, improving data flow.
 Adapts to Wireless Losses: Many losses in mobile scenarios are due to weak signals,
not congestion, so avoiding slow start helps.
 Maintains Connection Stability: Helps in keeping the TCP connection alive during
momentary disconnections in mobile scenarios.

Additional Notes:
 These mechanisms are implemented at the sender side and require no changes at
the receiver or intermediate network.
  They are especially important in mobility protocols like mobile-TCP or snooping TCP
where link losses are frequent.

Time-out Freezing

Pyq Question:
 Explain the concept of time-out freezing in TCP. Why is it used in mobile networks?
[5]

Introduction:
 TCP is a reliable transport protocol designed for wired networks where link
conditions are generally stable and packet loss means congestion.
 In mobile networks, frequent disconnections during handoff or movement can cause
unnecessary TCP time-outs and retransmissions.

Definition:
 Time-out freezing is a technique used in mobile TCP to temporarily suspend TCP’s
retransmission timer during disconnections or handoffs.
 It helps in preventing false time-outs and unnecessary retransmissions when the
mobile host becomes temporarily unreachable.

Working Principle:
 The mobile host informs the fixed host (sender) about a temporary disconnection
or handoff.
 Upon receiving this notification, the fixed host freezes its retransmission timers
to avoid triggering time-out events.
 Once the mobile host reconnects and notifies the sender, timers are resumed
without resetting the connection.

Use in Mobile Networks:

 In mobile environments, handoffs or signal losses can cause short disconnections,
misinterpreted by TCP as congestion.
  Time-out freezing prevents this misinterpretation, thus avoiding reduction in
congestion window and maintaining better throughput.

Diagram : (fig.4.232 Time-out Freezing in Mobile TCP)

Explanation of Diagram:
 Fig.4.232 shows the interaction between the mobile host and fixed host during
time-out freezing.
 When the mobile host knows it will be temporarily unreachable (e.g., during
handoff), it sends a freeze signal to the fixed host.
 The fixed host freezes its retransmission timer to avoid unnecessary actions like
retransmitting or reducing window size.
 After reconnection, the mobile host sends a resume signal, and the TCP session
continues normally.

Advantages of Time-out Freezing:

 Prevents False Congestion Detection: Avoids mistaking temporary disconnection for
network congestion, thus protecting throughput.
 Reduces Unnecessary Retransmissions: Retransmitting during a disconnect wastes
resources and degrades performance.
  Maintains Congestion Window: Helps in avoiding slow start, keeping the transmission
rate stable even after handoff.
 Enhances TCP Reliability in Mobile Scenarios: Adapts TCP’s behavior to the dynamic
nature of wireless mobile environments.

Additional Notes:
 Time-out freezing requires interaction with the mobility management layer to
detect and inform about expected disconnections.
 This technique is used in protocols like M-TCP where TCP behavior is optimized for
mobile conditions.

Selective Retransmission

Pyq Question:
 Write short note on selective retransmission, an extension of TCP. List its
advantages and disadvantages. [8]

Introduction:
 Traditional TCP retransmits all segments after a packet loss, even if many of them
were successfully received.
 Selective retransmission improves efficiency by retransmitting only the missing or
corrupted segments instead of the entire window of data.

Definition:
 Selective retransmission (also known as Selective Acknowledgment or SACK) is a
TCP extension that enables the receiver to inform the sender about specific
segments that were received correctly.
 This allows the sender to retransmit only those segments that were actually lost,
improving bandwidth usage and reliability.

Working of Selective Retransmission:

  Receiver uses SACK option to inform the sender about successfully received
segments within the window.
 Sender checks the SACK information and retransmits only the segments that are
missing.
 This mechanism is especially useful in high latency or high error-rate environments
like wireless or mobile networks.

Diagram : (fig.4.232 Selective Retransmission in TCP)

Explanation of Diagram:
 In fig.4.232, the sender transmits a sequence of segments from 1 to 5.
 Segment 3 is lost in transit, but segments 4 and 5 arrive correctly.
 The receiver sends an acknowledgment for segment 2 and includes a SACK option
listing segments 4 and 5.
 The sender now only retransmits segment 3, avoiding redundant retransmissions.

Advantages of Selective Retransmission:

 Efficient Bandwidth Usage: Only missing segments are retransmitted, saving
bandwidth especially over slow or unreliable links.
 Improves Performance in High Loss Scenarios: Works better than cumulative ACK
in environments like mobile or satellite networks.
 Reduces Unnecessary Data Transfer: Prevents retransmission of correctly received
data, avoiding extra load on the network.
  Better Throughput: Maintains higher data transmission rate by reducing
retransmission delays.

Disadvantages of Selective Retransmission:

 Increased Complexity: Requires more complex logic on both sender and receiver to
track and process SACK options.
 Higher Overhead: Adds extra information in the TCP header due to SACK blocks,
which increases control data.
 Not Supported Universally: Older systems or devices might not support selective
acknowledgment extensions.
 Limited SACK Space: Only a few missing blocks can be reported at once due to TCP
option size limitations.

Additional Notes:
 SACK is typically enabled using TCP options during the connection setup via the SYN
segment.
 Modern operating systems support SACK by default, especially in mobile and
broadband applications where network conditions fluctuate.

Transaction-oriented TCP

Pyq Question:
 Explain transaction-oriented TCP with suitable diagram. What are its advantages
and disadvantages? [8]

Introduction:
 Traditional TCP is connection-oriented, designed for long sessions with continuous
data transfer.
 Transaction-oriented TCP adapts TCP for short-lived transactions, common in web
browsing or mobile applications.
 It optimizes TCP behavior for quick request-response interactions to reduce delay
and overhead.
Definition:
 Transaction-oriented TCP is a modification of standard TCP aimed at supporting
quick, short data exchanges without maintaining a long connection.
 It reduces connection setup and teardown time to improve performance for small
data transfers like web transactions.

Working of Transaction-oriented TCP:

 TCP connection setup is optimized by reusing existing connections or reducing
handshake steps.
 Data exchange is done quickly and connection is closed immediately after the
transaction.
 This reduces the overhead and latency for short-lived communications.

Diagram : (fig.4.245 Transaction-oriented TCP connection sequence)

Explanation of Diagram:
 In fig.4.245, the client initiates a TCP connection with SYN, server responds with
SYN-ACK, client replies with ACK.
 Client sends a short HTTP request, server sends a short response.
 Connection closes quickly with FIN and ACK packets exchanged, suitable for quick
transactions.
 Transaction-oriented TCP reduces delays during connection setup and teardown
phases for faster interaction.
Advantages of Transaction-oriented TCP:
 Reduced Latency: Faster connection setup and teardown leads to quicker data
transfers for small transactions.
 Efficient for Short Data: Designed specifically for short request-response
patterns common in mobile and web applications.
 Less Resource Usage: Reduces overhead by minimizing time connections remain
open, freeing resources for other tasks.
 Improves User Experience: Faster response times improve performance perception
in interactive applications.

Disadvantages of Transaction-oriented TCP:

 More Connection Overheads: Frequent opening and closing of connections can cause
more load on network and servers.
 Potential Congestion: Rapid connection setups might increase congestion or cause
resource exhaustion under heavy load.
 Not Ideal for Long Sessions: Loses benefits of traditional TCP’s continuous data
flow optimizations in long-lived connections.
 Complexity in Implementation: Requires changes to TCP stack and application logic
to handle fast connection cycles properly.

Additional Notes:
 Transaction-oriented TCP is particularly useful in HTTP/1.0 and early mobile
networks but newer protocols like HTTP/2 and QUIC use multiplexing to solve
similar problems.
 It balances the need for reliable TCP features with the speed demanded by short
data exchanges in modern networks.
 Unit 5 : Fading Channels

Rayleigh Fading and Statistical Characterization

Pyq Question:
 Explain fading in detail? Classify types of fading. [7]

Introduction:
 Fading is the variation in the strength of a received radio signal over time or space
caused by multiple propagation paths.
 It occurs due to the constructive and destructive interference of the signal waves
arriving at the receiver from different paths.
 Fading impacts the quality and reliability of wireless communication systems.

Definition:
 Fading is the fluctuation or attenuation of signal amplitude and phase caused by the
propagation environment affecting the transmitted wave.
 It leads to signal strength variation over time, frequency, or spatial position of the
receiver.

Causes of Fading:
 Multipath propagation where signals reflect, diffract, and scatter due to obstacles
like buildings, trees, and terrain.
 Movement of transmitter, receiver, or objects in the environment causing Doppler
shifts and time variations.
 Atmospheric conditions also contribute to signal fluctuation.

Classification of Fading:
 Large-scale fading:
o Occurs over large distances (hundreds of meters to kilometers).
o Caused mainly by path loss and shadowing due to obstacles blocking the signal
path.
o Results in slow variation of the received signal power.
 Small-scale fading:
o Occurs over short distances (a few wavelengths) or short time durations.
 o Caused by multipath propagation and rapid movement of transmitter or
receiver.
o Leads to rapid fluctuations of signal amplitude and phase.
 Flat fading:
o All frequency components of the signal experience the same magnitude of
fading.
o Happens when the signal bandwidth is less than the channel coherence
bandwidth.
o The signal is affected uniformly across its frequency spectrum.
 Frequency selective fading:
o Different frequency components of the signal experience different fading
levels.
o Occurs when the signal bandwidth is larger than the channel coherence
bandwidth.
o Causes distortion of the signal waveform due to unequal fading across
frequencies.
 Slow fading:
o Signal variations happen slowly compared to the symbol duration.
o Often caused by shadowing or changes in large obstacles near the path.
 Fast fading:
o Rapid changes in signal amplitude and phase within a symbol duration.
o Caused by multipath and Doppler shifts due to movement.

Diagram : (fig.3.12 Types of fading overview)

Explanation of Diagram:
  Fig.3.12 shows fading divided mainly into large-scale and small-scale categories
based on range and cause.
 Large-scale fading is due to path loss and shadowing, slow varying over distance.
 Small-scale fading arises from multipath effects causing fast signal fluctuations.
 Small-scale fading is further classified into flat fading (uniform across frequencies)
and frequency selective fading (varies with frequency).
 Slow and fast fading refer to the rate of signal variation relative to the symbol
period.

Additional Information:
 Understanding fading types helps in designing suitable mitigation techniques like
diversity, equalization, and error correction.
 Rayleigh fading model is widely used to statistically describe multipath fading where
no direct line of sight exists.
 Fading characterization includes statistical parameters like amplitude distribution,
Doppler spectrum, and correlation functions.

Rayleigh Distribution

Pyq Question:
 Explain Rayleigh distribution. How mean and variance of Rayleigh distribution is
calculated? [7]

Introduction:
 Rayleigh distribution models the statistical behavior of signal amplitude in multipath
fading environments.
 It is used when there is no direct line of sight between transmitter and receiver.
 This distribution applies to scenarios where received signal is the sum of many
random scattered waves.

Definition:
  Rayleigh distribution is a continuous probability distribution for non-negative
random variables.
 It describes the magnitude of a two-dimensional vector whose components are
independent Gaussian variables with zero mean.
 It is widely used in wireless communication to model small-scale fading amplitude.

Probability Density Function (PDF):

 The PDF of Rayleigh distribution depends on a scale parameter sigma (σ), related to
the spread of the data.
 It gives the probability of signal amplitude being a certain value in a multipath fading
environment.

Mean of Rayleigh Distribution:

 The mean value represents the average amplitude of the received signal.
 It is calculated using the scale parameter σ and a constant approximately equal to
1.253.
 Mean = σ multiplied by square root of (π/2), which numerically equals about 1.253
times σ.

Variance of Rayleigh Distribution:

 Variance measures the spread or dispersion of signal amplitudes around the mean
value.
 It depends on σ and is calculated using a formula involving π and constants.
 Variance = ( (4 - π) / 2 ) multiplied by σ squared, approximately 0.429 times σ
squared.

Additional Notes:
 Rayleigh distribution is key to modeling wireless channel characteristics in urban
areas.
 It helps predict signal fading and design robust communication systems using
diversity and error correction.
 Understanding mean and variance assists in analyzing signal strength variability and
quality of service.
Ricean Fading

Pyq Question:
 Explain Ricean fading channel model.
 Differentiate between Rayleigh fading and Ricean fading. [7]

Introduction:
 Ricean fading models wireless channels where there is a dominant direct signal path
plus multiple scattered paths.
 It occurs when line of sight (LOS) exists between transmitter and receiver along
with reflected signals.
 The model helps analyze real-world wireless communication with both direct and
multipath components.

Definition of Ricean Fading Channel Model:

 Ricean fading channel represents signal amplitude variations with a strong LOS
component combined with random scattered waves.
 The amplitude follows Ricean distribution characterized by the Rice factor (K),
which measures the power ratio of LOS to scattered components.
 Higher K value means stronger LOS signal, lower K approaches Rayleigh fading which
has no LOS.

Characteristics of Ricean Fading:

 Signal strength fluctuates due to constructive and destructive interference of
direct and scattered waves.
 Useful in urban or suburban wireless systems where a clear path is usually present.
 The Ricean distribution can be described mathematically, but here focus is on
conceptual understanding.

Diagram : (fig.4.40 Ricean Fading Channel Model)

Explanation of Diagram:
 Fig.4.40 shows transmitter sending signals via a direct LOS path and multiple
reflected paths.
 LOS path is stronger and stable, multipath causes fading and fluctuations in
received signal amplitude.
 This combined effect creates Ricean fading in wireless channel.

Difference between Rayleigh and Ricean Fading:

 Rayleigh fading occurs when no LOS path is present; only scattered multipath
components exist.
 Ricean fading includes a LOS signal plus scattered multipath, making it less severe
than Rayleigh fading.
 Rayleigh fading amplitude follows Rayleigh distribution, Ricean fading amplitude
follows Ricean distribution with Rice factor K.
 Ricean fading has better signal quality on average due to the dominant LOS
component.
 Rayleigh fading is common in dense urban areas with obstacles blocking LOS.
 Ricean fading is common in open areas or scenarios with partial LOS like suburban
or indoor environments.

Underlined and italicized key differences:

 Presence of LOS: Ricean has LOS, Rayleigh does not.
 Signal strength: Ricean generally stronger and more stable.
  Statistical distribution: Ricean uses Rice distribution, Rayleigh uses Rayleigh
distribution.
 Application scenario: Rayleigh for blocked LOS, Ricean for partial or full LOS.

Narrowband vs Wideband Channels

Pyq Question:
 Compare wideband and narrowband channels using table.
 List any two channel models used in the mentioned channels. [7]

Introduction:
 Wireless communication channels vary based on signal bandwidth and frequency
characteristics.
 Narrowband and wideband channels represent two major types with distinct
properties and models.
 Understanding their differences helps in designing communication systems properly.

Definition of Narrowband Channel:

 Narrowband channel has signal bandwidth much smaller than the channel's
coherence bandwidth.
 It experiences flat fading where all frequency components of the signal fade
equally.
 Typically used in low data rate or voice communication systems.

Definition of Wideband Channel:

 Wideband channel has signal bandwidth larger than the channel's coherence
bandwidth.
 It experiences frequency selective fading where different frequency components
fade differently.
 Used in high data rate systems such as broadband internet or multimedia
transmission.
Comparison Table between Narrowband and Wideband Channels:

Features Narrowband Channel Wideband Channel

Bandwidth Signal bandwidth is much less than Signal bandwidth is greater than
coherence bandwidth coherence bandwidth
Fading Type Flat fading (uniform across Frequency selective fading
frequency) (varies with frequency)
Delay Spread Negligible multipath delay spread Significant multipath delay
spread
Impact on Signal experiences uniform Signal components fade
Signal attenuation differently causing distortion
Application Voice communication, low data rate High speed data, multimedia
applications

Channel Models used in Narrowband and Wideband Channels:

 Narrowband Channel Models:
o Rayleigh fading channel model: Models multipath fading without line of sight.
o Ricean fading channel model: Models multipath fading with a dominant direct
path.
 Wideband Channel Models:
o Saleh-Valenzuela model: Models multipath propagation with clusters of
arrivals.
o tapped delay line model: Represents channel impulse response with multiple
discrete delays.

Additional Important Points:

 Coherence bandwidth defines the frequency range over which the channel response
is flat.
 Multipath delay spread causes frequency selective fading in wideband channels.
 Narrowband fading affects amplitude uniformly while wideband causes inter-symbol
interference.
Characterization of Multipath Fading Channels

Pyq Question:
 Describe multipath propagation with neat diagram. What is ISI in multipath fading
channels?
 Explain reflection, scattering and ISI in multipath fading channel with suitable
diagram. [7]

Introduction:
 Multipath propagation occurs when transmitted signals reach the receiver via
multiple paths caused by obstacles.
 This phenomenon affects the quality and reliability of wireless communication.
 Understanding multipath effects is crucial for designing robust communication
systems.

Definition of Multipath Propagation:

 Multipath propagation is when radio waves travel along different paths due to
reflection, diffraction, and scattering.
 These multiple copies of the signal arrive at the receiver at different times causing
signal distortion.
 It results in constructive or destructive interference affecting signal strength and
quality.

Explanation of Inter-Symbol Interference (ISI):

 ISI occurs when delayed versions of a signal overlap with subsequent signals,
causing distortion.
 It happens due to multipath delay spread in fading channels where multiple paths
have different travel times.
 ISI reduces data transmission accuracy and system performance.

Multipath Propagation Diagram: (fig.6.15 Multipath Propagation Model)

Explanation of Diagram:
 Fig.6.15 shows transmitter signals traveling through direct, reflected, scattered,
and diffracted paths to receiver.
 Different arrival times lead to multipath fading and cause ISI in the received signal.

Reflection in Multipath Channel:

 Reflection occurs when waves bounce off large smooth surfaces like buildings or
water bodies.
 It causes delayed signal copies that interfere with the direct signal at the receiver.
 Reflected waves may have altered phase and amplitude affecting signal quality.

Scattering in Multipath Channel:

 Scattering happens when waves hit small objects or rough surfaces comparable to
wavelength size.
 It disperses energy in multiple directions, creating many weak signal paths.
 Scattering causes signal fading and time dispersion in multipath channels.

ISI in Multipath Channel:

 ISI results from overlapping of delayed multipath signals causing confusion between
adjacent symbols.
 It leads to errors in symbol detection and lowers the communication system’s
performance.
 Equalization techniques are used to mitigate ISI in receivers.
Additional Important Points:
 Multipath delay spread is the difference between arrival times of the earliest and
latest multipath signals.
 Delay spread impacts the design of modulation and coding schemes to combat ISI.
 Multipath effects are more severe in urban environments due to many reflectors
and scatterers.

Choice of Modulation

Pyq Question:
 How does the choice of modulation scheme affect performance in fading
environments? [5]

Introduction:
 Modulation schemes determine how information is transmitted over wireless
channels.
 Their choice is crucial because wireless channels often experience fading, which
impacts signal quality.
 Different modulation types behave differently under fading conditions, affecting
system reliability and data rates.

Definition of Modulation Scheme:

 Modulation is the process of varying a carrier wave to transmit information signals.
 Common modulation schemes include amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency shift
keying (FSK), and phase shift keying (PSK).
 Each scheme offers trade-offs between complexity, bandwidth efficiency, and
robustness against channel impairments.

Effects of Fading on Modulation Performance:

 Fading causes fluctuations in signal amplitude and phase, leading to errors in
demodulation.
  Modulation schemes with higher amplitude dependence suffer more under fading.
 Phase-based modulation schemes are generally more resilient in fading
environments.

Comparison of Modulation Schemes in Fading:

 Amplitude modulation schemes (like ASK) are highly sensitive to fading due to signal
amplitude changes.
 Frequency modulation schemes (like FSK) perform better in fading because
frequency variations are less affected.
 Phase modulation schemes (like PSK and QPSK) offer a balance of bandwidth
efficiency and fading resilience.

Additional Important Points:

 Choosing modulation with error correction coding enhances performance in fading
channels.
 Adaptive modulation techniques change the modulation order based on channel
quality to improve throughput.
 Lower-order modulations are more robust in deep fading but provide lower data
rates.
 Higher-order modulations offer higher data rates but require better channel
conditions.

Coherent versus Differential Detection

Pyq Question:
 What is non-coherent detection? Explain with neat diagram, non-coherent detection
of FSK. [7]

Introduction:
 Detection in communication refers to the process of recovering transmitted signals
at the receiver.
  Coherent detection requires exact knowledge of carrier phase and frequency for
demodulation.
 Non-coherent detection does not require phase information, making it simpler but
less efficient in noise.

Definition of Non-Coherent Detection:

 Non-coherent detection detects signals without needing the carrier phase
reference.
 It uses signal energy or frequency to decide the transmitted symbol instead of
phase comparison.
 Useful when maintaining carrier synchronization is difficult or costly.

Non-Coherent Detection of FSK:

 Frequency Shift Keying (FSK) sends data by switching between different
frequencies.
 Non-coherent FSK detection uses bandpass filters centered at possible frequencies
to measure signal energy.
 The output of each filter is compared, and the frequency with the highest energy
is chosen as the transmitted symbol.
 This method avoids carrier phase synchronization but is less sensitive than coherent
detection.
 Non-coherent FSK detection is simpler to implement in hardware due to no phase
synchronization needed.
 It performs well in fast fading or noisy environments where phase recovery is
unreliable.
 However, it has a higher bit error rate compared to coherent detection for the
same signal-to-noise ratio.
 Often used in low-cost or power-limited communication systems.
Diagram:

Explanation of Diagram:
 The input signal containing FSK frequencies enters two parallel bandpass filters
tuned at f₁ and f₂.
 Each filter outputs the component energy around its center frequency.
 Envelope detectors extract the amplitude (energy) of these filtered signals without
phase info.
 Comparator compares the two envelope outputs.
 The output symbol corresponds to the frequency with the higher envelope energy,
deciding the transmitted bit.

Coherent versus Differential Detection

Pyq Question:
 Compare coherent and differential detection techniques in the context of wireless
channels. [5]

Introduction:
  Detection techniques are used in wireless communication to recover transmitted
signals from received signals.
 Coherent and differential detection are two common methods used depending on
channel conditions and system complexity.

Definition of Coherent Detection:

 Coherent detection requires exact knowledge of carrier frequency and phase at the
receiver.
 It uses a local oscillator synchronized to the carrier for accurate demodulation of
signals.
 Provides better performance in terms of lower bit error rate under ideal
synchronization.

Definition of Differential Detection:

 Differential detection does not require carrier phase synchronization.
 It detects data based on phase difference between consecutive symbols instead of
absolute phase.
 Simpler to implement and more robust in fast fading or phase-unstable channels.

Comparison of Coherent and Differential Detection:

 Coherent detection needs complex phase synchronization circuits; differential
detection avoids this complexity.
 Coherent detection achieves better error performance but is sensitive to phase
errors and Doppler shifts.
 Differential detection trades off some performance for simplicity and robustness
against phase variations.
 In wireless channels with rapid fading or Doppler shifts, differential detection is
preferred due to less synchronization requirement.
 Coherent detection is suitable for stable channels where phase tracking is possible
and higher performance is required.
Diagram:

Explanation of Diagram:
 Received signal is processed by two paths for comparison: coherent and differential
detection.
 Coherent detector uses phase synchronizer to recover exact carrier phase before
demodulation.
 Differential detector directly compares phase difference of received symbols
without synchronization.
 Coherent detection output has lower error rate but requires more complex
hardware.
 Differential detection output is simpler and more robust but has higher bit error
rate.

Additional Important Points:

 Choice depends on wireless environment, hardware complexity, and performance
needs.
 Differential detection is popular in fast fading channels and low-power devices.
 Coherent detection suits high-data-rate and stable channel conditions.

BER in Fading

Pyq Question:
 How is Bit Error Rate (BER) affected by fading? Discuss its implications on system
design. [5]
Introduction:
 Bit Error Rate (BER) measures the number of bit errors divided by total
transmitted bits in a communication system.
 Fading causes variations in signal amplitude and phase due to multipath propagation
and movement.
 Fading significantly impacts the reliability and performance of wireless systems by
increasing BER.

Definition of Fading:
 Fading is the rapid fluctuation of signal strength caused by constructive and
destructive interference of multiple signal paths.
 It can be slow or fast, flat or frequency-selective depending on the channel
characteristics.

Effect of Fading on BER:

 Fading causes deep signal fades, which reduce the received signal power and
increase error probability.
 BER increases sharply during deep fades, causing higher retransmissions or data
loss.
 Fast fading can cause rapid variations in BER making error correction more difficult.
 Frequency-selective fading affects some frequencies more than others, causing
inter-symbol interference which worsens BER.

Implications on System Design:

 Systems must use diversity techniques (spatial, frequency, time) to combat fading
effects and reduce BER.
 Adaptive modulation and coding help maintain reliable BER by changing parameters
based on channel conditions.
 Error correction codes like convolutional or turbo codes improve BER by detecting
and correcting errors.
 Power control and equalization techniques help mitigate fading to keep BER within
acceptable limits.
  Design trade-off between complexity, cost, and BER performance is essential for
efficient wireless systems.

Diagram:

Explanation of Diagram:
 Transmitted signal passes through fading channel where signal strength varies
unpredictably.
 Deep fades cause signal power drop resulting in increased bit errors at receiver.
 Receiver uses diversity and error correction to reduce BER and improve
communication reliability.
 System design includes adaptive techniques to handle fading-induced BER changes.

Additional Important Points:

 Understanding fading effect on BER helps in choosing suitable modulation and
coding schemes.
 BER performance under fading is a key metric in wireless system standards and
protocols.
 Simulation and measurement of BER in fading channels guide practical system
implementation.
 Unit 6 : Operating System & Applications of Mobile Computing

Operating System for Mobile Devices

Pyq Question:
 Explain mobile operating system. What are needs of a mobile OS? List different
types of OS. [7]
 List and explain in brief the design issues of a mobile OS. [7]
 What are the special constraints and requirements of mobile operating systems?
[7]

Introduction:
 Mobile operating systems (OS) are software platforms that manage hardware and
software resources in mobile devices like smartphones and tablets.
 They provide user interface, application management, and control over device
functions such as calls, data, and sensors.

Definition of Mobile Operating System:

 A mobile OS is a system software designed specifically to operate on handheld
devices with limited resources and mobility needs.
 It handles communication, user interaction, security, and application execution
efficiently on mobile hardware.

Needs of a Mobile OS:

 Efficient resource management to handle limited CPU, memory, and battery power.
 Support for wireless communication and connectivity like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and
cellular networks.
 User-friendly interface optimized for small screens and touch input.
 Security features to protect data and user privacy in a mobile environment.
 Ability to manage multitasking and background processes without excessive battery
drain.
 Support for location services and sensor integration for enhanced applications.
 Compatibility with a variety of hardware components and peripherals.

Types of Mobile Operating Systems:

  Android: Open source OS based on Linux kernel, widely used in smartphones.
 iOS: Apple's proprietary OS with strong security and smooth user interface.
 Windows Mobile/Windows Phone: Microsoft's mobile OS for smartphones.
 BlackBerry OS: Known for secure communication in business devices.
 Symbian OS: Older OS used in early smartphones, now mostly obsolete.
 Other OS: KaiOS, Tizen, Firefox OS used in specific devices or regions.

Design Issues of Mobile Operating System:

 Resource Constraints: Must efficiently use limited CPU, memory, storage, and
battery resources.
 Connectivity Management: Must handle various wireless connections smoothly and
switch between networks seamlessly.
 Security: Strong protection against malware, unauthorized access, and data leaks
is critical.
 User Interface: Design must accommodate small screens, touch input, and limited
user attention.
 Real-time Performance: Must handle real-time events like calls and notifications
without delays.
 Application Management: Efficient multitasking and process management to balance
performance and battery life.
 Portability and Hardware Support: Should support various device hardware and
sensors with minimal overhead.
 Power Management: Advanced techniques to maximize battery life while keeping the
system responsive.

Special Constraints and Requirements of Mobile OS:

 Limited Resources: Must operate under strict limits on processor speed, memory
size, and power availability.
 Battery Life: Power consumption must be minimized for longer device use between
charges.
 Mobility: OS should support handoffs between networks and maintain connectivity
during movement.
  Security and Privacy: Mobile devices carry sensitive personal data requiring robust
encryption and permissions.
 User Interaction: Interfaces must be intuitive, responsive, and easy to use on small
touchscreens.
 Multimedia Support: Must handle audio, video, and camera functions efficiently.
 Real-time and Interrupt Handling: Needs to quickly respond to calls, messages, and
sensor inputs.
 Software Updates: Capability for remote updates without disrupting user
experience.

Diagram:

Explanation of Diagram:
 Hardware layer consists of physical components like CPU, memory, battery, and
sensors.
 Kernel manages core resources and provides system services.
 Connectivity and security modules handle wireless communication and protect data.
 User interface provides interaction methods including touch and display.
 Application framework supports app development and lifecycle management.
 Applications are user-facing programs running on the OS.

Additional Important Points:

  Mobile OS must balance performance and power consumption carefully.
 Security models often include sandboxing and permission controls.
 OS updates and app ecosystem management are critical for device longevity.
 Mobile OS design continues to evolve with hardware advancements and user needs.

Survey and Comparison of Mobile OS

Pyq Question:
 Provide a comparative study of Windows Mobile, Palm OS, Symbian OS, iOS,
Android, and Blackberry OS. [7]
 What are the unique features of Symbian OS and how does it differ from Android?
[7]
 Discuss the evolution of commercial mobile operating systems. [7]
 Describe the architecture and key features of Android OS. [7]
 Explain the design and components of an operating system for a sensor network. [7]

Introduction:
 Mobile operating systems have evolved to meet the growing needs of mobile devices
in communication, entertainment, and productivity.
 Different OS platforms target diverse device capabilities and user demands.
 Understanding their features and differences helps in selecting the right OS for
applications.

Comparative Study of Major Mobile OS:

 Windows Mobile: Early OS by Microsoft focusing on business apps, strong
integration with Microsoft Office, but less user-friendly interface.
 Palm OS: Known for simplicity and fast performance, popular in PDAs, limited
multitasking and multimedia support.
 Symbian OS: Designed for smartphones, efficient resource management, supports
multitasking and real-time operations, widely used in Nokia phones.
 iOS: Apple's proprietary OS with smooth user interface, strong security, optimized
hardware-software integration, rich app ecosystem.
  Android: Open source, based on Linux kernel, highly customizable, supports a large
variety of hardware, biggest app marketplace.
 BlackBerry OS: Focused on secure messaging and enterprise features, strong
encryption and communication protocols.

Unique Features of Symbian OS and Differences from Android:

 Symbian OS:
o Designed for low-power, limited-resource smartphones.
o Supports preemptive multitasking and real-time operations.
o Has a microkernel design optimized for mobile hardware.
o Offers extensive telephony and communication support built-in.
 Differences from Android:
o Android is based on Linux kernel and supports broader hardware and apps.
o Android is open source, Symbian was more closed and proprietary.
o Android supports richer multimedia and modern UI features.
o Symbian has more focus on traditional phone functions and efficiency.

Evolution of Commercial Mobile Operating Systems:

 Early 1990s: Palm OS and Windows CE dominated handheld devices with basic PDA
functions.
 Late 1990s to early 2000s: Symbian OS became popular on smartphones, especially
Nokia models.
 Mid 2000s: BlackBerry OS gained market share with secure messaging.
 Late 2000s: Apple launched iOS, revolutionizing touchscreen smartphones and app
ecosystems.
 Around 2008 onwards: Android entered, offering open source and flexible platform,
rapidly gaining market dominance.
 Today: iOS and Android dominate, with others declining or focusing on niche
markets.

Architecture and Key Features of Android OS:

 Android has a layered architecture with Linux kernel at the base, handling hardware
and system services.
  Above kernel is native libraries and Android runtime including Dalvik or ART for
running apps.
 Application framework provides APIs for apps to interact with hardware and
system.
 User applications run on top, using framework services.
 Key features: multitasking, rich multimedia support, connectivity, power
management, and extensive developer support.

Diagram:

Explanation of Diagram:
 Linux kernel manages core hardware resources and security features.
 Native libraries and Hardware Abstraction Layer provide low-level services and
drivers.
 Android Runtime executes app code using managed runtime environment.
 Application framework offers reusable components and APIs for app developers.
 Applications layer contains user-facing programs running on the OS.

Design and Components of Operating System for Sensor Networks:

 Sensor network OS must support energy efficiency due to limited power sources.
 Lightweight kernel and minimal resource usage is necessary for sensor nodes.
 Support for real-time event handling to process sensor data promptly.
  Network protocols optimized for low data rates and intermittent connectivity.
 Component-based design to allow flexible addition or removal of features.
 Support for distributed processing and communication among sensor nodes.
 Security mechanisms to protect data integrity and privacy in the network.

Additional Important Points:

 Mobile OS choice depends on application domain, hardware constraints, and user
expectations.
 Sensor network OS differs significantly from typical mobile OS in resource
constraints and networking.
 The mobile OS market has consolidated around Android and iOS due to their strong
ecosystems.

Applications of Mobile Computing

Pyq Question:
 What is M-commerce? List out benefits of M-commerce. Briefly explain any three
applications of M-commerce. [7]
 What is M-commerce? Explain in brief any five attributes of M-commerce. [7]
 What is a mobile payment system? Explain payment process using credit card. [7]
 What is a mobile payment system? Explain payment process using credit card. List
advantages and disadvantages of M-commerce. [10]

Introduction:
 Mobile computing allows users to access data, applications, and services anytime and
anywhere.
 Mobile commerce (M-commerce) is the buying and selling of goods and services using
mobile devices.
 M-commerce is a growing field with many applications in retail, banking,
entertainment, and more.

Definition of M-commerce:
  M-commerce is commercial transactions conducted via wireless handheld devices
such as smartphones and tablets.
 It enables users to perform financial and business transactions remotely using
mobile technology.

Benefits of M-commerce:
 Provides convenience by allowing transactions anytime and anywhere.
 Increases customer reach by connecting businesses to mobile users globally.
 Supports real-time transactions and updates, enhancing customer experience.
 Enables personalized services and targeted marketing through mobile data.
 Reduces operational costs by automating business processes.

Attributes of M-commerce:
 Ubiquity: M-commerce allows access to services without location constraints.
 Convenience: Users can perform transactions quickly using mobile devices.
 Personalization: Offers tailored services based on user preferences and history.
 Localization: Uses location information to provide relevant offers and services.
 Instant Connectivity: Enables real-time communication and transactions.

Applications of M-commerce:
 Mobile Banking: Customers can check balances, transfer funds, and pay bills using
mobile apps.
 Mobile Shopping: Users can browse catalogs, place orders, and make payments via
mobile websites or apps.
 Mobile Ticketing: Purchase and use tickets for transport or events directly from
mobile devices.

Mobile Payment System:

 A mobile payment system allows users to pay for goods or services using mobile
devices instead of cash or cards.
 It supports various payment methods including credit cards, debit cards, digital
wallets, and carrier billing.
Payment Process Using Credit Card:
 User selects products or services on a mobile platform and chooses credit card
payment.
 The mobile device sends payment details securely to the payment gateway.
 Payment gateway encrypts data and forwards it to the acquiring bank for
authorization.
 The acquiring bank communicates with the credit card network and issuing bank to
verify funds.
 Once approved, the transaction is completed, and confirmation is sent to the user
and merchant.

Diagram:

Explanation of Diagram:
 User initiates payment via mobile device.
 Mobile device sends encrypted data to payment gateway for security.
 Payment gateway forwards request to acquiring bank for processing.
 Acquiring bank contacts credit card network which communicates with issuing bank.
 Issuing bank verifies card details and fund availability.
 Approval or decline message flows back through the chain.
 User and merchant receive payment confirmation immediately.

Advantages of M-commerce:
  Enables 24/7 access to shopping and services without physical presence.
 Supports fast, secure, and convenient transactions.
 Enhances customer engagement through personalized offers and notifications.
 Reduces costs for businesses and consumers by streamlining processes.
 Encourages impulse buying due to easy mobile access.

Disadvantages of M-commerce:
 Security risks due to potential hacking or data theft in wireless networks.
 Dependence on network connectivity can interrupt transactions.
 Limited screen size and input capabilities on mobile devices can affect user
experience.
 Privacy concerns due to collection of personal and location data.
 Possible compatibility issues across different mobile platforms and devices.

B2B Model and Application

Pyq Question:
 Draw B2B model and explain any one B2B application. [7]

Introduction:
 Business-to-Business (B2B) model refers to commercial transactions conducted
between businesses using electronic networks.
 It involves companies selling products or services to other companies rather than
to individual consumers.
 B2B supports supply chain management, procurement, and business collaborations
over the internet or private networks.

Definition of B2B Model:

 B2B model is a framework where transactions happen between two businesses such
as manufacturers, wholesalers, retailers, or service providers.
 The model focuses on optimizing efficiency, reducing costs, and improving
communication between enterprises.
Key Components of B2B Model:
 Suppliers: Provide raw materials or products to businesses.
 Manufacturers: Convert raw materials into finished goods for other businesses.
 Distributors: Help move products from manufacturers to retailers or other
businesses.
 Buyers: Businesses that purchase goods or services to support their operations.
 Electronic Marketplace: Digital platform where buyers and sellers connect and
transact.

Diagram:

Explanation of Diagram:
 Suppliers provide raw materials to manufacturers for product creation.
 Manufacturers convert raw materials into products and send them to distributors.
 Distributors supply the products to buyers or retailers.
 Electronic marketplace acts as a digital platform enabling order placement, product
listings, and transaction management.
 This platform simplifies business interactions and speeds up procurement
processes.

Example of B2B Application: Supply Chain Management System

 Supply chain management systems help businesses coordinate and control the flow
of goods and information.
 They provide real-time data on inventory levels, order status, and delivery
schedules.
 The system automates procurement, reduces errors, and improves collaboration
between suppliers and buyers.
  Companies can forecast demand better and manage resources efficiently, reducing
costs and delays.
 It supports electronic invoicing, payment processing, and contract management
digitally.

B2C Model and Application

Pyq Question:
 Draw B2C model and explain any one B2C application. [7]

Introduction:
 Business-to-Consumer (B2C) model refers to transactions where businesses sell
products or services directly to individual customers.
 It is the most common e-commerce model used by online retailers, service providers,
and digital platforms.
 B2C focuses on customer experience, convenience, and fast delivery of goods or
services.

Definition of B2C Model:

 B2C model is a commercial framework where companies offer products or services
directly to end-users for personal use.
 It involves online shopping websites, mobile apps, and digital marketplaces targeting
consumers.

Key Components of B2C Model:

 Business: The seller or service provider offering products to consumers.
 Consumer: Individual buyers who purchase products for personal use.
 Online Store: Website or app where consumers browse and buy products.
 Payment Gateway: Secure platform that processes online payments from consumers.
 Delivery System: Logistics that deliver goods from business to consumer.

Diagram:
Explanation of Diagram:
 Businesses list their products and services on the online store platform.
 Consumers browse and place orders through the online store interface.
 Payment gateway securely processes consumer payments like credit cards or digital
wallets.
 After payment confirmation, the store arranges delivery through the logistics
system.
 Delivery system ensures the ordered products reach the consumer’s address timely
and safely.

Example of B2C Application: Online Retail Store

 Online retail stores like Amazon or Flipkart sell a wide variety of products directly
to customers.
 They provide detailed product descriptions, reviews, and easy navigation for better
shopping experience.
 The platform supports multiple payment options such as credit cards, net banking,
or wallets.
 Efficient delivery networks ensure fast shipping and easy returns, improving
customer satisfaction.
 These stores use recommendation algorithms to personalize shopping and increase
sales.
Mobile Payment: Structure and Process

Pyq Question:
 Describe the structure of a typical M-commerce system. [7]
 Explain the process of mobile payment with a suitable example. [7]
 List and explain various mobile payment schemes. [7]
 What are the desirable properties of a mobile payment system? [7]
 Explain various mobile payment solutions and their pros and cons. [7]

Introduction:
 Mobile payment is a key part of M-commerce allowing users to pay for goods and
services using mobile devices.
 It combines mobile technology, communication networks, and financial systems for
convenient transactions.

Structure of a Typical M-Commerce System:

 Mobile device: User’s smartphone or tablet that initiates payment and interacts
with apps or web.
 Mobile network operator: Provides wireless connectivity and sometimes acts as
payment gateway.
 Payment gateway: Secure platform that processes the transaction between buyer
and seller.
 Merchant: The business offering goods or services accepting mobile payments.
 Financial institutions: Banks or payment service providers handling funds and
settlements.
 Clearing and settlement system: Ensures the transfer of money from payer to payee
account securely.

Process of Mobile Payment (Example: Credit Card Payment):

 Customer selects product on mobile app and chooses mobile payment option.
 Enters credit card details or uses stored credentials securely.
 Payment request is sent to payment gateway via mobile network.
 Gateway verifies card details with bank and checks for sufficient balance.
  Bank approves or rejects transaction and sends response to gateway.
 Gateway informs merchant and customer of transaction status.
 If approved, merchant completes order and delivers product.

Diagram:

Explanation of Diagram:
 User uses mobile device to start payment request through an app or website.
 Mobile network operator routes this request securely to payment gateway.
 Payment gateway checks transaction and authorizes payment with the merchant.
 Financial institution moves the money through clearing and settlement systems.
 Merchant receives confirmation and delivers goods or services.

Mobile Payment Schemes:

 Direct Mobile Billing: Payment charged directly to user’s mobile phone bill by the
operator.
  Mobile Wallet: Digital wallet app stores money or linked bank cards for quick
payments.
 Contactless Payments: Uses NFC or Bluetooth technology for tap-and-pay
transactions.
 SMS Payments: Payment requests sent and confirmed through text messages.
 Bank Account Transfer: Payment directly debited from customer’s bank account via
mobile banking.

Desirable Properties of Mobile Payment Systems:

 Security: Protects user data and transaction details from theft or fraud.
 Privacy: Ensures user information is confidential and not shared unnecessarily.
 Convenience: Easy to use interface and quick processing of payments.
 Interoperability: Works across different devices, networks, and financial
institutions.
 Reliability: Consistent and error-free transaction processing.
 Scalability: Can handle a growing number of users and transactions efficiently.
 Speed: Fast transaction approval and confirmation.

Mobile Payment Solutions and Their Pros and Cons:

 NFC Payments:
o Pros: Fast, convenient, secure through encryption.
o Cons: Requires NFC-enabled devices and terminals.
 SMS-based Payments:
o Pros: Works on basic phones, easy to implement.
o Cons: Less secure, limited transaction size.
 Mobile Wallets:
o Pros: Stores multiple cards, supports loyalty programs, user-friendly.
o Cons: Dependent on internet connectivity, may have fees.
 Direct Carrier Billing:
o Pros: No need for bank account, simple for users.
o Cons: Higher transaction fees, limited to operator’s services.
 USSD Payments:
o Pros: Works without internet, accessible on simple phones.
 o Cons: Not user-friendly, limited security features.
Additional Notes:
 Mobile payments require strong encryption and authentication methods like OTP or
biometrics.
 Emerging technologies like blockchain are also being explored to enhance mobile
payment security.

Security in Mobile Payments

Pyq Question:
 Discuss the major security issues in mobile payment systems. [7]
 How can mobile payments be secured against fraud and data theft? [7]

Introduction:
 Mobile payment systems allow financial transactions through mobile devices, which
makes security a critical concern.
 Many users rely on mobile payments daily, so protecting their data and money is
very important.

Major Security Issues in Mobile Payment Systems:

 Data Theft: Sensitive information like card details and personal data can be stolen
by hackers during transmission or storage.
 Fraudulent Transactions: Unauthorized use of user credentials can lead to fake
payments and financial losses.
 Malware and Spyware Attacks: Mobile devices can be infected with malicious
software to capture payment details or track user activities.
 Man-in-the-Middle Attacks: Intercepting communication between the mobile device
and payment server can compromise transaction data.
 Phishing Attacks: Users may be tricked into revealing sensitive data through fake
payment apps or websites.
 Weak Authentication: Insufficient security checks can allow unauthorized users to
access payment apps or accounts.
  Lack of Encryption: Data sent without encryption can be easily intercepted and
misused by attackers.

Measures to Secure Mobile Payments Against Fraud and Data Theft:

 Strong User Authentication: Use multi-factor authentication like biometrics,
passwords, or OTPs to verify user identity.
 End-to-End Encryption: Encrypt all payment data during transmission to prevent
unauthorized access.
 Secure Payment Apps: Use trusted apps verified by financial institutions with
regular security updates.
 Tokenization: Replace sensitive payment details with unique tokens during
transactions to protect real data.
 Regular Software Updates: Keep mobile OS and payment apps updated to patch
security vulnerabilities.
 Fraud Detection Systems: Implement real-time monitoring to detect suspicious
activities and block fraudulent transactions.
 User Education: Teach users about phishing, safe app downloads, and security best
practices to reduce risks.

Diagram:
Explanation of Diagram:
 User authentication ensures only legitimate users access payment systems.
 Encryption protects data during transmission between devices and servers.
 Tokenization hides real payment details by using substitutes.
 Secure apps reduce risk of malware and unauthorized access.
 Fraud detection continuously monitors for unusual transactions.
 User education helps avoid falling victim to scams and phishing.

Additional Notes:
 Combining multiple security measures increases protection against various attack
methods.
 Mobile payment providers follow strict security standards such as PCI DSS to
safeguard user data.
 Continuous security improvements are needed as hackers develop new attack
techniques.

Fundamentals of Mobile Computing

Pyq Question:
 What is mobile computing? Describe three components of mobile computing. [7]
 Write a short note on mobile computing and its three basic components. [7]

Introduction:
 Mobile computing allows users to access data and services from any location without
being connected by wires.
 It supports communication and data exchange through portable devices like
smartphones, tablets, and laptops.

Definition:
 Mobile computing is a technology that enables transmission of data, voice, and video
via a mobile device without fixed physical connections.
Three Basic Components of Mobile Computing:
 Mobile Hardware: Devices such as smartphones, tablets, laptops, and wearable
gadgets used to perform computing tasks on the move.
 Mobile Software: Applications and operating systems designed to support mobile
devices, enabling connectivity and user-friendly interaction.
 Mobile Communication Infrastructure: Wireless networks like cellular, Wi-Fi, and
satellite systems that facilitate data transfer between mobile devices and servers.

Diagram:

Explanation of Diagram:
 The user operates mobile hardware to access services.
 Mobile hardware runs mobile software to process and manage data.
 Mobile communication infrastructure connects devices with networks to exchange
information.
 Interaction between these components allows seamless mobile computing
experience.

Additional Information:
 Mobile computing supports real-time access and remote work.
 Its efficiency depends on hardware capabilities, software design, and network
coverage.
 Security and power management are important considerations in mobile computing.