KARACHI INSTITUTE OF ECONOMICS AND TECHNOLOGY

Department of Mechatronics Engineering

College of Engineering

Course: Mechatronics System Design Lab Credit Hours: 2+1

Course Code (L): ME-4314
Instructor: Engr. Syed Ashraf Ali Rizvi
Email Address: [email protected]

Pre-requisite(s): -
Contact Hours: 3 Hours/week
Objectives:
The course is aimed at developing the student’s understanding about the synergistic interaction of electronic
engineering, mechanical engineering, control systems and digital systems in system design and product
manufacturing. The objective is to develop skills to find innovative solutions, manage multidisciplinary teams
and work at all levels of an integrated engineering system.

Contents:
The course comprises of experiments and demonstrations related to calculation of Motor parameters, H-Bridge
designing, Arduino programming, CAD/CAM modeling of Encoder and Gears, CNC Milling Machine part
programming and cutting of Gears on CNC.

Mapping of CLOs and PLOs

Sr. No Course Learning Outcomes PLOs Bloom’s Taxonomy
Analyze fundamental experiments aimed at identifying
CLO1 key parameters for modeling and designing electronics, PLO2 C4 (Analyzing)
mechanical systems, microcontroller-Arduino
configurations, and CNC setups for Mechatronics
system design.
CLO2
Design/Develop solutions for complex engineering PLO3 P4 (Mechanism)
problems covered under the scope of this course and lab.
Assume responsibility and the use of resources to
CLO3 complete the assigned task with proper Teamwork. PLO9 A5 (Internalizing Values)
CLO-PLO Mapping Matrix

PLO CLO-1 CLO-2 CLO-3

PLO-1 Engineering knowledge
PLO-2 Problem Analysis 
PLO-3 Design/Development of solution 
PLO-4 Investigation
PLO-5 Modern Tool usage
PLO-6 The Engineer & society
PLO-7 Environment & sustainability
PLO-8 Ethics
PLO-9 Individual and Team work 
PLO-10 Communication
PLO-11 Project Management
PLO-12 Lifelong Learning

Grading Policy (Lab):

Grading Policy
Lab Manuals 60%
Lab Project 40%
Total 100%

Text Books:

1. Mechatronics: Electronic control systems in mechanical and electrical

engineering, 4th Edition, by W. Bolton.
2. Mechatronics System Design, 2nd Edition, by Devdas Shetty.

Reference Books:

1. Modern Control Systems Analysis and Design Using MATLAB, by Richard H Bishop.
2. Introduction to Simulink with Engineering Applications, May 26, 2006, by
Steven T. Karris.
3. Microcontroller Based Applied Digital Control, by Dogan Ebrahim.

Administrative Instructions:

 According to institute policy, 80% attendance is mandatory to appear in the final

examination but 100% will be expected. Approved leaves will not be considered
towards attendance.
 Every student should bring calculator and manual in each lab.
 Every student is expected to be in lab before schedule starting time.
 In design-oriented project work, the students deal with problems that can be solved by
theories and knowledge they have acquired in their previous lectures. (Design
Problems).
Lab Mechatronics System Design Student ID
PLO2 - Problem Analysis C4 - Analyzing
Bloom’s Taxonomy
PLOs PLO3 - Design/Development of Solution P4 - Mechanism
PLO9 - Individual & Teamwork A5 - Internalizing Values
PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS
Excellent Average Poor
CLOs Aspects of Assessments
(75-100%) (50-75%) (<50%)
CLO1 Analytical Proficiency Students demonstrate a thorough Students successfully observe and Students struggle to determine
PLO4 understanding and execute tasks accurately validate parameters for electronics parameters accurately for
with minimal errors, showcasing strong circuit design, encompassing various electronics circuit design
analytical skills in observing and tasks such as motor parameter without significant assistance.
validating parameters for electronics calculation, H-Bridge design, and Their understanding may be
circuit design. Arduino programming. Some minor lacking, resulting in frequent
errors may be present, necessitating errors and inaccuracies in task
occasional guidance for accuracy. execution..
CLO2 Design Proficiency Students adeptly design solutions for Students successfully design solutions Students struggle to design
PLO3 complex engineering problems, for complex engineering problems and solutions for complex
incorporating considerations such as develop systems, components, or engineering problems
safety, cultural, societal, and processes to meet specified needs, accurately, and their developed
environmental factors. They develop although minor errors or oversights may systems, components, or
systems, components, or processes occur. While generally meeting processes may not fully meet
meeting specified needs, including requirements, some aspects may require specified needs. They may
CAD/CAM modeling of Encoders and refinement or further consideration. overlook important factors such
Gears, CNC milling machine part as safety, cultural, societal, or
programming, and gear cutting on CNC. environmental considerations,
Their designs are thorough, innovative, resulting in incomplete or
and comprehensive. inadequate designs.

Individual & Team Skills Students demonstrate exceptional Students demonstrate satisfactory Students struggle to demonstrate
CLO3 individual and teamwork skills in individual and teamwork skills in effective individual and
PLO9 multidisciplinary settings, effectively multidisciplinary settings, though teamwork skills in
collaborating on tasks related to motor occasional challenges or multidisciplinary settings,
parameter calculation, circuit design, miscommunications may arise. Overall, leading to conflicts,
CAD/CAM modeling, CNC programming, they contribute effectively to team inefficiencies, or incomplete task
and gear cutting. They communicate efforts, but some areas for improvement fulfillment within the team. They
efficiently, contribute positively to team in communication or collaboration may may exhibit poor
dynamics, and fulfill their roles with be identified. communication, lack of
responsibility and dedication. cooperation, or difficulty in
working effectively with others,
hindering project progress.

EVALUATION
CLOs Aspects of Assessments 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Project
CLO1 Analytical
Proficiency
Design Proficiency
CLO2
Individual & Team Skills
CLO3
Marks Obtained in Each Lab

Signature: Signature:
Lab Instructor: Theory Teacher:
No. Lab Title CLOs Marks Sign.
1  Introduction to Design Project & formation of groups. 1-3

 Determination of Motor Parameters

1. Motor Resistance
2. Motor Voltage K
3. Back EMF Constant
2 4. Motor Inductance 1-2-3
5. Motor Stall Current Measurement
6. Motor Stall Torque
7. Max Speed at Rated Voltage
8. Motor no load Inertia
 Design the H-Bridge Circuit
1. Design of Circuit
2. Construction of Circuit
3. Component Placement
3 4. Quality of Soldering 1-2-3
5. Aesthetics
6. Software Simulations
7. Comparison Table
8. Testing Results

 Arduino Familiarization
1. Pre LAB Task
4 2. Blink LED 1-2-3
3. Fading LED

 Arduino Core Programming Concepts

1. Pre LAB Task Review Lab 3
2. Pre LAB Task Acquire Electronic Hardware Components
3. Programming Concepts
5 4. Operators 1-2-3
5. Control Statements
6. Loops
7. Functions
8. Function Libraries

 Arduino Pulse Width Modulation Programming beyond 32kHz

1. Pre LAB Task Review analog write function
6 2. Pulse Width Modulation 1-2-3
3. Pre lab Timer1.h in depth study of the code.
4. Pulse Width Modulation

 Arduino – Interrupts & High Speed Interrupts

1. Understanding Interrupts
2. Types
7 3. Attach interrupt 1-2-3
4. High Speed Interrupts
5. Encoder Interface
6. Calibration
  Encoder Readout Circuit Design
1. Design of Circuit
8 1-2-3
2. Software Simulations
3. Comparison Table

 Mechanical Design of Encoder Assembly

1. Pre LAB Task Review of Readout Specs
9 2. Mechanical Design 1-2-3
3. Assembly drawing
4. Sensor Placement

 Introduction to Gears & determine its parameters

1. Introduction to Gears
2. Classification of Gears
3. Characteristics of Gears
10 4. Gear Terminologies 1-3
5. Gear Ratio
6. Output Angular Velocity in RPM
7. Output Torque
8. Remaining Parameters

 CAD Modeling of Gears Using SolidWorks Toolbox 1-2-3

11
(OEL)
 Introduction to CNC Milling Machine 1-3
12
 CNC Part Programming
13 1. Generate the G-Codes of gears 1-2-3
2. Generate the M-Codes of gears

 Spur Gear Cutting in CNC Milling Machine 1-2-3

14

15  Design-Oriented Project Work Evaluation 1-2-3

 KARACHI INSTITUTE OF ECONOMICS AND TECHNOLOGY
Department of Mechatronics Engineering
College of Engineering

ME-4314 – Mechatronics System Design

Semester: Date of Experiment:

Student name: Faculty Signature:
Student ID: Remarks/Comments:

Lab
Introduction to Design Project & formation of groups.
1

PLO2 - Problem Analysis Bloom’s C4 - Analyzing

PLO’s
PLO9 – Individual and Teamwork Taxonomy A5 – Internalizing Values
LAB TASK PERFORMANCE
Excellent Average Poor
CLO’s Aspects of Assessments Marks
(75-100%) (50-75%) (<50%)

Conceptual Understanding: Students lack a clear

Students demonstrate a Students show some
CLO1 Students recall associated understanding indicating a
complete understanding of the engagement with the material
80% concepts from theory regarding need for further
concepts and actively but with room for
electronics, control systems, comprehension and
participate during lectures, improvement in participation.
embedded systems, and engagement with the
recalling associated theories
programming. material.
and applying them effectively.
CLO3 Very little, if any, contributions
Team Work: Completion Proactively work with other Worked well with team but did
20% to group and less contribution
of Lab tasks with proper team members to complete not offer much positive
in completion of overall lab
team work and contribution. assigned tasks. feedback.
tasks.
Total Marks: 10
 MSD Lab # 01
“Introduction to Design Project”
Objective:

 Develop a basic understanding of the project by observation.

 Team Dynamics.
 Complete demonstration of the working prototype.
 With Arduino interfacing and data logging.
 Mechanical Design Explanation.
 Issues faced during the fabrication process highlighted to the students.

Preamble:
Describe a mechatronic system and provide an example of its application in modern technology.
How does the integration of mechanical, electrical, and computer engineering principles contribute
to the functionality and efficiency of such systems in various industries?
 KARACHI INSTITUTE OF ECONOMICS AND TECHNOLOGY
Department of Mechatronics Engineering
College of Engineering

ME-4314 – Mechatronics System Design

Semester: Date of Experiment:

Student name: Faculty Signature:
Student ID: Remarks/Comments:

Lab
Determination of Motor Parameters.
2

PLO2 - Problem Analysis C4 - Analyzing

Bloom’s
PLO’s PLO3 – Design/Development of Solutions P4 – Mechanism
Taxonomy
PLO9 – Individual and Team Work A5 – Internalizing Values
LAB TASK PERFORMANCE
Excellent Average Poor
CLO’s Aspects of Assessments Marks
(75-100%) (50-75%) (<50%)
Observation & Validation Students excel in observing Students struggle to accurately
Students successfully observe observe and validate motor
CLO1 of Motor Parameters and validating motor and validate motor parameters, parameters, leading to
40% parameters through though some minor discrepancies significant errors or
meticulously designed or oversights may occur. While inaccuracies. Their
experiments. Their most parameters are measured experimental processes may
measurements are accurate, effectively, there might be some be poorly designed or
and they cover all required lack of meticulous attention to executed, resulting in
parameters with precision. detail or clarity in experimental unreliable data. Additionally,
The experimental procedures procedures. However, overall, the documentation of
are well-documented, estimations are reasonably experimental procedures is
insufficient or unclear,
following precise steps, and reliable. hindering understanding and
resulting in reliable parameter. reproducibility.
Design Proficiency in Motor Students excel in experiment Students struggle to
Students successfully design
CLO2 Parameter Estimation design, considering accuracy, design effective
experiments but may lack
50% Experiments experiments,
precision, safety, and refinement. They consider
resulting in
relevance. They deeply relevant factors but may have
suboptimal setups.
understand parameter room for improvement in setup or
Their designs may
estimation techniques and procedure. Their understanding of
lack consideration
tailor experiments accordingly. estimation techniques is adequate
for accuracy, safety,
but may lack depth.
or relevance, leading
to unreliable data.
Individual & Team Skills Very little, if any,
CLO3 Proactively work with other Worked well with team but did
in Experimentation contributions to group and
team members to complete not offer much positive
less contribution
10% assigned tasks. feedback.
in completion of overall
lab tasks.
Total Marks: 10
 MSD Lab # 02
“Determination of Motor Parameters”
Objective:

Measure the parameters of motor for modelling.

1. Motor resistance “R” measurement techniques.
2. Motor voltage constant (back E.M.F constant) “Ke” measurement techniques.
3. Motor inductance “L” measurement techniques.
4. Motor torque constant “KT” measurement techniques.
5. Motor stall current “IS” measurement techniques.
6. Motor stall torque “TS” measurement techniques.
7. Max speed at rated voltage measurement techniques.
8. Calculation of no load inertia “i” of motor.

Preamble:
The purpose of this experiment is to become familiar with operating principles, equivalent
circuit models, and basic characteristics of a dc machine. Dc machines are most commonly used
in control and servomechanism, as well as industrial, applications. The applications range from
small permanent-magnet dc motors at a fraction of a Watt in consumer electronics, to large
industrial shunt dc machines having a separate field winding.

Design Considerations:
The maximum allowable current through the motor windings could be increased by decreasing
the thermal resistance of the motor. The rotor-to-case thermal resistance is primarily fixed by
the motor design. The case-to-ambient thermal resistance can be decreased significantly by the
addition of heat sinks. Motor thermal resistances for small DC motors are usually specified with
the motor suspended in free air. Therefore, there is usually some heat sinking which results from
simply mounting the motor into a framework or chassis. Some manufacturers of larger DC
motors specify thermal resistance with the motor mounted into a metal plate of known
dimensions and material.

The preceding discussion does not take into account the change in resistance of the copper
windings as a result of heating. While this change in resistance is important for larger machines,
it is usually not significant for small motors and is often ignored for the sake of calculation.

For the following Tasks, you are required to design experiments to ascertain, the values of the
particular motors that you have acquired for your project.

1. Task # 01: Motor resistance “R”

For the winding resistance use an ohmmeter. For a dc motor measure the resistance between
the 2 armature wires.

2. Task # 02: Motor voltage constant (back E.M.F constant) “Ke”

To measure the Ke of the motor, put the motor shaft in a lathe and rotate the shaft at some
speed [rpm] such as 1000rpm. With a dc motor, use a dc voltmeter to measure the armature
voltage. The Ke is then the voltage you read divided by the speed in rad/sec.
3. Task # 03: Motor inductance “L”
To measure the motor inductance using a low voltage ac source to the motor winding.
Apply the ac voltage to the armature winding.

4. Task # 04: Motor torque constant “KT”

KT is the torque produced divided by armature current. It can be calculated from the motor
velocity constant KV.

ω(no load)
Kv = VPeak

60 1
KT = =
2 πK v (rpm) K v (SI)
5. Task # 05: Motor stall current “IS”
Design and conduct an experiment to determine the stall current of the motor.

6. Task # 06: Motor stall torque “TS”

Design and conduct an experiment to determine the stall torque of the motor.

7. Task # 07: Max speed at rated voltage

The rated voltage is provided by the motor manufacturer. Measure the speed of the motor
at this voltage.

8. Task # 08: Motor no load inertia “i”

Estimate the motor Inertia.

𝑖 = 𝜋𝑑 4 / 64
Questions:

 How do variations in motor parameters impact the overall performance and efficiency of the
mechatronic system in which the motor is integrated?

 Discuss the trade-offs between different motor parameters and their influence on system
design, cost, and reliability.

 How can the experimental data obtained from measuring motor parameters be used to
optimize the design and control of the mechatronic system for specific applications?

 Analyze the potential sources of error in measuring motor parameters and suggest strategies
to minimize these errors for accurate data collection and analysis.

Deliverables:
 You are required to design experiments to estimate the necessary motor parameters to aid
in developing an appropriate model of the actuator.
 Detailed process of the experiments with step by step instructions of how the experiment
was performed.
 KARACHI INSTITUTE OF ECONOMICS AND TECHNOLOGY
Department of Mechatronics Engineering
College of Engineering

ME-4314 – Mechatronics System Design

Semester: Date of Experiment:

Student name: Faculty Signature:
Student ID: Remarks/Comments:

Lab
Design the H-Bridge Circuit.
3

PLO2 - Problem Analysis C4 - Analyzing

Bloom’s
PLO’s PLO3 – Design/Development of Solutions P4 – Mechanism
Taxonomy
PLO9 – Individual and Team Work A5 – Internalizing Values
LAB TASK PERFORMANCE
Excellent Average Poor
CLO’s Aspects of Assessments Marks
(75-100%) (50-75%) (<50%)
Observation & Validation Students excel in experiment Students struggle to design
Students successfully design effective experiments,
CLO1 of H-Bridge Circuit. design, considering accuracy, experiments but may lack resulting in suboptimal setups.
40% precision, safety, and relevance. refinement. They consider Their designs may lack
They deeply understand relevant factors but may have consideration for accuracy,
parameter estimation room for improvement in setup or safety, or relevance, leading to
techniques and tailor procedure. Their understanding unreliable data. Their
experiments accordingly.. of estimation techniques is understanding of estimation
adequate but may lack depth. techniques may be limited,
hindering their ability to
design appropriate
experiments.
Design Proficiency in H- Students Students struggle to
demonstrate Students successfully design
CLO2 Bridge Circuit. design effective
exceptional proficiency in experiments but may lack
50% experiments,
designing experiments to refinement or
resulting in
estimate motor parameters. Their comprehensiveness. They
suboptimal setups.
setups are well-thought-out, consider relevant factors but may
Their designs may
considering accuracy, safety, have some room for
lack consideration for
and relevance. They understand improvement. Their
important factors,
the principles behind each understanding of principles is
leading to unreliable
technique and tailor experiments adequate but may lack depth.
data.
accordingly.
Individual & Team Skills Very little, if any,
CLO3 Proactively work with other Worked well with team but did
in Experimentation contributions to group and
team members to complete not offer much positive
less contribution
10% assigned tasks. feedback.
in completion of overall
lab tasks.
Total Marks: 10
Objective:
Design an H bridge for the motor selected project.

Preamble
An H bridge is an electronic circuit that enables a voltage to be applied across a load in opposite
direction. These circuits are often used in robotics and other applications to allow DC motors to run
forwards or backwards.

Most DC-to-AC converters (power inverters), most AC/AC converters, the DC-to-DC push–pull converter,
most motor controllers, and many other kinds of power electronics use H bridges. In particular, a bipolar
stepper motor is almost invariably driven by a motor controller containing two H bridges.

H bridges are available as integrated circuits, or can be built from discrete components.

The term H bridge is derived from the typical graphical representation of such a circuit. An H bridge is
built with four switches (solid-state or mechanical). When the switches S1 and S4 (according to the first
figure) are closed (and S2 and S3 are open) a positive voltage will be applied across the motor. By
opening S1 and S4 switches and closing S2 and S3 switches, this voltage is reversed, allowing reverse
operation of the motor.

Figure 1

Figure 1

Using the nomenclature above, the switches S1 and S2 should never be closed at the same time, as this
would cause a short circuit on the input voltage source. The same applies to the switches S3 and S4. This
condition is known as shoot-through.

The H-bridge arrangement is generally used to reverse the polarity/direction of the motor, but can also
be used to 'brake' the motor, where the motor comes to a sudden stop, as the motor's terminals are
shorted, or to let the motor 'free run' to a stop, as the motor is effectively disconnected from the circuit.

The following table summarizes operation, with S1-S4 corresponding to the diagram above.
 S1 S2 S3 S4 Result
1 0 0 1 Motor moves right
0 1 1 0 Motor moves left
0 0 0 0 Motor coasts
1 0 0 0 Motor coasts
0 1 0 0 Motor coasts
0 0 1 0 Motor coasts
0 0 0 1 Motor coasts
0 1 0 1 Motor brakes
1 0 1 0 Motor brakes
1 1 0 0 Short circuit
0 0 1 1 Short circuit
0 1 1 1 Short circuit
1 0 1 1 Short circuit
1 1 0 1 Short circuit
1 1 1 0 Short circuit
1 1 1 1 Short circuit

Preamble
An H bridge is an electronic circuit that enables a voltage to be applied across a load in opposite
direction. These circuits are often used in robotics and other applications to allow DC motors to run
forwards or backwards.

Task 1
Design an H bridge circuit for motor used in your project. Details of the requirement
specification must be developed first before venturing into the design.

Task 2
Justify your choice of components in the design.

Task 3
Low cost may be preferred; it is also advisable to use locally sourced parts.

Task 4
Perform software simulations of your circuit.
 Task 5
You must incorporate necessary hardware safeties.

Task 6
Your H bridge design should have Current Sensing capability.

Task 7
Implement Regenerative Braking Solution

Task 8
Construction of the H bridge circuit.

Task 9
Testing of H bridge circuit. Direction reversal and speed checks

Deliverable
Evolving schematic circuit diagrams for the electronic circuitry.
Working Hardware !!

Post Lab Questions:

How does the design and implementation of an H bridge circuit contribute to the efficient control and operation of
DC motors, considering factors such as hardware safety, current sensing, regenerative braking, component selection,
cost-effectiveness, simulation validation, construction, and testing procedures?
 KARACHI INSTITUTE OF ECONOMICS AND TECHNOLOGY
Department of Mechatronics Engineering
College of Engineering

ME-4314 – Mechatronics System Design

Semester: Date of Experiment:

Student name: Faculty Signature:
Student ID: Remarks/Comments:

Lab
Arduino Familiarization.
4

PLO2 - Problem Analysis C4 - Analyzing

Bloom’s
PLO’s PLO3 – Design/Development of Solutions P4 – Mechanism
Taxonomy
PLO9 – Individual and Team Work A5 – Internalizing Values
LAB TASK PERFORMANCE
Excellent Average Poor
CLO’s Aspects of Assessments Marks
(75-100%) (50-75%) (<50
%)
Introduction to Micro- Students grasp micro-controller Students struggle to
Students have a basic comprehend micro-
CLO1 controller. fundamentals, including understanding of micro-controllers controller concepts,
40% Arduino hardware, IDE, and and Arduino fundamentals but may indicating a need for
software structure, showing need clarification on software improvement in
proficiency in navigating development and program understanding hardware
Arduino boards and features. structure. components, IDE usage,
and program structure.
Implementation of Basic Students successfully implement Students implement basic Arduino Students face
CLO2 Arduino Tasks significant
basic Arduino tasks like blinking tasks with some guidance, showing
50% challenges in
LED and fading LED, a partial understanding of program
implementing
demonstrating a solid structure and encountering minor
basic Arduino
understanding of program issues in execution.
tasks, showing
structure and execution..
limited
understanding of
program structure
and requiring
extensive
assistance.
Individual & Team Skills Very little, if any,
CLO3 Proactively work with other Worked well with team but did not
contributions to group
team members to complete offer much positive feedback.
and less contribution
10% assigned tasks.
in completion of
overall lab tasks.
Total Marks: 10
Objective:
Introduction to micro-controller: Arduino, IDE, Hardware

Introduction
Arduino is open-source hardware. The hardware reference designs are distributed under a Creative
Commons Attribution Share-Alike 2.5 license and are available on the Arduino website. Layout and
production files for some versions of the hardware are also available.

Arduino R3 UNO board

Most Arduino boards consist of an Atmel 8bitAVR microcontroller (ATmega8, [24] ATmega168,
ATmega328, ATmega1280, ATmega2560) with varying amounts of flash memory, pins, and features.

The 32-bit Arduino Due, based on the Atmel SAM3X8E was introduced in 2012. The boards use single or
double-row pins or female headers that facilitate connections for programming and incorporation into
other circuits. These may connect with add-on modules termed shields. Multiple and possibly stacked
shields may be individually addressable via an I²C serial bus. Most boards include a 5 V linear regulator
and a 16 MHz crystal oscillator or ceramic resonator. Some designs, such as the LilyPad, run at 8 MHz and
dispense with the onboard voltage regulator due to specific form-factor restrictions.

Software
A program for Arduino may be written in any programming language with compilers that produce binary
machine code for the target processor. Atmel provides a development environment for their
microcontrollers, AVR Studio and the newer Atmel Studio.

Program structure
A minimal Arduino C/C++ program consist of only two functions:

setup(): This function is called once when a sketch starts after power-up or reset. It is used to initialize
variables, input and output pin modes, and other libraries needed in the sketch.

loop(): After setup() has been called, function loop() is executed repeatedly in the main program. It
controls the board until the board is powered off or is reset.
Task 1 - Pre LAB Task
Read chapters 1 to 14 of the tutorial Reference Material available on arduino tutorial.pdf provided.

Task 2 - Implement Blinking LED

Chapter 27 of the tutorial provided.

Task 3 - Fading LED

Chapter 28 of the tutorial provided.

Results - Comment on the results

POST LAB
Browse through tutorial provided and make a list of the hardware components used throughout the text.

References
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arduino
 KARACHI INSTITUTE OF ECONOMICS AND TECHNOLOGY
Department of Mechatronics Engineering
College of Engineering

ME-4314 – Mechatronics System Design

Semester: Date of Experiment:

Student name: Faculty Signature:
Student ID: Remarks/Comments:

Lab
Arduino Core Programming Concepts.
5

PLO2 - Problem Analysis C4 - Analyzing

Bloom’s
PLO’s PLO3 – Design/Development of Solutions P4 – Mechanism
Taxonomy
PLO9 – Individual and Team Work A5 – Internalizing Values
LAB TASK PERFORMANCE
Excellent Average Poor
CLO’s Aspects of Assessments Marks
(75-100%) (50-75%) (<50%
)
Understanding Core Students thoroughly grasp core Students struggle
Students have a basic significantly, facing
CLO1 Programming Concepts programming concepts in understanding, needing further challenges in understanding
40% Arduino C, reviewing chapters review and practice to address and applying programming
and examples with proficiency. difficulties encountered. concepts effectively.
Implementation of Students successfully implement Students face
Students manage project
CLO2 Arduino Projects significant
Arduino projects, demonstrating implementation with some
50% challenges,
a solid understanding of project guidance, encountering minor
encountering errors
implementation. issues.
and incomplete
project
implementation.
Individual & Team Skills Very little, if any,
CLO3 Proactively work with other Worked well with team but did
contributions to group and
team members to complete not offer much positive
less contribution
10% assigned tasks. feedback.
in completion of
overall lab tasks.
Total Marks: 10
Objective:
Review of Core Programming Concepts using Arduino C.

Preamble
This lab is follow up to the Lab 9, and opportunity to review the core Programming Concepts.

Task 1
Review the Arduino operators chapter from the Arduino tutorial pdf provided. And go through all the
examples in the chapter.

Task 2
Review the Arduino Control Statements chapter from the Arduino tutorial pdf provided. And go through
all the examples in the chapter.

Task 3
Review the Arduino Loops chapter from the Arduino tutorial pdf provided. And go through all the
examples in the chapter.

Task 4
Review the Arduino Functions chapter from the Arduino tutorial pdf provided. And go through all the
examples in the chapter.

Task 5
Review the Arduino Function Libraries chapter from the Arduino tutorial pdf provided. And go through all
the examples in the chapter.

Task 6
Implement the Arduino projects chapter 29 to 34, from the Arduino tutorial pdf provided.

Deliverables
Observations
Submit a log of all the errors encountered during the above process.
 KARACHI INSTITUTE OF ECONOMICS AND TECHNOLOGY
Department of Mechatronics Engineering
College of Engineering

ME-4314 – Mechatronics System Design

Semester: Date of Experiment:

Student name: Faculty Signature:
Student ID: Remarks/Comments:

Lab
Arduino Pulse Width Modulation Programming beyond 32kHz.
6

PLO2 - Problem Analysis C4 - Analyzing

Bloom’s
PLO’s PLO3 – Design/Development of Solutions P4 – Mechanism
Taxonomy
PLO9 – Individual and Team Work A5 – Internalizing Values
LAB TASK PERFORMANCE
Excellent Average Poor
CLO’s Aspects of Assessments Marks
(75-100%) (50-75%) (<50%)
Pulse Width Modulation Students demonstrate a Students struggle to generate
Students successfully generate PWM signals effectively,
CLO1 (PWM) Signal Generation thorough understanding of PWM signals with varying duty encountering challenges in
40% generating PWM signals, cycles, although they may achieving desired duty cycles
achieving both low and high encounter some difficulties in and accurately measuring the
duty cycles as per task accurately measuring the signals signals with an oscilloscope.
requirements. They accurately or understanding specific
measure the signals using an techniques to achieve high
oscilloscope, showcasing frequencies beyond 32 kHz.
proficiency in PWM signal
generation techniques.
Increasing PWM Signal Students propose effective Students suggest techniques to Students struggle to
CLO2 Frequency suggest or implement
techniques to increase PWM increase PWM signal frequency
50% techniques to increase
signal frequency beyond 32 but may require further
PWM signal
kHz, showcasing a solid clarification or guidance in their
frequency effectively,
understanding of timer-based implementation. They partially
encountering
signal generation methods. achieve the desired frequency
difficulties in
They successfully implement and may encounter challenges in
understanding and
these techniques and confirm confirming the frequency using
applying timer-based
the highest possible frequency an oscilloscope.
signal generation
using an oscilloscope.
methods.
Individual & Team Skills Very little, if any,
CLO3 Proactively work with other Worked well with team but did
contributions to group and
team members to complete not offer much positive
less contribution
10% assigned tasks. feedback.
in completion of overall
lab tasks.
Total Marks: 10
Objective:
Generate a Pulse Width Modulated Signal greater than 32 kHz, on any digital I/O pins.

Preamble
Chapter 21 of the Arduino tutorial pdf provided.

You must attempt the following tasks using simple delay function available,
and one again using timer’s library.

Task 1
Generate the least and most duty cycle PWM signal and measure the signal using an oscilloscope.

Task 2
With a duty cycle of your choice, suggest technique you would use to go beyond 32 kHz frequency.

Task 3
Generate the highest possible frequency, confirm using an oscilloscope.

Record your observations

 KARACHI INSTITUTE OF ECONOMICS AND TECHNOLOGY
Department of Mechatronics Engineering
College of Engineering

ME-4314 – Mechatronics System Design

Semester: Date of Experiment:

Student name: Faculty Signature:
Student ID: Remarks/Comments:

Lab
Arduino – Interrupts & High Speed Interrupts.
7

PLO2 - Problem Analysis C4 - Analyzing

Bloom’s
PLO’s PLO3 – Design/Development of Solutions P4 – Mechanism
Taxonomy
PLO9 – Individual and Team Work A5 – Internalizing Values
LAB TASK PERFORMANCE
Excellent Average Poor
CLO’s Aspects of Assessments Marks
(75-100%) (50-75%) (<50%)
Understanding Arduino Students Students have difficulty
demonstrate a Students understand the basic understanding the concept of
CLO1 Interrupt Programming comprehensive understanding concepts of interrupts but may interrupts and struggle to
40% of the two main types of struggle to differentiate between differentiate between external
interrupts: external and external and internal interrupts and internal types. They may
internal. They provide clear or provide suitable examples for provide incorrect examples or
examples of each type and each type. Their explanations fail to explain the differences
explain their differences may lack depth or clarity, adequately.
effectively, showcasing a solid requiring further elaboration.
grasp of interrupt concepts.
Implementation of Students successfully connect Students manage to connect the Students struggle to
CLO2 Arduino Interrupts connect the required
the required hardware to required hardware for generating
50% hardware for
generate interrupts and explain interrupts and understand the
generating interrupts
how certain tasks can be concept of polling for certain
and have difficulty
accomplished using polling. tasks. However, their
understanding the
They also understand the explanations may lack detail or
concept of polling.
precautions necessary when not clarity, and they may overlook
using interrupts, incorporating some precautions when not
them into their code effectively. using interrupts.
Individual & Team Skills Very little, if any,
CLO3 Proactively work with other Worked well with team but did
contributions to group and
team members to complete not offer much positive
less contribution
10% assigned tasks. feedback.
in completion of overall
lab tasks.
Total Marks: 10
Objective:
Arduino Interrupt & High Speed Interrupts Programming

Arduino Interrupt Programming

Task 1
Differentiate between the 2 main types of interrupts.
Provide examples of each.

Task 2
Connect the hardware require to generate interrupts

Task 3
Explain how some tasks can also be accomplished using polling feature.

Task 4
What are precautions you must take when not using interrupts, (that a programmer must incorporate in
his /her code).

Post Lab
Low, change and following are the three mode of interrupt, which is most pertinent for you and why?
Arduino High Speed Interrupts Programming

Task 1
Using the function generator or oscillating source generate a high frequency signal.
Update the occurrence of the state, "change", "low" or "falling", on serial monitor of the PC.

Task 2
Which mode provides the best resolution?
Provide reasonable evidence for your response.

Task 3
Connect the encoder readout circuit with Arduino interrupts and display the rotational speed of motor
shaft on the serial monitor.

Task 4
Verify your result using tachometer.
 KARACHI INSTITUTE OF ECONOMICS AND TECHNOLOGY
Department of Mechatronics Engineering
College of Engineering

ME-4314 – Mechatronics System Design

Semester: Date of Experiment:

Student name: Faculty Signature:
Student ID: Remarks/Comments:

Lab
Encoder Readout Circuit Design.
8

PLO2 - Problem Analysis C4 - Analyzing

Bloom’s
PLO’s PLO3 – Design/Development of Solutions P4 – Mechanism
Taxonomy
PLO9 – Individual and Team Work A5 – Internalizing Values
LAB TASK PERFORMANCE
Excellent Average Poor
CLO’s Aspects of Assessments Marks
(75-100%) (50-75%) (<50%)
Understanding Students struggle to
Students demonstrate a Students have a basic understand incremental
CLO1 Incremental Encoder comprehensive understanding understanding of incremental encoder specifications,
40% Characteristics of incremental encoder encoder characteristics but may leading to difficulties in circuit
specifications, including PPR, require further clarification on design.
voltage levels, quadrature, their implications in circuit
phase angle, accuracy, duty design.
cycle, and frequency response,
recognizing their significance
in circuit design.
Implementing Readout Students justify component Students justify component Students struggle to
CLO2 Circuit for Incremental choices and implement the choices and implement the connect the required
50% Encoder hardware for
readout circuit effectively, readout circuit, but explanations
generating interrupts
showcasing sound engineering may lack depth or optimization.
and have difficulty
judgment.
understanding the
concept of polling.
Individual & Team Skills Students struggle to
CLO3 Proactively work with other Worked well with team but did
justify component
team members to complete not offer much positive
choices and implement
10% assigned tasks. feedback.
the readout circuit
effectively.
Total Marks: 10
Objective:
Design Readout circuit for Incremental Encoder

Preamble
Incremental rotary encoders generate an output signal each time the shaft rotates a certain angle. The
number of signals (pulses) per turn defines the resolution of the device. The incremental encoder does
not output an absolute position, which makes the internal components of the encoder much simpler and
more economical.

Besides position tracking, incremental encoders are often used to determine velocity. The position in
relation to the starting point can be calculated by counting the number of pulses. The velocity can be
retrieved by dividing the number of pulses by the measured time interval.

An incremental encoder has at least 1 output signal “A” or typically 2 output signals, called “A” and “B”.
These 2 signals are set up with a 90° offset, which is required for the detection of the encoder’s rotation.
By turning the encoder clockwise, the “A” pulse is rising 90° ahead of the “B” pulse, by turning the shaft
counterclockwise, the “B” pulse is rising ahead of the “A” pulse.

Additionally, some incremental encoders output a “Z” signal. Once every rotation, this Z signal is rising for
typically 90°, on the exact same position. This can be used as an accurate reference point.

Some incremental encoders also have additional differential signals, called “/A”, “/B” and “/Z”. These
signals are inverted “A”, “B” and “Z” signals. Controllers can compare each pair (“A” must be equal to
inverted “/A”) to ensure that there is no error during the transmission.

Additionally, the transmission sensitivity is improved by transmitting the differential signals through a
twisted pair cable.

Typical pulse diagram

Encoder Characteristics - Pulses per revolution (PPR):

An incremental rotary encoder outputs a certain amount of Pulses per Revolution. The higher this PPR
number, the smaller the angle between each pulse. This PPR number is fixed for ordinary incremental
encoders. Programmable incremental encoders can adjust this value to a desired number by a software
change.

Encoder Characteristics - Specifications

1. Voltage Output Levels

2. Electrical and Mechanical Degree:
Mechanical degree is the actual rotation of the shaft in degrees. Electrical degree is used for
electrical signals. The required time for completing one alternating voltage/current cycle is
defined as 360 electrical degrees (el°). For incremental encoders, one cycle is equal to one
complete pulse. With a given PPR the electrical degree can be converted to mechanical degree
for any incremental encoder.

3. Quadrature:
Every 90 el° the incremental encoder outputs a rising or falling edge on the “A” or “B” output
that can be interpreted as a count. If an encoder outputs 1000 PPR, a counter can interpret 4000
counts (4 counts each pulse).

4. Phase Angle:
The phase angle states the length between 2 edges, given in el°. This parameter is typically
specified with a defined constant phase angle value and phase angle error (also called
quadrature error).

5. Accuracy (DNL):
The Differential Non-Linearity (DNL) accuracy is the phase angle error as an absolute value given in
(mechanical) degrees.
 6. Accuracy (INL):
An incremental encoder outputs a defined amount of pulses per revolution, so that every pulse is
expected to be on a defined mechanical position. The maximum deviation between this ideal
position and the actual position is called integral non linearity (INL). The INL accuracy is an
important value if the incremental encoder is used for positioning tasks.

7. Duty Cycle:
The duty cycle describes the ratio between “high” time to “low” time of an incremental encoder.
Typically, this ratio is 50/50, which is equivalent to 180 el° high and 180 el° low.
The performance of magnetic incremental encoders increases with higher PPR settings and
higher rotation speeds (RPM). This is in contrast to optical encoders where the performance
decreases. The DNL and INL accuracy that are stated in our datasheets are worst case values, a
better performance can be expected for higher PPR and RPM.

8. Frequency Response:
This is the maximum frequency that the encoder is able to output via the output lines. For
example, the frequency of a 200 PPR encoder that rotates at 600 RPM is 2000 Hz (200*600/60s).

Task 1
As it is apparent from the preamble that the encoder would provide feedback for the system.

Your task is to design and implement (software simulations of schematics) for the readout circuit.
Implement using any technique. (Resistance, photo coupler or Hall effect sensors).

Task 2
Justify your choices of components and implement.

Deliverables:
1. Circuit Schematic
2. Comparison table of at least three implementation technique.
 KARACHI INSTITUTE OF ECONOMICS AND TECHNOLOGY
Department of Mechatronics Engineering
College of Engineering

ME-4314 – Mechatronics System Design

Semester: Date of Experiment:

Student name: Faculty Signature:
Student ID: Remarks/Comments:

Lab
Mechanical Design of Encoder Assembly.
9

PLO2 – Problem Analysis C4 - Analyzing

Bloom’s
PLO’s PLO3 – Design/Development of Solutions P4 – Mechanism
Taxonomy
PLO9 – Individual and Team Work A5 – Internalizing Values
LAB TASK PERFORMANCE
Excellent Average Poor
CLO’s Aspects of Assessments Marks
(75-100%) (50-75%) (<50%)
Mechanical Design of Students effectively design the Students design the mechanical
CLO1 Encoder System Students struggle to design the
mechanical assembly of the assembly, but may overlook mechanical assembly,
40% encoder disc and coupling with certain aspects such as optimal encountering difficulties in
the DC motor, considering placement or integration with ensuring proper alignment and
factors such as alignment, the DC motor, requiring minor functionality with the DC
compatibility, and adjustments for improved motor.
functionality. performance..
Sensor Placement Students struggle to
Students accurately highlight Students identify sensor
CLO2 Highlight determine
the placement of sensors in the placement, but may overlook
50% appropriate sensor
mechanical assembly, ensuring certain considerations such as
placement, leading to
optimal positioning for proximity to the encoder disc or
potential issues with
effective signal detection. interference from other
signal detection and
components, requiring minor
functionality of the
adjustments for optimal
encoder system.
performance.
Individual & Team Skills Students struggle to
CLO3 Proactively work with other Worked well with team but did
justify component
team members to complete not offer much positive
choices and implement
10% assigned tasks. feedback.
the readout circuit
effectively.
Total Marks: 10
Objective:
Complete Mechanical Design of Encoder System on software package (solid works) and manufacturing the
encoder disk on 3d printer

Preamble
Incremental rotary encoders generate an output signal each time the shaft rotates a certain angle. The
number of signals (pulses) per turn defines the resolution of the device. The incremental encoder does
not output an absolute position, which makes the internal components of the encoder much simpler and
more economical.

Besides position tracking, incremental encoders are often used to determine velocity. The position in
relation to the starting point can be calculated by counting the number of pulses. The velocity can be
retrieved by dividing the number of pulses by the measured time interval.

An incremental encoder has at least 1 output signal “A” or typically 2 output signals, called “A” and “B”.
These 2 signals are set up with a 90° offset, which is required for the detection of the encoder’s rotation.
By turning the encoder clockwise, the “A” pulse is rising 90° ahead of the “B” pulse, by turning the shaft
counterclockwise, the “B” pulse is rising ahead of the “A” pulse.

Additionally, some incremental encoders output a “Z” signal. Once every rotation, this Z signal is rising for
typically 90°, on the exact same position. This can be used as an accurate reference point.

3D printing
3D printing, or additive manufacturing, is the construction of a three-dimensional object from a CAD model or a
digital 3D model. The term "3D printing" can refer to a variety of processes in which material is deposited, joined
or solidified under computer control to create a three-dimensional object, with material being added together
(such as plastics, liquids or powder grains being fused together), typically layer by layer.
In the 1980s, 3D printing techniques were considered suitable only for the production of functional or aesthetic
prototypes, and a more appropriate term for it at the time was rapid prototyping. As of 2019, the precision,
repeatability, and material range of 3D printing have increased to the point that some 3D printing processes are
considered viable as an industrial-production technology, whereby the term additive manufacturing can be used
synonymously with 3D printing. One of the key advantages of 3D printing is the ability to produce very complex
shapes or geometries that would be otherwise impossible to construct by hand, including hollow parts or parts
with internal truss structures to reduce weight. Fused deposition modeling (FDM), which uses a continuous
filament of a thermoplastic material, is the most common 3D printing process in use as of 2020.
Task 1
Design the mechanical assembly of the encoder disc and coupling with dc motor.

Task 2
Also highlight the placement of sensors.

Task 3
Make a model of the encoder disk on the solid works software and convert it into STL format.

Task 4
Use the 3d printer in the lab for manufacturing the encoder disk.
Deliverable
Design drawing of encoder setup and manufactured encoder disk
 KARACHI INSTITUTE OF ECONOMICS AND TECHNOLOGY
Department of Mechatronics Engineering
College of Engineering

ME-4314 – Mechatronics System Design

Semester: Date of Experiment:

Student name: Faculty Signature:
Student ID: Remarks/Comments:

Lab
Introduction to Gears & determine its parameters.
10

PLO’s PLO2 - Problem Analysis Bloom’s C3 - Analyzing

PLO9 – Individual and Teamwork Taxonomy A5 – Internalizing Values
LAB TASK PERFORMANCE
Excellent Average Poor
CLO’s Aspects of Assessments Marks
(75-100%) (50-75%) (<50%)
Students struggle to define
Understanding Gear Students provide accurate Students offer definitions for and explain gear parameters
Parameters definitions and explanations gear parameters, but their accurately, showing
CLO1 for gear parameters such as explanations may lack depth or confusion or
80%
module, diametral pitch (DP), clarity, requiring further misunderstanding of the
tooth thickness, dedendum, elaboration to ensure concepts, leading to
root diameter, shaft angle, comprehensive understanding. incomplete or incorrect
contact ratio, interference responses.
point, reference pitch, center
line, tip circle, reference circle,
and tip diameter,
demonstrating a thorough
understanding of each term.
Individual & Team Skills Students struggle to justify
CLO3 Proactively work with other Worked well with team but did
component choices and
team members to complete not offer much positive
implement the readout
20% assigned tasks. feedback.
circuit effectively.
Total Marks: 10
Objective:
1. To study the Gears, its types, its classification, its characteristics and its terminologies and
implement it on our project.
2. To calculate the gear ratios, output angular velocity, output torque and the remaining parameters
for the required output characteristics to be achieved of your gears.

INTRODUCTION TO GEARS
DEFINITION OF GEARS

Gears are toothed members which transmit power / motion between two shafts by meshing without any
slip. Hence, gear drives are also called positive drives. In any pair of gears, the smaller one is called pinion
and the larger one is called gear immaterial of which is driving the other.

When pinion is the driver, it results in step down drive in which the output speed decreases and the torque
increases. On the other hand, when the gear is the driver, it results in step up drive in which the output
speed increases and the torque decreases.

CLASSIFICATION OF GEARS
Gears are classified according to the shape of the tooth pair and disposition into spur, helical, double
helical, straight bevel, spiral bevel and hypoid bevel, worm and spiral gears and this is shown in Figure
below.

Spur Gear
The most common and easy to produce parallel shaft cylindrical gears. Of a pair of gears, the larger one
is called a gear and the smaller one a pinion.

Helical Gear
Quiet and able to transmit larger torque than spur gears. Cylindrical gears with spiral shaped tooth
trace.
Gear Rack
Changes rotary motion to linear motion. A set consisting of rectangular or circular rod shaped gear with
mating small gear.

Bevel Gear
Cone shaped gears used in intersecting shaft applications. There are also bevel gears with spiral shaped
tooth trace called spiral bevel gears.

Spiral Bevel Gear

Cone shaped gears used in intersecting shaft applications. There are also bevel gears with straight
shaped tooth trace called straight bevel gears.
Screw Gear
Used in offset shaft application. Shape wise, they are the same as helical gears.

Miter Gear
Type of bevel gears in which the pair is made of same number of teeth and used where speed reduction
or increase is not needed.

Worm Gear
Used when a large speed reduction is needed. Worm and worm gear set. Normally, different materials
are used for worm and worm gear.

Internal gear
Gear teeth are cut on the inside surface of hollow cylindrical forms and used in planetary gear systems.
The gear teeth are cut using gear shaper machines.
(Important Gear Terminology and Gear Nomenclature in this picture)

 Worm
 Worm wheel
 Internal gear
 Gear coupling
 Screw gear
 Involute spline shafts and bushings
 Miter gear
 Spur gear
 Helical gear
 Ratchet
 Pawl
 Rack
 Pinion
 Straight bevel gear
 Spiral bevel gear
There are three categories of gears in accordance with the orientation of axes.

1) Parallel Axes
Spur Gear

Helical Gear

Rack

Internal Gear

2) Intersecting Axes
Miter Gear

Straight Bevel Gear

Spiral Bevel Gear

3) Nonparallel,
Nonintersecting Screw Gear
Axes

Worm

Worm Wheel

4) Others
Involute Spline Shaft
& Bushing
 Gear Coupling

Pawl & Rachet

There are three major categories of gears in accordance with the orientation of their
axes
Configuration:

1. Parallel Axes / Spur Gear, Helical Gear, Gear Rack, Internal Gear
2. Intersecting Axes / Miter Gear, Straight Bevel Gear, Spiral Bevel Gear
3. Nonparallel, Nonintersecting Axes / Screw Gear, Worm, Worm Gear (Worm Wheel)
4. Others / Involute Spline Shaft and Bushing, Gear Coupling, Pawl and Ratchet

The difference between a gear and a sprocket

Simply said, a gear meshes with another gear while a sprocket meshes with a chain and is not a gear. Aside
from a sprocket, an item that looks somewhat like a gear is a ratchet, but its motiion is limited to one
direction.

Classification of types of gears from the point of positional relations of the attached
shafts
1. When the gears’ two shafts are parallel (parallel shafts) Spur gear, rack, internal gear and helical
gear, etc. Generally, they have a high transmission efficiency.
2. When the gears’ two shafts intersect each other (intersecting shafts) Bevel gear is in this category.
Generally, they have a high transmission efficiency.
3. When the gears’ two shafts are not parallel or intersect (offset shafts) Worm gear and screw gear
belong in this group. Because of the sliding contact, the transmission efficiency is relatively low.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GEARS
TABLE OF SUMMARY AND EVALUATION OF CHARACTERISTICS OF GEAR TYPES

Type Features and Applications Comments Regarding Precision

Precision Rating
Spur Parallel Shafting. Applicable to all Simplest tooth elements offering
High speeds and loads types of trains and a maximum precision. First choice,
highest efficiency wide range of recommended for all the gear meshes,
velocity ratios. except where very high speeds and
Precision Rating is excellent loads or special features of other types,
such as right angle drive, cannot be
avoided.
Helical Parallel Shafting. Very high Most applicable to Equivalent quality to spurs, except for
speeds and loads. Efficiency high speeds and complication of helix angle.
slightly less than spur mesh. loads; also used Recommended for all high-speed and
whenever spurs are high-load meshes. Axial thrust
Precision Rating is good used. component must be accommodated.

Crossed Skewed shafting. Point Relatively low To be avoided for precision meshes.
Helical contact. velocity ratio; low Point contact limits capacity and
High sliding speeds and light precision. Suitable for right angle drives,
loads only. Any if light load. A less expensive substitute
Low speeds angle skew shafts. for bevel gears. Good lubrication
Light loads essential because of point of contact and
Precision Rating is poor high sliding action.
Internal Parallel shafts Internal drives Not recommended for precision meshes
spur High speeds requiring high because of design, fabrication, and
speeds and high inspection limitations. Should only be
High loads loads; offers low used when internal feature is necessary.
sliding and high
Precision Rating is fair stress loading; good
for high capacity,
long life. Used in
planetary gears to
produce large
reduction ratios.
Bevel Intersecting shafts, Suitable for 1:1 and Good choice for right angle drive,
High speeds, higher velocity particularly low ratios. However
ratios and for right- complicated both form and fabrication
High loads. angle meshes (and limits achievement of precision. Should
Precision Rating is fair to other angles) be located at one of the less critical
good meshes of the train.
Right-angle skew shafts, High velocity ratio Worm can be made to high precision,
Worm High velocity ratio, Angular meshes but worm gear has inherent limitations.
mesh High speeds and loads, High loads To be considered for average precision
Low efficiency, Most meshes, but can be of high precision
designs nonreversible. with care. Best choice for combination
Precision rating is fair to high velocity ratio and right-angle drive.
good High sliding requires excellent
lubrication.

Type Features and Applications Comments Regarding Precision

Precision Rating
Specials Intersecting and skew Special cases To be avoided as precision meshes.
- Face, shafts. Significant non-conjugate action with
Spiroid, Modest speeds and loads. departure from nominal center distance
Helicon, Precision Rating is fair to and shaft angles. Fabrication needs
Beveloid good special equipment and inspection is
limited.
GEAR TERMINOLOGIES

Important Gear Terminology in this picture:

 Center distance
 Length of path of contact (Line of action)
 Backlash
 Interference point
 Pitch point
 Reference pitch
 Center line
 Tip circle
 Reference circle
 Base circle
 Root circle
 Tip diameter
 Reference diameter
 Base diameter
  Root diameter
 Pressure angle
 Face width
 Tooth depth
 Addendum
 Dedendum
 Tooth thickness

Center distance (operating) is the shortest distance between non-intersecting axes. It is measured along
the mutual perpendicular to the axes, called the line of centers. It applies to spur gears, parallel axis or
crossed axis helical gears, and worm gearing.
The center distance is the distance between the center of the shaft of one gear to the center of the shaft
of the other gear. The backlash is inseparably related to the center distance; a positive permissible
deviation of the center distance means a larger backlash, and a negative permissible deviation of the
center distance means a smaller backlash.
The line of centers connects the centers of the pitch circles of two engaging gears; it is also the common
perpendicular of the axes in crossed helical gears and wormgears. When one of the gears is a rack, the
line of centers is perpendicular to its pitch line.
Backlash is the clearance space between the teeth of mating gears Backlash is necessary for smooth
operation of gears.
Backlash In mechanical engineering, backlash is the striking back of connected wheels in a piece of
mechanism when pressure is applied. Another source defines it as the maximum distance through which
one part of something can be moved without moving a connected part. It is also called lash or play. In the
context of gears, backlash is clearance between mating components, or the amount of lost motion due to
clearance or slackness when movement is reversed and contact is re-established. In a pair of gears,
backlash is the amount of clearance between mated gear teeth.
Backlash is unavoidable for nearly all reversing mechanical couplings, although its effects can be negated.
Depending on the application it may or may not be desirable. Reasons for requiring backlash include
allowing for lubrication and thermal expansion, and to prevent jamming. Backlash may also result from
manufacturing errors and deflection under load.
The pitch point is the point of tangency of two pitch circles (or of a pitch circle and pitch line) and is on
the line of centers.
The reference diameter is the diameter of the pitch circle of a gear It is also known as “Pitch diameter”.
The base circle of an involute gear is the circle from which involute tooth profiles are derived.
The root circle coincides with the bottoms of the tooth spaces.
The base diameter of an involute gear is the diameter of the base circle.
Pressure angle is the angle generated with a radial line and a line of the tooth profile, which intersect at
a pitch point. In simple terms, it is described as an angle of the gear tooth leaning against the normal
reference line, and the gear force is transmitted toward this angle in the same direction. Generally,
pressure angle means a pressure angle on base circle. The most frequently used pressure angle is 20°,
however, other angles, such as 14.5°, 15°, 17.5° and 22.5° are also used.
 The face width of a gear is the length of teeth in an axial plane. For double helical, it does not include the
gap.
Total face width is the actual dimension of a gear blank including the portion that exceeds the effective
face width, or as in double helical gears where the total face width includes any distance or gap separating
right hand and left hand helices.
For a cylindrical gear, effective face width is the portion that contacts the mating teeth. One member of a
pair of gears may engage only a portion of its mate.
For a bevel gear, different definitions for effective face width are applicable.
The addendum is the height by which a tooth of a gear projects beyond (outside for external, or inside for
internal) the standard pitch circle or pitch line; also, the radial distance between the pitch diameter and
the outside diameter.

CALCULATIONS FOR SPUR GEARS

NOMENCLATURE OF INVOLUTE SPUR GEARS
Refer to the Figs.2.1 and 2.2 which show a portion of a pair of involute gears in mesh.
• Pitch surface: The surface of the imaginary rolling cylinder (cone, etc.) that replaces the toothed gear.
• Pitch surface: The surface of the imaginary rolling cylinder (cone, etc.) that replaces the toothed gear.
• Pitch circle: A normal section of the pitch surface.
• Addendum circle: A circle bounding the ends of the teeth, in a normal section of the gear.
• Dedendum circle or Root circle: The circle bounding the spaces between the teeth, in a normal section
of the gear.
• Addendum: The radial distance between the pitch circle and the addendum circle.
• Dedendum: The radial distance between the pitch circle and the root circle.
• Clearance: The difference between the Dedendum of one gear and the addendum of the mating gear.
• Face of a tooth: That part of the tooth surface lying outside the pitch surface.
• Flank of a tooth: The part of the tooth surface lying inside the pitch surface.
• Top land: The top surface of a gear tooth.
• Bottom land: The bottom surface of the tooth space.
• Circular thickness (tooth thickness): The thickness of the tooth measured on the pitch circle. It is the
length of an arc and not the length of a straight line.
• Tooth space: The space between successive teeth.
• Width of space: The distance between adjacent teeth measured on the pitch circle.
• Backlash: The difference between the tooth thickness of one gear and the tooth space of the mating
gear.
 Part section of meshing of two involute gears

Comparative Size of Gear-Teeth

Using ISO (International Organization for Standardization) guidelines, Module Size is designated as the
unit representing gear tooth-sizes. However, other methods are used too.
Module (m)
m = 1 (p = 3.1416)
m = 2 (p = 6.2832)
m = 4 (p = 12.566)
If you multiply Module by Pi, you can obtain Pitch (p). Pitch is the distance between corresponding
points on adjacent teeth.

p = Pi x Module = πm (2.1)

Tooth Profiles of Racks

Calculation Example:
What is the pitch size (p) of the Gear with module m = 3 ?
p = πm = 9.4248
CP (Circular Pitch)
Circular Pitch (CP) denotes the reference pitch (p).

For instance, you can produce gears at an exact integral value, such as CP5/CP10/CP15/CP20.

Transformation from CP to Module

m = CP / π (2.2)

Calculation Example:
CP10 is transformed to module as follows ;
m = 10 / 3.1416 = 3.1831

DP (Diametral Pitch)
DP stands for Diametral Pitch.
By ISO standards, the unit Millimeter (mm) is designated to express length, however, the unit inch is
used in the USA, the UK and other countries; Diametral Pitch is also used in these countries.

Transformation from DP to Module

m = 25.4 / DP (2.3)

Calculation Example:
DP 8 is transformed to module as follows ;
m = 25.4 / 8 = 3.175

Pressure Angle (α)

Pressure angle is the leaning angle of a gear tooth, an element determining the tooth profile.
Recently, the pressure angle (α) is usually set to 20°, however, 14.5° gears were prevalent.

Normalized Tooth Profile of Reference

(Important Gear Terminology and Gear Nomenclature shown in above Figure)

 Reference line
 Pressure angle
 Normal reference line
  Pitch
 Tooth surface
 Root surface
 Top land

Number of teeth
Number of teeth denotes the number of gear teeth.
They are counted as shown in the Figure below. The number of teeth of this gear is 10.

Number of teeth
Module (m), Pressure Angle (α), and the Number of Teeth, introduced here, are the three basic
elements in the composition of a gear. Dimensions of gears are calculated based on these elements.

Tooth Depth and Thickness

Tooth depth is determined from the size of the module (m). Introduced here are Tooth Profiles (Full
depth) specified by ISO and JIS (Japan Industrial Standards) standards.
Please see Figure below for explanations for Tooth depth (h) / Addendum (ha) / Dedendum (hf). Tooth
depth (h) is the distance between tooth tip and the tooth root.
h = 2.25 m (= Addendum + Dedendum) (2.4)

Tooth Depth and Thickness

(Important Gear Terminology and Gear Nomenclature shown in above Figure)

 Reference line
 Pitch
 Tooth thickness
  Addendum
 Dedendum
 Tooth Depth
 Tooth tip
 Tooth root

Addendum (ha) is the distance between the reference line and the tooth tip.
ha = 1.00 m (2.5)

Dedendum (hf) is the distance between the reference line and the tooth root.
hf = 1.25 m (2.6)

Tooth thickness (s) is basically half the value of pitch (p). * Pitch (p) = πm
s = πm / 2 (2.7)

Calculation Examples:
The following are calculations of Tooth depth (h) / Addendum (ha) / Dedendum (hf) for a gear with
module 2.
h = 2.25 m = 2.25 × 2 = 4.50
ha = 1.00 m = 1.00 × 2 = 2.00
hf = 1.25 m = 1.25 × 2 = 2.50

In the previous pages, we introduced the basics of gears, including ‘Module’, ‘Pressure Angle’, ‘Number
of Teeth’ and ‘Tooth Depth and Thickness’. In this section we introduce the basic parts of Spur
Gears (Cylindrical gears) and dimensional calculations.

Diameter of Gears (Size)

The size of gears is determined in accordance with the reference diameter (d) and determined by these
other factors; the base circle, Pitch, Tooth Thickness, Tooth Depth, Addendum and Dedendum.
Reference diameter (d)
d = zm (2.8)

Tip diameter (da)

da = d + 2 m (2.9)

Root diameter (df)

df ＝ d －2.5 m (2.10)
 Diameter of Gears

(Important Gear Terminology and Gear Nomenclature shown in above Figure)

 Addendum
 Dedendum
 Root diameter
 Reference diameter
 Tip diameter

The Addendum and dedendum circle introduced here are a reference circle that cannot be seen on a
gear, as it is a virtual circle, determined by gear size.

Calculation Examples:
The following are calculations of Reference diameter / Tip diameter / Root diameter for a spur gear with
module (m) 2, and 20 teeth (z).
d = z m = 20 x 2 = 40
da = d + 2 m = 40 + 4 = 44
df = d – 2.5 m = 40 – 5 = 35

Practice Test:
Spur Gear Specifications
Module (m) = 4 / Number of teeth (z) = 40 (Pressure angle α = 20°)
Reference diameter d = ??
Tip diameter da = ??
Root diameter df = ??
 Working Gear Nomenclature
(Important Gear Terminology and Gear Nomenclature shown in above Figure)

 Tip diameter
 Reference diameter
 Base diameter
 Root diameter
 Face width
 Tooth thickness
 Reference pitch
 Center line
 Pressure Angle
 Backlash
 Tooth depth
 Addendum
 Dedendum
 Center distance
 Tip and Root Clearance

Table of Gear Symbols and Nomenclature

 Terms Symbols Terms Symbols
Module m Tooth Thickness s
Pressure Angle α Reference Diameter d
Number of Tooth z Tip Diameter da
Pitch p Root Diameter df
Tooth Depth h Center Distance a
Addendum ha Backlash j
Dedendum hf Tip and Root Clearance c

Center Distance and Backlash

When a pair of gears are meshed so that their reference circles are in contact, the center distance (a) is
half the sum total of their reference diameters.
Center distance (a)
a = (d1+d2) / 2 (2.11)

Center distance

Gears can mesh as shown in above Figure, however, it is important to consider a proper backlash (play)
so that the gears can work smoothly. Backlash is a play between tooth surfaces of paired gears in mesh.
Mating gears also have a clearance (play) vertical to tooth depth. This is called Tip and Root Clearance
(c), the distance between tooth root and the tooth tip of mating gears.

Tip and Root Clearance (c)

c = 1.25 m － 1.00 m = 0.25 m (2.12)
 Tip and Root Clearance

(Important Gear Terminology and Gear Nomenclature shown in above Figure)

 Addendum circle
 Dedendum circle
 Tip and Root Clearance

Calculation Examples:
The following are calculations for Center distance (a) and Tip and root clearance (c), when Module m =
2, Pinion z1 = 20, Gear z2 = 40
Reference diameter of Pinion d 1 = 20 × 2 = 40
Reference diameter of Gear d 2 = 40 × 2 = 80
Center distance a = (40+80) / 2 = 60
c = 0.25 × 2 = 0.5

Calculation Examples:
Practice calculating the dimensions of gears.
Terms Symbols Formula Pinion Gear
Module m 2.5
Pressure Angle α – 20°
No. of Teeth z 15 30
Reference diameter d zm 37.5 75
Addendum ha 1.00 m 2.5 2.5
Dedendum hf 1.25 m 3.125 3.125
Tooth Depth h 2.25 m 5.625 5.625
Tip diameter da d+2m 42.5 80
Root diameter df d － 2.5 m 31.25 68.75
Center distance a d1 + d2 / 2 56.25
Practice Test:
Calculations for the dimensions of gears.
Terms Symbols Formula Pinion Gear
Module m 4
Pressure Angle α – 20°
No. of Teeth z 12 60
Reference diameter d zm
Addendum ha 1.00 m
Dedendum hf 1.25 m
Tooth Depth h 2.25 m
Tip diameter da d+2m
Root diameter df d － 2.5 m
Center distance a d1 + d2 / 2

Spur Gears are the simplest type of gear. The calculations for spur gears are also simple and they are used
as the basis for the calculations for other types of gears. This section introduces calculation methods of
standard spur gears, profile shifted spur gears, and linear racks. The standard spur gear is a non-profile-
shifted spur gear.

1. Standard Spur Gear

Figure below shows the meshing of standard spur gears. The meshing of standard spur gears means the
reference circles of two gears contact and roll with each other. The calculation formulas are in Table
below.

The Meshing of Standard Spur Gears

( α=20°, z1=12, z2=24, x1=x2=0 )
 Table 1 Calculations for Standard Spur Gears
Example
No. Item Symbol Formula Pinion (1) Gear (2)

1 Module m 3

2 Reference Pressure Angle α Set Value 20 deg

3 Number of Teeth z 12 24

4 Center Distance a 54.000

NOTE1

5 Reference Diameter d zm 36.000 72.000

6 Base Diameter db d cos α 33.829 67.658

7 Addendum ha 1.00m 3.000 3.000

8 Tooth Depth h 2.25m 6.750 6.750

9 Tip Diameter da d + 2m 42.000 78.000

10 Root Diameter df d – 2.5m 28.500 64.500

NOTE: The subscripts 1 and 2 of z1 and z2 denote pinion and gear

All calculated values in Table 1 are based upon given module m and number of teeth (z1 and z2). If
instead, the modulem, center distance an and speed ratio i are given, then the number of teeth, z1 and
z2, would be calculated using the formulas as shown in Table below.

Table 2 Calculations for Number of Teeth

Example
No. Item Symbol Formula Pinion (1) Gear (2)

1 Module m 3

2 Center Distance a Set Value 54.000

3 Speed Ratio i 1.25

4 Sum of No. of Teeth z1 + z2 36

5 Number of Teeth z 16 20
Note, that the number of teeth will probably not be integer values when using the formulas in Table 2.
In this case, it will be necessary to resort to profile shifting or to employ helical gears to obtain as near a
transmission ratio as possible.

2. Profile Shifted Spur Gear

Figure below shows the meshing of a pair of profile shifted gears. The key items in profile shifted gears
are the operating(working) pitch diameters (dw) and the working (operating) pressure angle (αw). These
values are obtainable from the modified center distance and the following formulas:

The Meshing of Profile Shifted Gears

( α=20°, z1=12, z2=24, x1=+0.6, x2=+0.36 )

In the meshing of profile shifted gears, it is the operating pitch circle that is in contact and roll on each
other that portrays gear action. Table below presents the calculations where the profile shift coefficient
has been set at x1 andx2 at the beginning. This calculation is based on the idea that the amount of the
tip and root clearance should be 0.25m.

Table 3 Calculations for Profile Shifted Spur Gears

Example
No. Item Symbol Formula Pinion (1) Gear (2)

1 Module m 3

2 Reference Pressure Angle α 20 deg

Set Value
3 Number of Teeth z 12 24

4 Profile Shift Coefficient X 0.6 0.36

5 Involute αw inv αw 0.034316

6 Working Pressure Angle αw Find from Involute Function Table 26.0886 deg

Center Distance
7 y 0.83329
Modification Coefficient

8 Center Distance a 56.4999

9 Reference Diameter d zm 36.000 72.000

10 Base Diameter db d cos α 33.8289 67.6579

11 Working Pitch Diameter dw 37.667 75.333

ha1 ( 1 + y – x2 ) m
12 Addendum 4.420 3.700
ha2 ( 1 + y – x1 ) m

13 Tooth Depth h {2.25 + y – ( x1 + x2 )}m 6.370

14 Tip Diameter da d + 2ha 44.840 79.400

15 Root Diameter df da – 2h 32.100 66.660

A standard spur gear is, according to Table 4.3, a profile shifted gear with 0 coefficient of shift; that is,
x1=x2=0.
Table below is the inverse formula of items from above of Table.

Table 4 Calculations for Profile Shifted Spur Gears

Example
No. Item Symbol Formula Pinion (1) Gear (2)

1 Center Distance a Set Value 56.4999

Center Distance
2 y 0.8333
Modification Coefficient

3 Working Pressure Angle αw 26.0886 deg

Sum of Profile Shift

4 x1 + x2 0.9600
Coefficient

5 Profile Shift Coefficient x – 0.6000 0.3600

There are several theories concerning how to distribute the sum of profile shift coefficient (x1 + x2) into
pinion (x1) and gear (x2) separately. BSS (British) and DIN (German) standards are the most often used.
In the example above, the12 tooth pinion was given sufficient correction to prevent undercut, and the
residual profile shift was given to the mating gear.

3. Rack and Spur Gear

Table 5 presents the method for calculating the mesh of a rack and spur gear.
Below Figure shows the meshing of standard gear and a rack. In this mesh, the reference circle of the
gear touches the pitch line of the rack.

Above figure of Profile shifted spur gear shows a profile shifted spur gear, with positive correction xm,
meshed with a rack. The spur gear has a larger pitch radius than standard, by the amount xm. Also, the
pitch line of the rack has shifted outward by the amount xm.
Table 5 presents the calculation of a meshed profile shifted spur gear and rack. If the profile shift
coefficientx1 is 0, then it is the case of a standard gear meshed with the rack.

Table 5 Calculations of dimensions of a profile shifted spur gear and a rack

Example
No. Item Symbol Formula
Spur gear Rack
1 Module m 3
Reference pressure Set Value
2 a 20 deg
angle
 3 Number of teeth z 12
–
4 Profile shift coefficient x 0.6

5 Height of pitch line H – 32.000

6 Working pressure angle αw 20 deg

7 Mounting distance a 51.800

8 Reference diameter d zm 36.000

9 Base diameter db d cos α 33.829

–

10 Working pitch diameter dw 36.000

11 Addendum ha m(1+x) 4.800 3.000

12 Tooth depth h 2.25m 6.750

13 Tip diameter da d + 2ha 45.600

–
14 Root diameter df da – 2h 32.100

One rotation of the spur gear will displace the rack l one circumferential length of the gear’s reference
circle, per the formula :

The rack displacement, l, is not changed in any way by the profile shifting. Equation (4.2) remains
applicable for any amount of profile shift.

Figure 1 The meshing of standard spur gear and rack

( α=20°, z1=12, x1=0 )
 Figure 2 The meshing of profile shifted spur gear and rack
( α=20°, z1=12, x1=+ 0.6 )

STANDARD TOOTH SYSTEMS FOR SPUR GEARS

To reduce the varieties of gears to a manageable number, standards are evolved. Standard makes it easy
for design, production, quality assurance, replacement etc. Three commonly used pressure angles are
14.5o, 20o and 25o pressure angle systems as shown in Fig. 3.3. In this, one can have full depth gears or
stronger stub tooth gears. In Standard tooth system for metric gears, addendum: a =1m, dedendum: b=
1.25m whereas the for the stub tooth gears, addendum a = 0.8m and dedendum: b= 1.0m. The shorter
tooth makes it stronger and its load carrying capacity increases. It also helps in avoiding interference in
certain cases.

Fig. 3.3 Standard tooth systems

Table of Standard tooth system for spur gears
Item 20 degree full 20 degree 25 degree
depth Stub full depth
Addendum a 1m 0.8m 1m
Dedendum b 1.25 m 1m 1.25m
Clearance c 0.25 m 0.2 m 0.25m
Working dept 2m 1.6m 2m
Whole depth h 2.25m 1.8m 2.25m
Tooth thickness t 1.571m 1.571m 1.571m
Face width f 9m-14m 9m-14m 9m-14m
Fillet radius min. 0.3 m 0.3 m 0.3 m
Top land min. 0.25m 0.25m 0.25m

How the various spur gear tooth parameters are fixed in standard gear system is given in above Table?
 LAB TASKS
TASK # 1: QUESTION ANSWERS

1. Explain the following with respect to gears:

1. Module 2. DP (Diametral Pitch) 3. Tooth Thickness
4. Dedendum 5. Root Diameter 6. Shaft Angle
7. Tooth Thickness 8. Contact Ratio 9. Interference Point
10. Reference Pitch 11. Center Line 12. Tip Circle
13. Reference Circle 14. Tip Diameter
2. How do you distinguish right-hand teeth (R) from left-hand teeth (L) in gears?
3. Point out what does “Gear tooth modifications” mean in gears?
4. What is the solution to make gears rotate smoothly?

TASK # 2:
Calculate the Gear Ratios of your complete gear box or gear train? Show proper calculations for your gears
ratios by taking help from the examples giving in this lab manual.

TASK # 3:
Calculate the Output Angular Velocity in RPM of your complete gear box or gear train? Show proper
calculations for your output angular velocity in RPM by taking help from the examples giving in this lab
manual.

TASK # 4:
Calculate the Output Torque of your complete gear box or gear train? Show proper calculations for your
output torque by taking help from the examples giving in this lab manual.

TASK # 5:
Find or calculate the following parameters of your complete gear box:
1. Module
2. Circular Pitch
3. Diametral Pitch
4. Pressure Angle
5. Number of Teeth
6. Addendum & Dedendum
7. Tooth Thickness
8. Tip Diameter & Root Diameter
 KARACHI INSTITUTE OF ECONOMICS AND TECHNOLOGY
Department of Mechatronics Engineering
College of Engineering

ME-4314 – Mechatronics System Design

Semester: Date of Experiment:

Student name: Faculty Signature:
Student ID: Remarks/Comments:

Lab CAD Modeling of Gears Using SolidWorks Toolbox.

11

PLO2 - Problem Analysis C4 - Analyzing

Bloom’s
PLO’s PLO3 – Design/Development of Solutions P4 – Mechanism
Taxonomy
PLO9 – Individual and Team Work A5 – Internalizing Values
LAB TASK PERFORMANCE
Excellent Average Poor
CLO’s Aspects of Assessments Marks
(75- (50-75%) (<50%)
100%)
Students accurately follow Students partially follow the Students struggle to follow the
CLO1 Understanding CAD the provided procedure to provided procedure to model provided procedure to model
40% Modeling of Gears model gears using gears using SolidWorks, gears using SolidWorks,
SolidWorks, demonstrating encountering minor difficulties experiencing significant
proficiency in accessing the or errors in accessing toolbox difficulties or errors in
toolbox, selecting features or modifying gear accessing toolbox features or
appropriate gear templates, parameters. Their screenshots or modifying gear parameters.
and modifying parameters to pictures may lack completeness Their screenshots or pictures
create desired gear designs. or clarity, requiring some may be incomplete or unclear,
They showcase a clear improvement in documenting the indicating a limited
understanding of CAD
understanding of CAD editing process. modeling techniques for gears.
modeling techniques for
gears.
Students struggle to
Students successfully attach Students attach pictures or
CLO2 Applying CAD Skills attach clear and
clear and detailed pictures or screenshots of completed gears,
50% detailed pictures or
screenshots of all completed but the images may lack clarity or
screenshots of
gears, including the toolbox detail, making it difficult to
completed gears, with
interface displaying relevant assess the accuracy of the gear
the images being
information/details. The designs or the utilization of CAD
unclear or incomplete.
images effectively skills. Improvement is needed in
This hinders the
demonstrate the completion providing comprehensive visual
assessment of their
of gear modeling task documentation of the completed
gear modeling efforts
tasks.
and CAD skills
Individual & Team Skills Proactively Students struggle to
CLO3 work with Worked well with team but did
justify component choices
other team members to not offer much positive
and implement the readout
10% complete assigned tasks. feedback.
circuit effectively.
Total Marks: 10
Objective:
To model all the gears from your gears boxes on SolidWorks using CAD (Computer Aided Design)
Modeling of Gears Using SolidWorks Toolbox.

CAD Modeling of Gears Using SolidWorks

SolidWorks offers various pre-designed templates that are helpful for creating complicated machined
parts including bolts and screws, gears, bearings, and more. To access this feature:

1. Open SolidWorks by selecting StartAll AppsASOLIDWORKS 2016SOLIDWORKS 2016 x64

Edition.
2. From the top left tool bar, select File NewPartok.
3. To change the unit system from metric to English (if you have not already been prompted to
do so), again navigate to the top left toolbar, and select ToolsOptions.

Figure 1. Tools options dropdown menu

4. Click the “Document Properties” tab and left click “Units” on the vertical left list of options.
Select IPS units and click “ok”. The precision can also be adjusted here by clicking the
intersection of “Length” and “Decimals.” Change the precision to .123 for this example, and
click “ok”.

Figure 4. Precision adjustment

 5. Locate the icons on the right hand side of the screen. The books icon (3rd down on the vertical
list of icons) is the Design Library. Select Design LibraryToolbox and click
“Add in now”.

Figure 3. Design Library icon

6. Select the desired unit folder (ANSI Inch for English units).
7. Navigate to the desired part. Gears, sprockets and timing belts are listed under the
“Power Transmission” folder. The “Structural Members” folder contains a comprehensive
selection of aluminum and steel beams and parts that can be used to quickly build a complex
assembly. Explore the subfolders of the Toolbox to get a better idea of what part templates
already exist to help speed the drafting process.

How to make an editable gear:

1. Don’t forget to save the part! If the part is to be used in an assembly (search “assembly” in the
“SolidWorks Help” bar for more information), it must be saved in the same folder as all other
parts to be used in the assembly.
2. Gears are listed in the “Power Transmission” folder. Open this folder and open the
“Gears” folder.
3. Navigate and Right click “Spur Gear” from the listed options and left click “Create Part.”
The part should appear in the main editing window.
4. Change the options in the left hand column (titled “Configure Component”) to create the
desired gear. Try varying the dimensions and options from the various drop-down menus in
“configure component” panel to understand how the part can be edited.

Figure 5. Finished gear from toolbox

 LAB TASKS
TASK # 1:

Model all the gears from your gear box by following the above giving procedure on SolidWorks and also
take pictures or screenshots of the editing or changing you have made according to your gear design and
attach those pictures in this task.

TASK # 2:
Attach the pictures or screenshots of all your completed gears and that pictures should include the
toolbox appears on your left top screen that contains all the information/details of your gears.

IMPORTANT NOTE: DONOT ATTACH THE PICTURES OR SCREENSHOTS OF YOUR ASSEMBLY OF GEARS IN
THIS LAB MANUAL.
 KARACHI INSTITUTE OF ECONOMICS AND TECHNOLOGY
Department of Mechatronics Engineering
College of Engineering

ME-4314 – Mechatronics System Design

Semester: Date of Experiment:

Student name: Faculty Signature:
Student ID: Remarks/Comments:

Lab
Introduction to CNC Milling Machine.
12

PLO’s PLO2 - Problem Analysis Bloom’s C4 - Analyzing

PLO9 – Individual and Teamwork Taxonomy A5 – Internalizing Values
LAB TASK PERFORMANCE
Excellent Average Poor
CLO’s Aspects of Assessments Marks
(75-100%) (50-75%) (<50%)
Students demonstrate a Students show a basic Students struggle to grasp
CLO1 Understanding CNC comprehensive understanding of understanding of CNC CNC machining basics, with
80% Machining Basics CNC machining fundamentals, machining fundamentals, but significant gaps in their
including the definition of CNC, may lack depth or clarity in their understanding of key
its historical development, and explanations. Some key concepts. Their explanations
the basics of CNC programming. concepts may be partially may be vague or incorrect,
They accurately describe the two explained or misunderstood, and indicating a limited grasp of
methods of CNC programming there may be minor inaccuracies CNC technology and
(conversational and CAM in their descriptions of CNC programming principles. They
programming) and provide clear programming methods and may also provide inaccurate or
incomplete answers to
explanations of typical machining operations. Their questions about CNC machine
machining operations and cycles responses to questions about components, control systems,
used in CNC milling machines. CNC machine components, positioning systems, G codes,
Additionally, they provide control systems, positioning and tool types, requiring
precise answers to questions systems, G codes, and tool types further study and clarification.
about CNC machine tool may demonstrate a basic grasp
components, MCU function, of the concepts, but lack detail
closed-loop and open-loop and precision.
control systems, positioning
systems, G codes, and types of
tools used in CNC machines.
Individual & Team Skills Proactively work with other Students struggle to
CLO3 Worked well with team but did
justify component
team members to complete not offer much positive
choices and implement
20% assigned tasks. feedback.
the readout circuit
effectively.
Total Marks: 10
Objective:
To learn and understand the basis of CNC (Computerized Numeric
Cutting) Milling Machine.
CNC Machining
Introduction to CNC Machining
• CNC stands for computer numeric controlled. It refers to any
machine tool (i.e. mill, lathe, drill press, etc.) which uses a
computer to electronically control the motion of one or more axes
on the machine.

• The development of NC machine tools started from a task supported

by the US Air Force in the early 1950’s, involving MIT and several
machine-tool manufacturing companies. The need was recognized
for machines to be able to manufacture complex jet aircraft parts.

• As computer technology evolved, computers replaced the more

inflexible controllers found on the NC machines; hence the dawn
of the CNC era.

• CNC machine tools use software programs to provide the

instructions necessary to control the axis motions, spindle speeds,
tool changes and so on.

• CNC machine tools allow multiple axes of motion simultaneously,

resulting in 2D and 3D contouring ability.

• CNC technology also increases productivity and quality control by

allowing multiple parts to be produced using the same program
and tooling.
Basics of CNC Programming

There are two ways to program modern CNC machine tools.

1. Conversational Programming. This is the simpler of the two

methods. In effect, this is a macro programming language used
to instruct the machine to perform pre-programmed cycles (i.e.
facing, drilling holes in arrays, etc.). When writing a
conversational program, you simply enter the appropriate
parameters associated with each machining cycle. This is
analogous to using the polar array function in SolidWorks or
Pro/E; you don’t have to do the layout or trig to find the location
of the features; you just specify the essential parameters and the
software does the rest for you.

2. CAM Programming. This is the more powerful of the two

methods. Using this method, you import your part model into a
CAM (computer aided manufacturing) program and define the
parameters associated with each and every machined feature on
the part. These parameters include tool diameter and length,
depth of cut, tool path geometry, etc.
Conversational CNC Programming

The following cycles are typical of the machining operations available

when programming a 3-axis CNC milling machine.

Position. Used to move the XYZ coordinates at rapid feedrate.

Drill_one. Used to position the tool at a specific XYZ coordinate position

in order to automatically drill a hole. The automatic drill cycles allow for
simple drilling, peck drilling, spot-facing and bore cycles.

Drill_pattern. Used to define polar or rectangular hole arrays for

automatic drilling.

Line. Used to cut straight lines along an axis or a diagonal at the desired
feedrate.

Arc. Used to cut a circle or partial circle that is part of a series of cuts
that usually includes lines as well.

Face. Used to define a rectangular zig-zag pattern used to clean off

a part surface.

Pocket. Used to clear the material out of a rectangle, circle or polygon.

Frame. Used to cut the inside or outside outline of a rectangle, circle or

polygon.

Tool. Used to enter tool parameters, machine function parameters

and program pause/stop codes.

Scale/mirror. Used to scale and/or mirror other part features.

Rotate. Used to repeat other part features around a specific center

of rotation.
Conversational CNC Programming Example #1

Drill Pattern Bolt Circle Variables (G121):

X = X center
Y = Y center
R = Radius
A = Start angle (absolute)
N = # of holes
H = # of holes to drill
Conversational CNC Programming Example #2

Arcs and Lines (dashed line is tool path for 1/8” diameter endmill)
Conversational CNC Programming Example #2 (con’t)

Below is the actual tool path code for the previous example. After the
user enters the basic parameters, this is the program that is generated
by the conversational interface to run on the CNC.

An analogy to software programming is that conversational

programming is similar to programming using a compiler (ie C, Fortran,
VB, etc.) and the actual tool path code generated is equivalent to the
final compiled machine code or instructions.

G90 G0 X0 Y-0.75 Z1 F5 [G90=absolute; G0=rapid; F=XY feed]

Z0 M3 [M3=spindle on, CW]
G1 Z-0.1 E2 [G1=linear motion; E=Z feedrate]
Y-0.5625
G2 J0.5625 X0 Y0.5625 [G2=CW circular motion]
G1 X0.6507 [G1=linear motion]
X1.5625 Y0.03608
Y-0.3
G2 I-0.2625 X1.3 Y-0.5625 [G2=CW circular motion]
G1 X0 [G1=linear motion]
G0 Y-0.75 Z1 [G0=rapid]
M30 [M30=end of program/rewind]
CNC CAM Programming

Once the part has been designed using conventional mechanical

design methods (structural analysis, FEA, fatigue study, etc.), the part
is manufactured using the following method.

1. Create a solid 3D model of the part to be produced. Any

standard CAD format is acceptable.

2. Import the solid model into the CAM (computer aided

manufacturing) software. (this demonstration uses MasterCAM)

3. Input the raw material stock size and set the part’s
coordinate origin.

4. Input the necessary information for each tool used in machining

the part features. Typically, a tool library will exist, which is
simply a database of tools and their related parameters.

5. For each part feature, select the appropriate tool from the
library and set the parameters necessary for machining that
feature. Typical parameters include spindle speed, depth of
cut, feedrate, number of passes, tool path pattern, etc.

6. Verify the programmed tool path(s) by running the CAM

software’s virtual machining cycle.
Figure 2. CAM part setup and coordinate zeroing.
Figure 3. Tool library showing database of previously used tools.
Figure 4. Tool parameters stored for each cutting tool used.
Figure 5. CAM parameters for cutting one feature (pocket) in the part.
Figure 6. CAM roughing and finishing parameters.
Figure 7. CAM operations list showing all cutting operations & tools.
Figure 8. Virtual verification cycle used to catch errors before cutting.
Figure 9. Final program ready to be processed by the CNC machine.
Final Facts about CNC Machining

• CNC manufacturing offers advantages on two types of parts: (1) simple parts that are mass
produced and/or (2) complex parts with features requiring multiple axes of simultaneous motion.
For simple parts in low quantity, it is often quicker to produce the parts on manual machines (as in
lab).

• CNC does not inherently imply increased part accuracy. An old CNC with a lot of hours of use will
produce less accurate features than a new quality manual machine and vise-versa; so don’t
automatically associate higher accuracy with CNC machines. (Accuracy has more to do with machine
design, component selection and mechanical wear.)

• Modern CNC machines offer increased productivity due to stiffer machine and spindle designs, more
powerful motors, high pressure coolant (up to 1000 psi) that floods the cutting zone, automatic tool
changers, digital workpiece and tool probing, and/or horizontally mounted spindles.

• Downsides to CNC machines are higher initial cost, larger space and electrical requirements, increased
maintenance cost, required programming skillset and their inherent complexity means there’s a higher
probably of component failure during the useful lifespan.
LAB TASKS
TASK: QUESTION ANSWERS
1. What are the different components of CNC machine tool?
2. What is MCU in CNC and write down its function?
3. What is closed loop control system and open loop control system used in CNC machine? What
are the differences between them? What are the motors used for each type?
4. Write down the differences between incremental positioning and absolute positioning
system used in NC machine?
5. Write down the functions of few G codes like G01, 002 003,004 etc.
16. N0100 G02 X9.000 Y8.000 I5.000 J2.000 F6.000
6. What are the different types of tool used in CNC machine?
 KARACHI INSTITUTE OF ECONOMICS AND TECHNOLOGY
Department of Mechatronics Engineering
College of Engineering

ME-4314 – Mechatronics System Design

Semester: Date of Experiment:

Student name: Faculty Signature:
Student ID: Remarks/Comments:

Lab
CNC Part Programming.
13

PLO2 - Problem Analysis C4 - Analyzing

Bloom’s
PLO’s PLO3 – Design/Development of Solutions P4 – Mechanism
Taxonomy
PLO9 – Individual and Team Work A5 – Internalizing Values
LAB TASK PERFORMANCE
Excellent Average Poor
CLO’s Aspects of Assessments Marks
(75-100%) (50-75%) (<50%)
Demonstrate a comprehensive Show a satisfactory Exhibit limited grasp of CNC
CLO1 Understanding of CNC understanding of the principles understanding of CNC machining concepts, struggle
40% Machining Principles and components of numerical machining fundamentals, able to to operate CNC machines
control (NC), proficiently operate CNC machines with effectively, and produce
generate CNC part programs moderate proficiency and subpar machining results
from part drawings, and produce acceptable machining even with guidance.
analyze machining operations results under supervision.
effectively.
Lack proficiency in
Proficiently program CNC Demonstrate basic proficiency in
CLO2 Applying CAD Skills CNC machine
machines to execute complex CNC machine programming, able
50% programming,
machining tasks accurately and to create simple programs and
struggle to create
efficiently, consistently execute routine machining tasks
accurate programs,
achieving desired machining with some supervision.
and require
outcomes within specified
significant guidance
tolerances.
to execute
machining tasks
effectively.
Individual & Team Skills Exhibit limited ability to
CLO3 Collaborate effectively Demonstrate some proficiency
collaborate within a
within a team to troubleshoot in collaborative problem-
team to troubleshoot
10% CNC machining processes, solving within a team,
CNC machining issues,
communicate findings communicate adequately to
struggle to communicate
clearly, and optimize address CNC machining
effectively regarding
machining operations for challenges, and contribute to
machining challenges,
efficiency and quality. optimizing machining
and lack contribution to
processes.
optimizing machining
processes.
Total Marks: 10
 Overview of Numerical Control (NC)

Various components present in NC machine tool are:

* Machine tool
* Machine Control Unit (MCU)
* Communication interface and accessories
The machine tool may be any type of machine tool used in the manufacturing industry. Machine control unit (MCV)
is the control unit that reads and interprets the numerical data/part programme from the tap or any other media and
passes on this information in the form of electrical signals to various activators / drive mechanisms of the machine to
operate the machine tool in the desired way.
Numerical control Machines are classified based on the type of motion control, the presence of feed-back loops, the
power drives the positioning system used and the number of axes of motion which can be controlled.

Two types of motion controls are used on NC machines. They are point-to-point or continuous-path controlled. As the name
implies, the point-to-point (PTP) controlled machines move in a series of steps from one point to the other point. A machine with
PTP control can perform very limited number of machining opera ions. In almost all the cases where PTP control is used, its function
is to move the machine table or the spindle to a desired position to perform the machining operation at that position/point. In
general, no machining is performed when the movement from one point to other is taking place, hence movement is made as rapidly
as possible. When there is no need of machining between two points, path to be followed between them is not specified. Continuous
path machines move uniformly and evenly by controlling the motion of two are more axes simultaneously. Here, the paths to be
followed along with the destinations have to be mentioned as the machining is invariably done along that path. Figure 15.15 shows
the cutting paths followed by PTP and continuous path machines.
Depending on the presence of the feedback, they are classified as open-loop system or closed-loop system (Fig.
15.16 and 15.17). In closed-loop systems, a transducer sends the current table position to the control unit and the driving unit
(typically motor) stops running as the table reaches its desired position, hence accurate positioning can be achieved with closed-
loop control systems. Closed-loop NC systems use servomotors whereas open-loop systems use stepper motors.

NC machines are classified into three types: hydraulic, pneumatic or electric based on the type of power used to drive the axes
and spindle. Most of the modern NC machines use electric drives (AC or DC servo motors) to drive its axes and spindle because of
its compact size, ease of control and low cost.
 Depending on the positioning system used on the machine, they are classified as incremental or absolute positioning machines.
Modern NC machine tools allow the programmer to choose either of the above mentioned positioning systems or both of them
together through part programme. In absolute positioning system, the end point of the tool for a particular move has to be
mentioned in the programme with respect to the origin. But in incremental system, the end point of the tool for a particular move
has to be mentioned with respect to the current tool position.
Origin is a reference point used within the NC part program as the basis of defining tool location and other geometric entities.
While developing an NC programme the programmer assumes that the tool is located at some specific point relative to the
workpiece to be machined, and this point is designated as origin. In practice, during set-up and before starting the programme the
operator has to move tile tool to a position which is designated as origin in that particular programme and then presses a button on
control panel to select that as the origin. It means that the origin could be anywhere within the machine work space, hence it is
called a floating zero. In the older generation NC machine tools, this facility was not available. The origin was a fixed point and the
programmer had to write the programme with respect to that particular point.
The purpose of any production system is to produce a part in the most economical way without compromising on the desired
qualities. Many large and small industries have undertaken the conversion from manual machines and processes to NC to get
benefits. Some of these are listed below:
* Flexibility is high
* Scheduling is easier
* Set-up lead and processing times arc less
* Greater uniformity and accuracy in cutting
* Lover overall tooling costs
* Low inventory
* Inspection cost is less
* Higher degree of interchangeability of parts and tools

In spite of the above mentioned benefits, there are some negative points as well. The most prominent ones are:
* Large initial investments
* Programming costs
* Training and retraining costs for the existing work force

Numerical-Control Programming
10.1 NC PART PROGRAMMING

10.1.1 Coordinate Systems

In an NC system, each axis of motion is equipped with a separate driving source that replaces the hand wheel of the conventional
machine. The driving source can be a DC motor, a stepping motor, or a hydraulic actuator. The source selected is determined mainly
based on the precision requirements of the machine, as described in Chapter 9.
The relative movement between tools and work pieces is achieved by the motion of the machine tool slides. The three main
axes of motion are referred to as the X, Y. and Z axes. The Z axis is perpendicular to both the X and Y axes in order to create a right-
hand coordinate system, as shown in Figure 10.1.A positive Motion in the Z direction moves the cutting tool away from the work
piece. This is detailed as follows:

Z AXIS

1. On a work piece -rotating machine, such as a lathe, the Z axis is parallel In the spindle, and the positive Motion moves
the tool away from the work piece (figure 10.2).
2. On a tool-rotating machine, such as a milling or boring machine, the Z axis is parallel to the tool axis, and the positive
motion moves the tool away from the work piece (Figures 10.3 and 10.4).
 3. On other machines, such as a press, a planning machine, or shearing machine, the Z axis is perpendicular to the tool set,
and the positive motion increases the distance between the tool and the work piece.

X AXIS

1. On a lathe, the X axis is the direction of tool movement, and the positive motion moves the tool away from the work
piece
2. On a horizontal milling machine, the X axis is parallel to the table.
3. On a vertical milling machine, the positive X axis points to the right when the programmer is facing the
machine.

The Y axis is the axis left in a standard Cartesian coordinate system.

10.1.2 NC Program Storage Media

Modern CNC controllers provide several ways of transferring data. Perhaps the most typical data-communication methods
used to transfer part program files is an RS-232C interface (see Chapter 8). An NC part program is stored in a file on a computer or a
CNC controller. The file download (or upload) can be initiated by setting up a transfer mode on the CNC controller. On the other side
of the communication cable is a computer that sends or receives data byte by byte. The operator must start and end the data-
transfer process on both the CNC controller and the computer. Some machines use higher-level protocols to ensure an error-free
data transfer. Two of the higher-level protocols used are Kermit and Xmodem. Kermit and Xmodem arc widely accepted in the
computer-to-computer telecommunication file-transfer process. These protocols allow the file transfer to be controlled by either the
computer or the controller. The computer can send and retrieve data directly. Some machines also provide local-area network (LAN)
instead of serial communication. Ethernet and MAP are two technologies used. Some CNC controllers allow the entire controller
function to be initiated from a remote computer through the data-communication network.

10.1.5.1 Basic requirement of NC machine control.

To control a machine, it is necessary to begin by defining the coordinates of the tool motion. It is necessary to specify whether the
motion is a positioning motion (rapid traverse) or a feed motion (cutting). 'The feed motion includes linear motion and circular
motion. Linear motion requires the destination coordinates. When circular interpolation is used, the center of the circle must be
given in addition to the destination. Before a cutting motion is called out, the spindle must be turned to the desired rpm and the
feed speed must be specified. The spindle can rotate either clockwise or counterclockwise.
Sometimes coolant is required in machining, and the coolant may be applied in flood or mist form. If an automatic tool changer is
present, the next tool number has to be known to the controller before a tool can be changed to the machine spindle. The sequence
to change the tool also needs to be specified. It is often desirable to aggregate a fixed sequence of operations such as drilling holes
into a cycle. Using cycle codes can drastically reduce programming effort. Additional information is needed for specific cycle
operations. Finally, there are other programming functions, such as units-inch or metric-positioning system-absolute or incremental,
and so on. All of these activities can (and in some cases must) be controlled through the NC controller and related part program.
These control functions and data requirements are summarized in what follows:

(a) Preparatory functions: the words specify which units, which interpolator, Absolute or incremental
Programming, which circular interpolation plane, cutter compensation, and so on.
(b) Coordinates: define three translational (and three rotational) axes.
(c) Machining parameters: specify feed and speed.
(d) Tool control: specifics tool diameter, next tool number, tool change, and so on.
(e) Cycle functions: specify drill cycle, ream cycle, bore cycle, mill cycle, and clearance plane.
(d) Coolant control: specify the coolant condition, that is, coolant on/off, flood. And mist.
(g) Miscellaneous control: specifies all other control specifics, that is, spindle on/of, tape rewind, spindle rotation
direction, pallet change, clamps control, and so on. (h) Interpolators:
linear, circular interpolation, circle center, and so on.

These control functions are programmed through program words (codes).

1 0.1.5.2 NC words A specific NC function may be programmed using an NC word or a combination of NC words. All functions can
be programmed in one block of a program. Many CNC controllers allow several of the same “word" be present in the same block.
Thus, several functions can be included in one block, this is normally done by using a word-address format, which is the most popular
format used in modern CNC controllers. The sequence of the words within one block is usually not important, except for the sequence
number that must be the first word in the block. In order to make a program more readable, it is a good practice to follow a fixed
sequence. Each word consists of a symbol and a numeral. The symbol is either N, G, X, V, and so on. Numerals follow as data in a
prespecified format. For example, the format for an X word might he ".3.4:' which means three, digits before the decimal point and
four digits after the decimal are used. The function of each NC word (code) and their applications are discussed in what follows: N-
code. A part program block usually begins with an “N” word. The N word specifies the sequence number. It is used to identify the
block within the program. It is especially useful for program editing. For example, when the format is “4” a proper sequence number
would be
N00I0
It is a good practice to program N values in increments of 10 or greater. This allows additional blocks to be inserted between two
existing blocks.
G-code. The G-code is also called preparatory code or word. It is used to prepare the MCU for control functions. It indicates that a
given control function is requested or that a certain unit or default be taken. There are modal functions and non-modal functions.
Modal functions are those that do not change after they have been specified once, such as unit selection. Non modal functions are
active in the block where they are specified. For example, circular interpolation is a non-modal function. Some commonly used G-
codes arc listed in the Table 10.1. Some of these functions are explained in what follows.
G00 is the rapid traverse code that makes the machine move at maximum speed. It is used for positioning motion. When G01.
G02, or G03 are specified, the machine moves at the feed speed. G01 is linear interpolation; G02 and G03 are for circular
interpolation. For circular interpolation, the tool destination and the circle center are
Programmed in one block (explained later). G04 (dwell) is used to stop the motion for a time specified in the block. G08 and G09
codes specify acceleration and deceleration, respectively. They are used to increase (decrease) the speed of motion (feed speed)
exponentially to the desired speed. Before an abrupt turn, decelerate the tool. Rapid acceleration in the new direction may cause a
tool to break. The best accuracy can be obtained with acceleration and deceleration codes on and set to lower values. Most NC
controllers interpolate circles on only

TABLE 10.1 G CODES

GO Rapid traverse G40 Cutter compensation cancel
G01 Linear interpolation G41 Cutter compensation left
G02 Circular interpolation CW G42 Cutter compensation right
G03 Circular interpolation CCW G70 Inch format
G04 Dwell G71 Metric format
G08 Acceleration G74 Full-circle programming off
G09 Deceleration G75 Full-circle programming on
G17 X-Y plane G80 Fixed-cycle cancel
G18 Z-X Plane G81-89 Fixed cycles
G19 Y-Z Plane G90 Absolute dimension program
G91 Incremental dimension

XY, YZ, and XZ planes. The interpolation plane can be selected using G 17, G18 or G 19. When a machine is equipped with thread-
cutting capability, (G33-G35), the part program must specify the proper way to cut the thread. Codes G4O-G43 deal with cutter
compensation. They simplify the cutter-center offset calculation. More details of cutter compensation are discussed later in Section
10.2.2. Most canned cycles are manufacturer-defined. They include drilling, peck drilling, spot drilling, milling, and profile turning
cycles. The machine-tool manufacturer may assign them to one of the nine G codes reserved for machine manufacturers (GS)-G89).
A user also can program the machine using either absolute (G90) or incremental (G91) coordinates. In the same program, the
coordinate system can be changed. In order to simplify the presentation, most of the examples given in this chapter use absolute
coordinate. Many controllers also allow the user to use either inch units (G70) or metric units (G71). Because hardwired NC circular
interpolators work only in one quadrant and many CNC systems allow full-circle interpolation, a (G74) code emulates NC circular
interpolation for CNC controllers. G75 returns the CNC back to the full-circle circular interpolation mode. X, Y, Z, A, B and C-Codes.
These words provide the coordinate positions of the tool. X, Y and Z define the three translational (Cartesian) axes of a machine. A.
B. C are used for the three rotational axes about the X, Y, and Z axes. For a three axis there can be only three translational axes. Most
applications only require X. Y. and Z codes in part programs. However, for four, five, or six-axis machine tools. A, B, and C are also
used. The coordinates may be specified in decimal number (decimal programming) or integer number (BLU programming). For a
controller with a data format of "3.4", to move the cutter to (1.12,2.275, 1.0), the codes are:

X1.1200 Y2.2750 Z1.OOO

In BLU programming, the programmer also may need to specify leading zero(s), or trailing-zero formats. A leading-zero format
means that zeros must be entered in the space proceeding the numeric value. In this format, the controller locates the decimal
point by counting the digits from the beginning of a number. In trailing-zero format, it is reversed. The number specified is in the
BLU unit. The data format "3.4" implies that a BLU equals 0.0001 in. (fourth decimal place). By using the data from preceding
example, the leading-zero program would be

X.0112 Y002275 Z00l

In the trailing-zero format, the program looks like

X.11200 Y22750 Z10000

For circular motion, more information is needed. A circular is defined by the start and end points, the center, and the direction.
Because the start point is always the current tool position, only the end point, the circle center. And the direction needs to be
specified. I, J. and K words are used to specify the center. Usually, circular interpolation works only on either X- Y, Y-Z. or X-Z planes.
When interpolating a circular are on the X- Y plane,
the I word provides the X. coordinate value of the circle center and the J word provides the Y coordinate value. X and Y words specify
the end point. Clockwise or counterclockwise motions me specified by the G-code (G02 versus G03). There are many variations in
circular interpolation programming. Each NC controller vendor has its own form and formal. Also they can depend on the
combination of absolute or incremental, full-circle on or off modes. The following example is based on absolute programming with
full circle on for a hypothetical controller.
F-Code. The F-code specifics the feed speed of the tool motion. It is the relative speed between the cutting tool and the work piece.
It is typically specified in in./min (ipm). From a machinability data handbook, feed is given in in./rev (ipr). A conversion has to be
done either by hand or on-hoard the controller. Some Controllers offer a G-code that specifies the ipr programming mode. When
the ipr programming mode is used, the tool diameter and the number of teeth must he specified by the operator. The F- code must
be given before G01, G02 or G03 can be used. Feed speed can be changed frequently in a program, as needed. When an F-code is
present in a block, it takes effect immediately. To specify a 6.00-ipm feed speed for the cutting motion in Figure 10.7, one would
program.

N0100 G02 X7.000 Y2.000 I5.000 J2.000

S-Code. The S-code is the cutting-speed code. Cutting speed is the specification of the relative surface speed of the cutting edge
with respect to the work piece. It is the result of the tool (or work piece in turning) rotation. Therefore, it is programmed in rpm.
The Machinability Data Handbook (Machinability Data Center, 1980) gives these values in surface feet per minute (sfpm), and
conversion is required before programming is done. When a controller is equipped with a sfpm programming option, the operator
must specify the tool diameter. The S-code is specified before the spindle is turned on The S-code does not turn on the spindle. The
spindle is turned on by an M-code. To specify a 1000-rpm spindle speed, the program block is

N0010 S1000

I-Code. The I-code is used to specify the tool number. It is used only when an automatic tool changer is present. It specifies the stot
number on the tool magazine in which the next tool is located. Actual tool change does not occur until a tool-change M-code is
specified.
R –Code. The R -code is used for cycle parameter. When a drill cycle is specified, one must give a clearance height (R plane) (See-
Figure 10.8). The R-code is used to specify this clearance height. In Figure 10.8, the drill cycle consists of five operations:
1. Rapid to location (1.2.2).
2. Rapid down to the R plane.
3. Feed to the x point, the bottom of the hole.
4. Operation at the bottom of the hole, for example, dwelling.
5. Rapid or feed to either the R plane or the initial height. The cycle may be programmed in one block,
such as (cycle programming is vendor-specific)

N0010. G81 X1.000 Y2.000 Z0.000 R 1.300

M-Code. The M-code is called the miscellaneous word and is used 10 control miscellaneous functions of the machine. Such functions
include turn the spindle on/off, start/stop the machine, turn on/off the coolant, change the tool, and rewind the program (tape)
(Table 10.2). M00 and M01 both stops the machine in the middle of a program. M01 is effective only when the optional stop button
on the control panel is depressed. The program can be resumed through the control panel. M02 marks the end of the program. M03
turns on the spindle (clockwise). The spindle rpm must be specified in the same line or in a previous line. M04 is Similar to M03,
except it turns the spindle on counterclockwise. M05 turns off the spindle. M06 signals the tool-change operation. On a machine
equipped with an automatic tool changer, it stops the spindle, retracts the spindle to the tool-change position, and then changes
the tool to the one specified in the T -code. M07 and M08 turn on different modes of coolant. MO9 turns off the coolant. M30 marks
the end of the tape. It stops the spindle and rewinds the program (tape). On some controllers, more than one M-code is allowed in
the same block.

TABLE 10.2 M-CODES

M00 Program stop M06 Tool change
M01 Optional stop M07 Flood coolant on
M02 End of program M08 Mist coolant on
M03 Spindle CW M09 Coolant off
M04 Spindle CCW M30 End of tape

10.2 MANUAL PART PROGRAMMING

10.2.1 Part Programs

In manual part programming, the machining instructions are recorded on a document, called a part-program manuscript (see Figure
10.9) by the part programmer. The manuscript is essentially on ordered list of program blocks. The manuscript is other entered as a
computer file or punched on a paper tape. Each symbol on the numeric or special characters, corresponds to a perforation(s) on the
tape (or magnetic bit pattern on a disk) and is referred to as a character. Each line: of the manuscript is equivalent to a block on the:
punched tap and is followed by an EOB (end-of-block) character. When it is stored in a computer file, a tape-image format is used.
Because a part program records a sequence of tool motion and operations to produce the final part geometry one must
prepare a process plan with setups and fixtures before writing the program (see Chapter 13). The work piece location and
orientation, features (holes. slots, pockets) to be machined, tools and cutting parameters used need to be determined. We will use
an example to illustrate how a part is programmed.
Example 10.1
The part drawing shown in Figure 10.10 is to he machined from a 4-in. x 4-in.x 2-in, work piece. The work piece material is low-
carbon steel. We will use a hypothetical 3-axis CNC machining center for the process. The process plan for the part is as follows:
1. Set the lower left bottom corner of the part as the machine zero point (floating-zero programming).
2. Clamp the work piece in a vice.
3. Mill the slot with a ¾-in four flute flat, end mill made of carbide. Form the machinability data hand book, the
recommended feed in 0.005 in./tooth/rev and the recommended cutting speed is 620 fpm.
4. Drill two holes with a 0.75-in –diameter twist drill. Use 0.18-ipr feed and 100-rpm speed.

Figure 10.11 shows the setup, fixturing and cutter path. Write a part program for the part.
Solution The cutting parameters need be converted into rpm and ipm.
Milling:
12V 12 X 620 fpm
rpm = = = 3157 rpm
πD π x 0.75 in
Vf = nf rpm = 4 tpr x 0.005 iprpt x 3157 rpm = 63 ipm
For the milling operation, the cutter is smaller than the slot, and two passes are required. The cutter first moves to p1 (the prime denotes the
upper point). There must be clearance between the cutter and the work piece, so that the cutter will not touch the work piece during rapid
positioning. We will use 0.1in as the clearance. The cutter then plunges down to p1, which is on the slot bottom level. Both p2 and p3 are
outside the work piece to ensure the slot edges are completely cut. The center of the cutter overhangs the edge by 0.1 in. The cutter moves
to p4 from p3 to clear the slot. p5 is the beginning of a circular interpolation and p6 is the end. From p6, the cutter moves to p7 to clear the
center of the circular area and then moves to p8. After the milling operation, a drill is installed in the spindle through an automatic tool
change. The two holes are drilled using a drilling cycle. Combining the information from the process plan and the cutter-location data, a part
program can be written. The program for the example part is shown in Figure 10.12. A step-by-step explanation is presented on the right-
hand-side of the figure. The part program is verified using a program called Mac CNCS, and the results are in Figure 10.13 the result in figure
10.13 is the same as what is shown in Figure 10.11: Thus the program is correct. A three-dimensional view can also be found in Figure 10.14.

Part program Explanation

N0010 G70 G90 T08 M06 Set the machine to the inch format and absolute
dimension programming.
Rapid to p1
N0020 G00 X2.I25 V-0.475 Z4.000 53157 Down feed to pl. spindle CW
N0030 G01 Z1500 F63 M03 Feed to p2
N0040 G01 Y4.100 To p3
N0050 G01 X2.625 To p4.
N0060 G01 Y.1375 To p5.
N0070 G01 X3.000 Circular interpolation to p6.
N0080 G03 Y2.625 I 3.000 J2.000 To p7.
N0090 G01 Y2.000 To p8
N0100 G01 X2.625 To p9.
N0110 G01 Y-0.100 To p9 spindle off, tool sign.2.
N0120 G00 Z4.000 T02 M05 Tool change, set new feed and speed.
N0130 F9.16 S509 M06 Drill hole 1.
N0140 G81 X0.750 Y1.000 Z-0.1 R2.100 Drill hole 2.
M03
N0150 G81 X0.750 Y3.000 Z-0.1 R2.100 Move to home position, stop the machine.
N0160 G00 X. 1.000 Y-1.000 M30
Figure 10.12 Part program for the part in Figure 10.10
Objective:
To Study the characteristics of CNC Milling Machine Outlines of Procedure.
1. Specification, Size, Model No. of various M/C
2. Note down the names of the measure parts and component of the machine.
3. Note down the particularly feature, Control Systems and geometric form of surfaces
Observation
Machine Type & Size Type of Speed given to Feed given to Types of
Make Bed Tool Work Tool profile or
Work Contour
genrated
CNC
Milling
Part B

To write a Program of given Drawing for CNC Lathe

R8

01

2X2

5 5 8 15 15

25.4 24 22 20 18

Format write a program

O_ _ _ _ (Program No.)

N5 T0101; (Tool selection)

N10 G90 G71; (G90-Absolute programming, G71-Metric data input)

N15 G95 S… F… M04; (G95-Feed MM per Revolutions-Spindle speed (rpm), F-Feed, M04-Main spindle on CCW)
N20
.

N... M30; (M30-Program End)

 To write a Program of given Drawing for CNC Mill

R5
R5
5

R8

28

38

O (Programme No.)

N5 G54; (G54-Zero Offset)

N10 T01 M06 G43 H1; (T01-Tool No., M06- Tool Change, G43- Tool Length
Compensation Positive, H1-Offset Value for tool No. 1)
N15 G90 G21; (G90-Absolute programming, G21-Metric data input)

N20 G94 S… F… M03; (G94-Feed MM Per Minute, S-Spindle speed (rpm), F-Feed, M03-
Main spindle on CW

N… M30; (M30-Program End)

CNC PART PROGRAMMING

A Part program is a set of instructions given to a Computerized numerical control (CNC)
machine.

If the complex-shaped component requires calculations to produce the component are done by
the programming software contained in the computer. The programmer communicates with
this system through the system language, which is based on words. There are various
programming languages developed in the recent past, such as APT (Automatically Programmed
Tools), ADAPT, AUTOSPOT, COMPAT-II, 2CL, ROMANCE, SPLIT is used for writing a computer
program, which has English like statements. A translator known as compiler program is used to
translate it in a form acceptable to MCU.

The programmer has to do only following things:

(a) Define the work part geometry.

(b) Defining the repetition work.

(c) Specifying the operation sequence.

STANDARD G AND M CODES
The most common codes used when programming NC machines tools are G-codes (preparatory
functions), and M codes (miscellaneous functions). Other codes such as F, S, D, and T are used for
machine functions such as feed, speed, cutter diameter offset, tool number, etc. G-codes are
sometimes called cycle codes because they refer to some action occurring on the X, Y, and/or Z-axis
of a machine tool. The G-codes are grouped into categories such as Group 01, containing codes G00,
G01, G02, G03, which cause some movement of the machine table or head. Group 03 includes either
absolute or incremental programming. A G00 code rapidly positions the cutting tool while it is above
the work piece from one point to another point on a job. During the rapid traverse movement, either
the X or Y-axis can be moved individually or both axes can be moved at the same time. The rate of
rapid travel varies from machine to machine.

G-Codes (Preparatory Functions)

Code Function
G00 Rapid positioning
G01 Linear interpolation
G02 Circular interpolation clockwise (CW)
G03 Circular interpolation counterclockwise (CCW)
G20 Inch input (in.)
G21 Metric input (mm)
G24 Radius programming
G28 Return to reference point
G29 Return from reference point
G32 Thread cutting
G40 Cutter compensation cancel
G41 Cutter compensation left
G42 Cutter compensation right
G43 Tool length compensation positive (+) direction
G44 Tool length compensation minus (-) direction
G49 Tool length compensation cancels
G 53 Zero offset or M/c reference
G54 Settable zero offset
G84 canned turn cycle
G90 Absolute programming
G91 Incremental programming
-Codes (Miscellaneous Functions)
M or miscellaneous codes are used to either turn ON or OFF different functions, which control
certain machine tool operations. M-codes are not grouped into categories, although several codes
may control the same type of operations such as M03, M04, and M05, which control the machine
tool spindle. Some of important codes are given as under with their function s:
Code Function
M00 Program stop
M02 End of program
M03 Spindle start (forward CW)
M04 Spindle start (reverse CCW)
M05 Spindle stop
M06 Tool change
M08 Coolant on
M09 Coolant off
M10 Chuck - clamping
M11 Chuck - unclamping
M12 Tailstock spindle out
M13 Tailstock spindle in
M18 Tool post rotation reverse
M30 End of tape and rewind or main program end
M98 Transfer to subprogram
M99 End of subprogram

Note: On some machines and controls, some may be different.

 LAB TASKS
TASK # 1:

Attach the file or screenshots or pictures or copy & paste that G-Codes and M-Codes of your
designed compound gears chain that you have generated on “Mill9” software by exporting DXF file
of your CAD modeled gears on “Mill9” software.

TASK # 2:
Attach the screenshots or pictures of your CNC Program file running on “Mach3” software while
your compound gear chain is cutting on CNC Milling Machine
 KARACHI INSTITUTE OF ECONOMICS AND TECHNOLOGY
Department of Mechatronics Engineering
College of Engineering

ME-4314 – Mechatronics System Design

Semester: Date of Experiment:

Student name: Faculty Signature:
Student ID: Remarks/Comments:

Lab
Spur Gear Cutting in CNC Milling Machine.
14

PLO2 - Problem Analysis C4 - Analyzing

Bloom’s
PLO’s PLO3 – Design/Development of Solutions P4 – Mechanism
Taxonomy
PLO9 – Individual and Team Work A5 – Internalizing Values
LAB TASK PERFORMANCE
Excellent Average Poor
CLO’s Aspects of Assessments Marks
(75-100%) (50-75%) (<50%)
Demonstrate a comprehensive Show a satisfactory Exhibit limited grasp of spur
CLO1 Understanding Spur Gear understanding of the principles understanding of spur gear gear cutting concepts,
40% Cutting Fundamentals of spur gear cutting, including cutting fundamentals, able to struggling to calculate tooth
tooth proportions, indexing perform gear cutting operations proportions, perform
calculations, and the setup of on the CNC milling machine with indexing calculations, and set
the CNC milling machine for moderate proficiency following up the CNC milling machine
gear cutting. provided instructions. for gear cutting even with
guidance.
Lack proficiency in
Proficiently operate the CNC Demonstrate basic proficiency in
CLO2 Proficiency in CNC Milling milling machine to perform operating the CNC milling operating the CNC
50% Machine Operation for spur gear cutting operations machine for gear cutting tasks, milling machine for
gear cutting,
Gear Cutting accurately and efficiently, able to set up the machine,
struggling to set up
ensuring correct depth of cut, perform cutting operations, and
the machine, execute
precise indexing, and smooth achieve acceptable gear cutting
cutting operations
machining process. results under supervision.
accurately, and
produce satisfactory
gear cutting results
even with guidance.
Individual & Team Skills Students struggle to
CLO3 Proactively work with other Worked well with team but did
justify component
team members to complete not offer much positive
choices and implement
10% assigned tasks. feedback.
the readout circuit
effectively.
Total Marks: 10
 SPUR GEAR CUTTING IN CNC MILLING MACHINE
Objective:
To perform spur gear cutting using CNC milling machine on a work piece.

Introduction:
Spur gears or straight-cut gears are the simplest type of gear. They consist of a cylinder or disk
with the teeth projecting radially, and although they are not straight-sided in form (they are
usually of special form to achieve constant drive ratio, mainly involute), the edge of each
tooth is straight and aligned parallel to the axis of rotation. These gears can be meshed
together correctly only if they are fitted to parallel shafts.

Material Required (Work Piece):

Wood piece specimen.

Machine Required:
CNC Milling machine

Measuring Instruments:
Vernier calipers

Cutting Tools:
Plane (face) milling cutter

Marking Tools:
Steel rule, scriber
a. Work holding fixtures: work piece supporting fixtures
b. Miscellaneous tools: Hammer, brush, Allen keys

Sequence of Operations:
i. Measuring of specimen
ii. Fixing of specimen in the milling m/c.
iii. Giving the correct depth and automatic feed cut the specimen
iv. Check the specimen with Vernier caliper at the end.

Calculation:
Z = No. of teeth =
m = module =
Blank Diameter =
Tooth Depth =
Indexing Calculation =

Model Calculations
Indexing Ratio = n / N
Where, n = No. of slots on the periphery of the indexing plate.
N = Required number of divisions
Direct Indexing:
Indexing Ratio = 24 / N
Where N= required number of divisions

Simple Indexing:
Number of holes to move = 40 / N
Where N = required number of divisions

Standard Brown and Sharp Index Plates:

No.1: 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20
No.2: 21, 23, 27, 31, 33
No.3: 37, 39, 41, 43, 47, 49

Precautions:
 The milling machine must be stopped before setting up or removing a work piece,
cutter or other accessory
 Never stop the feeding of job when the cutting operation is going on, otherwise the
tool will cut deeper at the point where feed is stopped.
 All the chips should be removed from the cutter. A wiping cloth should be placed on
the cutter to protect the hands. The cutter should be rotated in the clockwise direction only
for right handed tools.
 The work piece and cutter should be kept as cool as possible (i.e. coolant should
be used where necessary to minimize heat absorption).
 The table surface should be protected with a wiping cloth.
 Tool must be mounted as close to the machine spindle as possible.
 Spur Gear

Fig 01 Before Gear cutting Fig 02After Gear cutting

PROCEDURE:

Calculate the gear tooth proportions.

Blank diameter =(Z+2)m
Tooth depth = 2.25 m
Tooth width = 1.5708 m where,
Z = Number of teeth required
m = module Indexing calculation
Index crank movement = 40 / Z
The dividing head and the tail stock are bolted on the machine table.
Their axis must be set parallel to the machine table.
The gear blank is held between the dividing head and tailstock using a mandrel. The
mandrel is connected with the spindle of dividing head by a carrier and catch plate.
The cutter is mounted on the arbor. The cutter is centered accurately with the gear
blank.
Set the speed and feed for machining.
For giving depth of cut, the table is raised till the periphery of the gear blank just
touches the cutter.
The micrometer dial of vertical feed screw is set to zero in this position.
Then the table is raised further to give the required depth of cut.
The machine is started and feed is given to the table to cut the first groove of the
blank.
After the cut, the table is brought back to the starting position.
Then the gear blank is indexed for the next tooth space.
This is continued till all the gear teeth are cut.
 LAB TASK
TASK # 1:

Attach the pictures of your gears while, when they are cutting on CNC Milling Machine.

TASK # 2:
Attach the pictures of your gears cut through CNC Milling Machine.