WHAT IS A EUKARYOTIC CELL?

The term ‘eukaryote’ is derived from Greek words, ‘eu’ meaning true and ‘karyon’
meaning ‘nucleus’. Eukaryotic cells are defined as cells that contain an organized
nucleus and membrane-bound organelles. They have a more advanced structural
organization that is large and more complex than a prokaryotic cell. However, they
share a few common features, including the cytoplasm.
 Eukaryotic Cell Structure

How Big are Eukaryotic Cells

Their size is significantly larger than prokaryotic cells, with an average of 10

to 100 µm in diameter.

Shapes

The shape of eukaryotic cells varies significantly with the type of cell. Some
common shapes include spheroid, ovoid, cuboidal, lenticular, cylindrical, flat,
fusiform, discoidal, and polygonal.

What Parts Do they Have with Functions

The two major parts of a typical eukaryotic cell are the nucleus and the
cytoplasm. The cytoplasm contains all other organelles suspended in it.
Given below are all the organelles found in eukaryotic cells.

1) Cell (Plasma) Membrane: It is a semipermeable membrane that

separates a cell inside from outside. The cell membrane is made of proteins,
carbohydrates, and phospholipid bilayer. The phospholipids are arranged
with the polar, hydrophilic heads facing outwards and inside the cell. They
interact with aqueous environments. The non-polar hydrophobic tails are
found between the heads that remain aloof from the watery environment.

Functions
 Controlling the entry and exit of substances by selectively allowing
certain substances to pass through
 Protecting the cell from shock and injury
 Allowing interaction of molecules and helps in secretion, growth, and
division of cells
  Performing cell transport, either with the help of energy (active
transport) or without it (passive transport)
2) Cell Wall: It is a non-living part, forming a rigid structure outside the cell
membrane. It is made of cellulose, hemicellulose, proteins, and pectin in
plants. In fungi, it consists of cellulose, galactan, mannan, and calcium
carbonate. Structurally, a cell wall is divided into three layers: a) the outer,
middle lamella, made of calcium pectate, b) the middle, primary wall, made
of cellulose and hemicelluloses, and c) the inner, secondary wall, having a
similar composition to the middle lamella. It is absent in animal cells.

Functions
 Providing shape to the cell
 Helping in the cell-to-cell interaction
 Protecting the cell from external injury and shock

3) Nucleus: Unique to eukaryotic cells, it is a double-membrane bound

organelle that contains all the genetic information of the cell. It is the most
prominent and essential part, called the ‘brain of the cell’. They are found in
all eukaryotic cells except for red blood cells (RBCs) in animals and sieve
cells in plants. A nucleus has four main parts: a) nuclear envelope,
b) nucleoplasm, c) nucleolus, and d) chromatin.

Functions
 Storing genetic information as DNA that is necessary for the
development and cell reproduction
 Containing information for protein synthesis and other cellular
functions
4) Mitochondria: An oval-shaped structure, it is bounded by two
membranes. The outer and inner membranes divide the mitochondrial
lumen into two compartments. The outer membrane surrounds the
organelle, while the inner member is semipermeable that forms folds called
cristae. The region within the inner membrane is called the matrix, and
between the two membranes is called the intermembrane space.
Mitochondria contain DNA, RNA, and other components required for protein
synthesis.

Functions
 Producing energy as ATP, thus called the ‘energy-currency’ or
‘powerhouse’ of the cell
 Regulating cell metabolism
 Performing protein synthesis for itself

5) Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): It is a small network of tubular

structures. It divides the cell cytoplasm into two parts: luminal and
cytoplasm. They are of two types: a) smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER)
that is devoid of the ribosome and b) rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER),
with the attached ribosome.

Functions
 Performing lipid synthesis (SER)
 Carrying out protein-folding and transporting them to Golgi apparatus
(SER)
 Performing protein synthesis (RER)

6) Ribosomes: Structures not bounded by a membrane. They are made of

ribonucleic acids (RNA) and proteins. Eukaryotic ribosome is the 80S, with
60S large subunit and 40S small subunit. It has a size of between 25 and 30
nm.

Function
 Acting as the site for proteins and polypeptides synthesis
 7) Golgi Apparatus: Made of many flat, disc-shaped structures called
cisternae. It is found in every eukaryotic cell except human red blood
cells and sieve cells of plants. The cisternae are arranged
concentrically in parallel to the nucleus. It has a cis (forming) face that
faces the cell membrane and the trans (maturing) face that faces the
nucleus.
 Functions
 Packaging material within the cell
 Modifying and maturing of proteins
 Producing glycoproteins (proteins with carbohydrates) and glycolipids
(lipids with carbohydrate)

8) Lysosomes: Membrane-bound organelles formed in the Golgi apparatus.

They contain rich hydrolytic enzymes such as lipases, proteases, and
peptidases. Lysosomes are thus called ‘suicidal bags’.

Functions
 Digesting lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids
 Preventing the entry of foreign particles such as bacteria and viruses
and destroying them once they enter the cell through phagocytosis

9) Peroxisomes: Single membrane-bound small, round-shaped structures.

They contain digestive and oxidative enzymes. Peroxisomes are a group of
heterogeneous organelles, and the presence of marker enzymes
distinguishes them from others
Functions
 Detoxifying poisons inside the body through various oxidation
reactions (animals)
 Facilitating in photosynthesis and seed germination (plants)
 Converting stored fats into sugars (plants)
 Helping in metabolism, pathogen defense, and stress response (plants)

10) Plastids: Double-membrane bound organelle found only in plants.

Based on the type of pigment present, they are three types: a) chloroplasts,
containing green pigment, b) chromoplast, containing green carotene, and
c) leucoplast, with no pigment.

Functions
 Helping to perform photosynthesis (chloroplast)
 Imparting flowers and fruits its yellow, red or orange color
 Storing carbohydrates (amyloplasts), oils and fats (elaioplasts), and
proteins (aleuroplasts)

11) Cytoskeleton: A network of filaments present in the cell cytoplasm. The

cytoskeleton is three types: a) microtubules, b) microfilaments, and c)
intermediate filaments.

Functions
 Providing mechanical support to the cell
 Maintaining cell shape
 Helping in cellular motility
12) Cilia and Flagella: Cilia are short hair-like structures that cover the
cell’s entire surface. Flagella are long tube-like structures that are present at
one end of the cell. They are composed of microtubules.

Functions
 Performing rowing movement (cilia)
 Performing up and down movement (flagella)

13) Vacuoles and Vesicles: Vacuoles are found centrally in plants, making
up almost 30 to 80% of the total plant cell volume. It is the largest organelle
in a plant cell, filled with fluids, ions, enzymes, and other molecules. In
animal cells, they are small in size compared to a plant cell. Vesicles are
membrane-bound sacs that can fuse with the cell membrane or other
membrane systems within the cell.

Functions
 Maintaining turgidity of the cell
 Transporting ions and molecules in and out of the cell
through endocytosis and exocytosis, respectively
 Storing of reserve food, water, and wastes
14) Centrosome: Located only in animal cells, it is the microtubule-
organizing center. It contains a pair of centrioles that lie perpendicular to
each other. Each centriole is cylindrical and comprised of nine
microtubule triplets.

Function
 Help in cell division
 Examples of Eukaryotic Cells
Based on the types of organisms, eukaryotic cells are of four types: 1) plant
cells, 2) animal cells, 3) fungal cells, and 4) protozoa.

1) Plant Cells

They have thick cell walls consisting of cellulose that provides structural
support to the cell. Every plant cell has a large central vacuole that helps
them to remain turgid. They also contain chloroplast, an organelle having the
pigment chlorophyll that helps plants to perform photosynthesis.

2) Animal Cells

They lack cell walls but have a plasma membrane. Due to the lack of cell
wall, animal cell shapes can change widely. It helps in the ingestion of food
by phagocytosis and fluids by pinocytosis. In contrast to an animal cell,
plants do not have chloroplasts but contain many small vacuoles.
3) Fungal Cells

Like plant cells, they also have a cell wall, but they are made of chitin, unlike
them. Some fungi have septa, holes that allow organelles and cytoplasm to
pass between them. They mostly live underground or in dead and decaying
organic matter that remains interconnected as a mycelial network.

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Prokaryotic Cells
Prokaryotic Cells
 WHAT IS A PROKARYOTIC CELLS

“Prokaryotic cells are the cells that do not have a true nucleus and
membrane-bound organelles.”
Prokaryotic cells are single-celled microorganisms known to be the earliest
on earth. Prokaryotes include Bacteria and Archaea. The photosynthetic
prokaryotes include cyanobacteria that perform photosynthesis.

A prokaryotic cell consists of a single membrane and therefore, all the

reactions occur within the cytoplasm. They can be free-living or parasites.

Prokaryotic Cell Structure

A prokaryotic cell does not have a nuclear membrane. However, the genetic
material is present in a region in the cytoplasm known as the nucleoid. They
may be spherical, rod-shaped, or spiral. A prokaryotic cell structure is as
follows:

1. Capsule– It is an outer protective covering found in the bacterial cells,

in addition to the cell wall. It helps in moisture retention, protects the
cell when engulfed, and helps in the attachment of cells to nutrients
and surfaces.
2. Cell Wall– It is the outermost layer of the cell which gives shape to the
cell.
3. Cytoplasm– The cytoplasm is mainly composed of enzymes, salts, cell
organelles and is a gel-like component.
4. Cell Membrane– This layer surrounds the cytoplasm and regulates
the entry and exit of substances in the cells.
5. Pili– These are hair-like outgrowths that attach to the surface of other
bacterial cells.
 6. Flagella– These are long structures in the form of a whip, that help in
the locomotion of a cell.
7. Ribosomes– These are involved in protein synthesis.
8. Plasmids– Plasmids are non-chromosomal DNA structures. These are
not involved in reproduction.
9. Nucleoid Region– It is the region in the cytoplasm where the genetic
material is present.

A prokaryotic cell lacks certain organelles like mitochondria, endoplasmic

reticulum, and Golgi bodies.

Components of Prokaryotic Cells

The prokaryotic cells have four main components:

Plasma Membrane- It is an outer protective covering of phospholipid
molecules which separates the cell from the surrounding environment.

Cytoplasm- It is a jelly-like substance present inside the cell. All the cell
organelles are suspended in it.

DNA- It is the genetic material of the cell. All the prokaryotes possess a
circular DNA. It directs what proteins the cell creates. It also regulates the
actions of the cell.

Ribosomes- Protein synthesis occurs here.

Some prokaryotic cells possess cilia and flagella which helps in locomotion.

Reproduction in Prokaryotes
A prokaryote reproduces in two ways:

 Asexually by binary fission

 Sexually by conjugation

Examples of Prokaryotic Cells

The examples of the prokaryotic cells are mentioned below:

Bacterial Cells
These are unicellular organisms found everywhere on earth from soil to the
human body.
They have different shapes and structures.
The cell wall is composed of peptidoglycan that provides structure to the cell
wall.
Bacteria have some unique structures such as pili, flagella and capsule.
They also possess extrachromosomal DNA known as plasmids.
They have the ability to form tough, dormant structures known as
endospores that helps them to survive under unfavourable conditions. The
endospores become active when the conditions are favourable again.
Archaeal Cells
Archaebacteria are unicellular organisms similar to bacteria in shape and
size.
They are found in extreme environments such as hot springs and other
places such as soil, marshes, and even inside humans.
They have a cell wall and flagella. The cell wall of archaea does not contain
peptidoglycan.
The membranes of the archaea have different lipids with a completely
different stereochemistry.
Just like bacteria, archaea have one circular chromosome. They also possess
plasmids.

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Animal Cell
 “An animal cell is a type of eukaryotic cell that lacks a cell wall and has a true, membrane-
bound nucleus along with other cellular organelles.”

Explanation
Animal cells range in size from a few microscopic microns to a few
millimetres. The largest known animal cell is the ostrich egg, which can
stretch over 5.1 inches across and weighs about 1.4 kilograms. This is in
stark contrast to the neuron in the human body, which is just 100 microns
across.

The shape of animal cells also varies, with some being flat, others oval or
rod-shaped. There are also more intriguing shapes such as curved, spherical,
concave and rectangular. Most of the cells are microscopic in size and can
only be seen under the microscope.

As stated before, animal cells are eukaryotic cells with a membrane-bound

nucleus. Furthermore, these cells exhibit the presence of DNA inside the
nucleus. They also comprise other membrane-bound organelles and cellular
structures which carry out specific functions necessary for a cell to function
properly.

Animal Cell Structure

Animal cells are generally smaller than plant cells. Another defining
characteristic is its irregular shape. This is due to the absence of a cell wall.
But animal cells share other cellular organelles with plant cells as both have
evolved from eukaryotic cells.

A typical animal cell comprises the following cell organelles:

Cell Membrane
A thin semipermeable membrane layer of lipids and proteins surrounding the
cell. Its primary role is to protect the cell from its surrounding. Also, it
controls the entry and exit of nutrients and other microscopic entities into
the cell. For this reason, cell membranes are known as semi-permeable or
selectively permeable membranes.
Nucleus
It is an organelle that contains several other sub-organelles such as
nucleolus, nucleosomes and chromatins. It also contains DNA and other
genetic materials.

Nuclear Membrane
It is a double-membrane structure that surrounds the nucleus. It is also
referred to as the nuclear envelope.
Centrosome
It is a small organelle found near the nucleus, which has a thick centre with
radiating tubules. The centrosomes are where microtubules are produced.
Lysosome
They are round organelles surrounded by a membrane and comprising
digestive enzymes which help in digestion, excretion and in the cell renewal
process.

Cytoplasm
A jelly-like material which contains all the cell organelles, enclosed within the
cell membrane. The substance found within the cell nucleus, contained by
the nuclear membrane is called the nucleoplasm.

Golgi Apparatus
A flat, smooth layered, sac-like organelle which is located near the nucleus
and involved in manufacturing, storing, packing and transporting the
particles throughout the cell.
Detailed Reading: Golgi Apparatus

Mitochondrion
They are spherical or rod-shaped organelles with a double membrane. They
are the powerhouse of a cell as they play an important role in releasing
energy.
Ribosome
They are small organelles made up of RNA-rich cytoplasmic granules, and
they are the sites of protein synthesis.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

This cellular organelle is composed of a thin, winding network of
membranous sacs originating from the nucleus.

Vacuole
A membrane-bound organelle present inside a cell involved in maintaining
shape and storing water, food, wastes, etc.

Nucleopore
They are tiny holes present in the nuclear membrane which are involved in
the movement of nucleic acids and proteins across the nuclear membrane.

Animal Cell Types

There are numerous types of animal cells, each designed to serve specific
functions. The most common types of animal cells are:

Skin Cells
Melanocytes, keratinocytes, Merkel cells and Langerhans cells
Muscle Cells
Myocyte, Myosatellite cells, Tendon cells, Cardiac muscle cells
Blood Cells
Leukocytes, erythrocytes, platelet
Nerve Cells
Schwann cell, glial cells etc
Fat Cells
Adipocytes

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Plant Cell Diagram

The plant cell is rectangular and comparatively larger than the animal cell.
Even though plant and animal cells are eukaryotic and share a few cell
organelles, plant cells are quite distinct when compared to animal cells as
they perform different functions. Some of these differences can be clearly
understood when the cells are examined under an electron microscope.

Plant Cell Structure

Just like different organs within the body, plant cell structure includes various
components known as cell organelles that perform different functions to
sustain itself. These organelles include:

Cell Wall

It is a rigid layer which is composed of polysaccharides cellulose, pectin and

hemicellulose. It is located outside the cell membrane. It also
comprises glycoproteins and polymers such as lignin, cutin, or suberin.

The primary function of the cell wall is to protect and provide structural
support to the cell. The plant cell wall is also involved in protecting the cell
against mechanical stress and providing form and structure to the cell. It also
filters the molecules passing in and out of it.

The formation of the cell wall is guided by microtubules. It consists of three

layers, namely, primary, secondary and the middle lamella. The primary cell
wall is formed by cellulose laid down by enzymes.

Also Read: Cell Wall

Cell membrane

It is the semi-permeable membrane that is present within the cell wall. It is

composed of a thin layer of protein and fat.

The cell membrane plays an important role in regulating the entry and exit of
specific substances within the cell.

For instance, cell membrane keeps toxins from entering inside, while
nutrients and essential minerals are transported across.

Also Read: Cell Wall and Cell Membrane

Nucleus

The nucleus is a membrane-bound structure that is present only in

eukaryotic cells. The vital function of a nucleus is to store DNA or hereditary
information required for cell division, metabolism and growth.

1. Nucleolus: It manufactures cells’ protein-producing structures and

ribosomes.
2. Nucleopore: Nuclear membrane is perforated with holes called
nucleopore that allow proteins and nucleic acids to pass through.
Explore more: The Nucleus

Plastids

They are membrane-bound organelles that have their own DNA. They are
necessary to store starch and to carry out the process of photosynthesis. It is
also used in the synthesis of many molecules, which form the building blocks
of the cell. Some of the vital types of plastids and their functions are stated
below:

Leucoplasts

They are found in the non-photosynthetic tissue of plants. They are used for
the storage of protein, lipid and starch.

Chloroplasts

It is an elongated organelle enclosed by phospholipid membrane. The

chloroplast is shaped like a disc and the stroma is the fluid within the
chloroplast that comprises a circular DNA. Each chloroplast contains a green
coloured pigment called chlorophyll required for the process of
photosynthesis. The chlorophyll absorbs light energy from the sun and uses
it to transform carbon dioxide and water into glucose.