Computer Communications and Networks

Course code:21BCA3C9L

UNIT 1 : INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORKS

NETWORKS
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by
communication links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device
capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the network.
“Computer network’’ to mean a collection of autonomous computers
interconnected by a single technology. Two computers are said to be
interconnected if they are able to exchange information. The connection need not
be via a copper wire; fiber optics, microwaves, infrared, and communication
satellites can also be used.
Networks come in many sizes, shapes and forms, as we will see later. They are
usually connected together to make larger networks, with the Internet being the
most well-known example of a network of networks. There is considerable
confusion in the literature between a computer network and a distributed system.
The key distinction is that in a distributed system, a collection of independent
computers appears to its users as a single coherent system. Usually, it has a single
model or paradigm that it presents to the users. Often a layer of software on top
of the operating system, called middleware, is responsible for implementing this
model. A well-known example of a distributed system is the World Wide Web. It
runs on top of the Internet and presents a model in which everything looks like a
document (Web page).
USES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS
1. Business Applications
• to distribute information throughout the company (resource sharing).
sharing physical resources such as printers, and tape backup systems, is
sharing information
• client-server model. It is widely used and forms the basis of much network
usage.
• communication medium among employees. email (electronic mail), which
employees generally use for a great deal of daily communication.
 • Telephone calls between employees may be carried by the computer
network instead of by the phone company.
• Desktop sharing lets remote workers see and interact with a graphical
computer screen
• doing business electronically, especially with customers and suppliers. This
new model is called e-commerce (electronic commerce) and it has grown
rapidly in recent years.

2. Home Applications
• peer-to-peer communication
• person-to-person communication
• electronic commerce
• entertainment.(game playing)
• Online reservations for trains , hotels , airplanes etc
• Online banking and shopping
• Online personalized electronic newspapers , journals and libraries.
• Access to WWW( world wide web)

3. Mobile Users:
• Mobile computers such as notebook computers and PDAs are connected
to office or home even when away from home
• Can be used as a portable electronic equipment to send and receive telephone
calls , faxes , mail ,surf the web , access remote files

The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four

fundamental characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.
1. Delivery.
The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be
received by the intended device or user and only by that device or user.
2. Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have
been altered in transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness.
The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are
useless. In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering
data as they are produced, in the same order that they are produced, and
without significant delay. This kind of delivery is called real-time
transmission.
4. Jitter.
 Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay
in the delivery of audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that
video packets are sent every 30 ms. If some of the packets arrive with 30-
ms delay and others with 40-ms delay, an uneven quality in the video is the
result.
A data communications system has five components

I. Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular

forms of information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2 Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a
computer, workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by
which a message travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission
media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
5. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It
represents an agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol,
two devices may be connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking
French cannot be understood by a person who speaks only Japanese. Data
Representation Text Numbers Images Audio Video

Physical Structures
Before discussing networks, we need to define some network attributes.
Type of Connection A network is two or more devices connected through links.
A link is a communications pathway that transfers data from one device to another
. There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint.
1.Point-to-Point: A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between
two devices. The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between
those two devices. Most point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire
or cable to connect the two ends, but other options, such as microwave or satellite
links, are also possible When you change television channels by infrared remote
control, you are establishing a point-to-point connection between the remote
control and the television's control system.

2.Multipoint: A multipoint (also called multi-drop) connection is one in which

more than two specific devices share a single link In a multipoint environment,
the capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially or temporally. If several
devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared connection. If users
must take turns, it is a timeshared connection

Defining Network Architecture

Network architecture is the logical and structural layout of the network, consisting
of transmission equipment, software and communication protocols, and
infrastructure (i.e. wired or wireless) transmission of data and connectivity
between components.

The two types of widely used network architectures are peer-to-

peer aka P2P and client/server aka tiered.
Peer-to-Peer Architecture

In a peer-to-peer network, tasks are allocated to every device on the network.

Furthermore, there is no real hierarchy in this network, all computers are
considered equal and all have the same abilities to use the resources available on
this network. Instead of having a central server which would act as the shared
drive, each computer thats connected to this network would act as the server for
the files stored on it.

Advantages of a peer-to-peer network

• Does not require a dedicated server which means its less costly.

• If one computer stops working, the other computers connected to the

network will continue working.
 • Installation and setup is quite painless because of the built-in support in
modern operating systems.

Disadvantages of a peer-to-peer network

• Security and data backups are to be done to each individual computer.

• As the numbers of computers increases on a P2P network…

performance, security, and access becomes a major headache.

Client/Server Architecture

Client-server architecture, architecture of a computer network in which many

clients (remote processors) request and receive service from a centralized server
(host computer). In a client/server network, a centralized, really powerful
computer(server) acts as a hub in which other computers or workstations(clients)
can connect to. This server is the heart of the system, which manages and provides
resources to any client that requests them.
Advantages of a client/server network

• Resources and data security are controlled through the server.

• Not restricted to a small number of computers.

• Server can be accessed anywhere and across multiple platforms.

Disadvantages of a client/server network

• Can become very costly due to the need of a server as well as

networking devices such as hubs, routers, and switches.

• If and when the server goes down, the entire network will be affected.

• Technical staff needed to maintain and ensure network functions

efficiently.
What is network topology?

Network topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of nodes (such as

computers, switches, routers, or other devices) and the connections between them
in a computer network.

• The Blueprint of a Network In simple terms, network topology is like the

blueprint or map of a network. It outlines the layout and structure of the
network, showing how the devices are interconnected and how data is
transmitted between them. It defines the paths that information takes from
one node to another and influences the efficiency, scalability, and reliability
of the network.
• Types of Network Topologies There are different types of network
topologies, including bus, star, ring, mesh, tree, and hybrid topologies.
Each topology has its own characteristics, advantages, and limitations, and
organizations choose the most suitable one based on their specific
requirements and network design goals.

Types of network topology

There are many different types of topologies that enterprise networks have built
on today and in the past. Some of the network topologies we’re going to look at
include bustopology, ring topology, star topology, mesh topology, and hybrid
topology.

Bus topology
Bus topology is a network type where every device is connected to a single cable
that runs from one end of the network to the other. This type of network topology
is often referred to as line topology. In a bus topology, data is transmitted in one
direction only. If the bus topology has two endpoints then it is referred to as
a linear bus topology.

Smaller networks with this type of topology use a coaxial or RJ45 cable to link
devices together. However, the bus topology layout is outdated and you’re
unlikely to encounter a company using a bus topology today.

Advantages

Bus topologies were often used in smaller networks. One of the main reasons is
that they keep the layout simple. All devices are connected to a single cable so
you don’t need to manage a complex topological setup.

The layout also helped make bus topologies cost-effective because they can be
run with a single cable. In the event that more devices need to be added then
you could simply join your cable to another cable.

Disadvantages

However, relying on one cable does mean that bus topologies have a single
point of failure. If the cable fails then the entire network will go down. A cable
failure would cost organizations a lot of time while they attempt to resume
service. Further to this, high network traffic would decrease network
performance because all the data travels through one cable.

This limitation makes bus topologies suitable only for smaller networks. The
primary reason is that the more network nodes you have, the slower your
transmission speeds are going to be. It is also worth noting that bus topologies are
limited in the sense that they are half-duplex,

Ring topology
n networks with ring topology, computers are connected to each other in a circular
format. Every device in the network will have two neighbors and no more or
no less. Ring topologies were commonly used in the past but you would be hard-
pressed to find an enterprise still using them today.

The first node is connected to the last node to link the loop together. As a
consequence of being laid out in this format packets need to travel through all
network nodes on the way to their destination.

Advantages

With ring topologies, the risk of packet collisions is very low due to the use of
token-based protocols, which only allow one station to transmit data at a given
time. This is compounded by the fact that data can move through network
nodes at high speeds which can be expanded on when more nodes are added.

Dual ring topologies provided an extra layer of protection because they

were more resistant to failures. For instance, if a ring goes down within a node
then the other ring can step up and back it up. Ring topologies were also low cost
to install.

Disadvantages

One of the reasons why ring topologies were replaced is because they are very
vulnerable to failure. The failure of one node can take the entire network out
of operation. This means that ring topology networks need to be constantly
managed to ensure that all network nodes are in good health. However, even if
the nodes were in good health your network could still be knocked offline by a
transmission line failure!

Ring topologies also raised scalability concerns. For instance, bandwidth is

shared by all devices within the network. In addition, the more devices that are
added to a network the more communication delay the network experiences.
This means that the number of devices added to a network topology needed to be
monitored carefully to make sure that the network resources weren’t stretched
beyond their limit.

Star topology

A star topology is a topology where every node in the network is connected to

one central switch. Every device in the network is directly connected to the switch
and indirectly connected to every other node. The relationship between these
elements is that the central network hub is a server and other devices are treated
as clients. The central node has the responsibility of managing data transmissions
across the whole network and acts as a repeater. With star topologies, computers
are connected with a coaxial cable, twisted pair, or optical fiber cable.
Advantages

Star topologies are most commonly-used because you can manage the entire
network from one location: the central switch. As a consequence, if a node that
isn’t the central node goes down then the network will remain up. This gives star
topologies a layer of protection against failures that aren’t always present with
other topology setups. Likewise, you can add new computers without having
to take the network offline like you would have to do with a ring topology.

In terms of physical network structure, star topologies require fewer cables than
other topology types. This makes them simple to set up and manage over the
long-term. The simplicity of the overall network design makes it much easier for
administrators to run troubleshooting when dealing with network performance
faults.

Disadvantages

Though star topologies may be relatively safe from failure, if the central switch
goes down then the entire network will go down. As such, the administrator
needs to manage the health of the central node closely to make sure that it doesn’t
go down. The performance of the network is also tied to the central node’s
configurations and performance. Star topologies are easy to manage in most
ways but they are far from cheap to set up and use

Tree topology

As the name suggests, a tree topology network is a structure that is shaped like a
tree with its many branches. Tree topologies have a root node that is connected
to another node hierarchy. The hierarchy is parent-child where there is only one
mutual connection between two connected nodes. As a general rule, a tree
topology needs to have three levels to the hierarchy to be classified this way. This
form of topology is used within Wide Area Networks to sustain lots of spread-
out devices.
Advantages

The main reason why tree topologies are used is to extend bus and star
topologies. Under this hierarchical format, it is easy to add more nodes to the
network when your organization grows in size. This format also lends itself well
to finding errors and troubleshooting because you can check for network
performance issues systematically throughout the tree.

Disadvantages

The most significant weakness of tree topology is the root node. If the root node
fails then all of its subtrees become partitioned. There will still be partial
connectivity within the network amongst other devices such as the failed node’s
parent.

Maintaining the network system is not simple either because the more nodes you
add, the more difficult it becomes to manage the network. Another
disadvantage of a tree topology is the number of cables you need. Cables are
required to connect every device throughout the hierarchy which makes the
network layout more complex when compared to a simpler topology.

Mesh topology
A mesh topology is a point-to-point connection where nodes are interconnected.
In this form of topology, data is transmitted via two
methods: routing and flooding. Routing is where nodes use routing logic to
work out the shortest distance to the packet’s destination. In contrast, flooding is
where data is sent to all nodes within the network. Flooding doesn’t require any
form of routing logic to work.

There are two forms of mesh topology: partial mesh topology and full mesh
topology. With partial mesh topology, most nodes are interconnected but there
are a few which are only connected to two or three other nodes. A full mesh
topology is where every node is interconnected

Advantages

Mesh topologies are used first and foremost because they are reliable.
The interconnectivity of nodes makes them extremely resistant to failures.
There is no single machine failure that could bring down the entire network. The
absence of a single point of failure is one of the reasons why this is a popular
topology choice. This setup is also secure from being compromised.

Disadvantages

However, mesh topologies are far from perfect. They require an immense
amount of configuration once they are deployed. The topological layout is more
complex than many other topologies and this is reflected by how long it takes to
set up. You’ll need to accommodate a whole host of new wiring which can add
up to be quite expensive.

Hybrid topology
When a topology is composed of two or more different topologies it is referred to
as a hybrid topology. Hybrid topologies are most-commonly encountered in
larger enterprises where individual departments have network topologies that
different from another topology in the organization. Connecting these topologies
together will result in a hybrid topology. As a consequence, the capabilities and
vulnerabilities depend on the types of topology that are tied together.

Advantages

There are many reasons why hybrid topologies are used but they all have one
thing in common: flexibility. There are few constraints on the network structure
that a hybrid topology cannot accommodate, and you can incorporate multiple
topologies into one hybrid setup. As a consequence, hybrid topologies are very
scalable. The scalability of hybrid setups makes them well-suited to larger
networks.

Disadvantages

Unfortunately, hybrid topologies can be quite complex, depending on the

topologies that you decide to use. Each topology that is part of your hybrid
topology will have to be managed according to its unique network requirements.
This makes administrators’ jobs more difficult because they are going to have to
attempt to manage multiple topologies rather than a single one. In addition,
setting up a hybrid topology can end up being quite costly.
Different Types of Computer Networks
There are various types of Computer Networking options available. The
classification of network in computers can be done according to their size as well
as their purpose.

The size of a network should be expressed by the geographic area and number of
computers, which are a part of their networks. It includes devices housed in a
single room to millions of devices spread across the world. Following are the
popular types of Computer Network:

• PAN (Personal Area Network)

• LAN (Local Area Network)
• MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
• WAN (Wide Area Network)

PAN (Personal Area Network) is a computer network formed around a person. It

generally consists of a computer, mobile, or personal digital assistant. PAN can
be used for establishing communication among these personal devices for
connecting to a digital network and the internet.
Characteristics of PAN
Below are the main characteristics of PAN:

• It is mostly personal devices network equipped within a limited area.

• Allows you to handle the interconnection of IT devices at the surrounding
of a single user.
• PAN includes mobile devices, tablet, and laptop.
• It can be wirelessly connected to the internet called WPAN.
• Appliances use for PAN: cordless mice, keyboards, and Bluetooth systems.

Advantages of PAN
Here are the important pros/benefits of PAN network:
 • PAN networks are relatively secure and safe
• It offers only short-range solution up to ten meters
• Strictly restricted to a small area

Disadvantages of PAN
Here are the cons/drawbacks of using PAN network:

• It may establish a bad connection to other networks at the same radio

bands.
• Distance limits.

What is a LAN (Local Area Network)?

A Local Area Network (LAN) is a group of computer and peripheral devices
which are connected in a limited area such as school, laboratory, home, and office
building. It is a widely useful network for sharing resources like files, printers,
games, and other application. The simplest type of LAN network is to connect
computers and a printer in someone’s home or office. In general, LAN will be
used as one type of transmission medium. It is a network which consists of less
than 5000 interconnected devices across several buildings.

Characteristics of LAN
Here are the important characteristics of a LAN network:

• It is a private network, so an outside regulatory body never controls it.

 • LAN operates at a relatively higher speed compared to other WAN
systems.
• There are various kinds of media access control methods like token ring
and ethernet.

Advantages of LAN
Here are the pros/benefits of LAN:

• Computer resources like hard-disks, DVD-ROM, and printers can share

local area networks. This significantly reduces the cost of hardware
purchases.
• You can use the same software over the network instead of purchasing the
licensed software for each client in the network.
• Data of all network users can be stored on a single hard disk of the server
computer.
• You can easily transfer data and messages over networked computers.
• It will be easy to manage data at only one place, which makes data more
secure.
• Local Area Network offers the facility to share a single internet connection
among all the LAN users.

Disadvantages of LAN
Here are the cons/drawbacks of LAN:

• LAN will indeed save cost because of shared computer resources, but the
initial cost of installing Local Area Networks is quite high.
• The LAN admin can check personal data files of every LAN user, so it does
not offer good privacy.
• Unauthorized users can access critical data of an organization in case LAN
admin is not able to secure centralized data repository.
• Local Area Network requires a constant LAN administration as there are
issues related to software setup and hardware failures

What is WAN (Wide Area Network)?

WAN (Wide Area Network) is another important computer network that which
is spread across a large geographical area. WAN network system could be a
connection of a LAN which connects with other LAN’s using telephone lines and
radio waves. It is mostly limited to an enterprise or an organization.
Characteristics of WAN
Below are the characteristics of WAN:

• The software files will be shared among all the users; therefore, all can
access to the latest files.
• Any organization can form its global integrated network using WAN.

Advantages of WAN
Here are the benefits/pros of WAN:

• WAN helps you to cover a larger geographical area. Therefore business

offices situated at longer distances can easily communicate.
• Contains devices like mobile phones, laptop, tablet, computers, gaming
consoles, etc.
• WLAN connections work using radio transmitters and receivers built into
client devices.
Disadvantages of WAN
Here are the drawbacks/cons of WAN network:

• The initial setup cost of investment is very high.

• It is difficult to maintain the WAN network. You need skilled technicians
and network administrators.
• There are more errors and issues because of the wide coverage and the use
of different technologies.
• It requires more time to resolve issues because of the involvement of
multiple wired and wireless technologies.
• Offers lower security compared to other types of network in computer.

What is MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)?

A Metropolitan Area Network or MAN is consisting of a computer network
across an entire city, college campus, or a small region. This type of network is
large than a LAN, which is mostly limited to a single building or site. Depending
upon the type of configuration, this type of network allows you to cover an area
from several miles to tens of miles.

Characteristics of MAN
Here are important characteristics of the MAN network:

• It mostly covers towns and cities in a maximum 50 km range

• Mostly used medium is optical fibers, cables
 • Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.

Advantages of MAN
Here are the pros/benefits of MAN network:

• It offers fast communication using high-speed carriers, like fiber optic

cables.
• It provides excellent support for an extensive size network and greater
access to WANs.
• The dual bus in MAN network provides support to transmit data in both
directions concurrently.
• A MAN network mostly includes some areas of a city or an entire city.

Disadvantages of MAN
Here are drawbacks/cons of using the MAN network:

• You need more cable to establish MAN connection from one place to
another.
• In MAN network it is tough to make the system secure from hackers

Other Types of Computer Networks

Apart from above mentioned computer networks, here are some other important
types of networks:

• WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network)

• Storage Area Network
• System Area Network
• Home Area Network
• POLAN- Passive Optical LAN
• Enterprise private network
• Campus Area Network
• Virtual Area Network

THE INTERNET
The Internet has revolutionized many aspects of our daily lives. It has affected
the way we do business as well as the way we spend our leisure time. Count the
ways you've used the Internet recently. Perhaps you've sent electronic mail (e-
mail) to a business associate, paid a utility bill, read a newspaper from a distant
city, or looked up a local movie schedule-all by using the Internet. Or maybe you
researched a medical topic, booked a hotel reservation, chatted with a fellow
Trekkie, or comparison-shopped for a car.
The Internet is a communication system that has brought a wealth of information
to our fingertips and organized it for our use.
A network is a group of connected communicating devices such as computers and
printers. An internet (note the lowercase letter i) is two or more networks that can
communicate with each other. The most notable internet is called the Internet
(uppercase letter I), a collaboration of more than hundreds of thousands of
interconnected networks.
Private individuals as well as various organizations such as government agencies,
schools, research facilities, corporations, and libraries in more than 100 countries
use the Internet. Millions of people are users. Yet this extraordinary
communication system only came into being in 1969.
In the mid-1960s, mainframe computers in research organizations were
standalone devices. Computers from different manufacturers were unable to
communicate with one another. The Advanced Research Projects Agency
(ARPA) in the Department of Defense (DoD) was interested in finding a way to
connect computers so that the researchers they funded could share their findings,
thereby reducing costs and eliminating duplication of effort. In 1967, at an
Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) meeting,
ARPA presented its ideas for ARPANET, a small network of connected
computers. The idea was that each host computer (not necessarily from the same
manufacturer) would be attached to a specialized computer, called an inteiface
message processor (IMP). The IMPs, in tum, would be connected to one another.
Each IMP had to be able to communicate with other IMPs as well as with its own
attached host. By 1969, ARPANET was a reality. Four nodes, at the University of
California at Los Angeles (UCLA), the University of California at Santa Barbara
(UCSB), Stanford Research Institute (SRI), and the University of Utah, were
connected via the IMPs to form a network. Software called the Network Control
Protocol (NCP) provided communication between the hosts. In 1972, Vint Cerf
and Bob Kahn, both of whom were part of the core ARPANET group,
collaborated on what they called the Internetting Projec1.
The Internet today is not a simple hierarchical structure. It is made up of many
wide- and local-area networks joined by connecting devices and switching
stations. It is difficult to give an accurate representation of the Internet because it
is continually changing-new networks are being added, existing networks are
adding addresses, and networks of defunct companies are being removed. Today
most end users who want Internet connection use the services of Internet service
providers (lSPs).
There are international service providers, national service providers, regional
service providers, and local service providers. The Internet today is run by private
companies, not the government. Figure 1.13 shows a conceptual (not geographic)
view of the Internet.

Computer networks are dependent on protocols and standards which plays a

vital role, which enables communication between different devices and systems
with one another and share data seamlessly. Network protocol ensures that
different technologies and components of the network are compatible with one
another, reliable, and able to function together.
Overview of Protocol
In Order to make communication successful between devices , some rules and
procedures should be agreed upon at the sending and receiving ends of the
system. Such rules and procedures are called as Protocols . Different types of
protocols are used for different types of communication.

In above diagrams Protocols are shown as set of rules . Such that

Communication between Sender and Receiver is not possible without Protocol.
Key Element of Protocol
• Syntax : syntax refers to the structure or the format of the data that
gets exchanged between the devices. Syntax of message includes the
type of data, composition of message and sequencing of message. The
starting 8 bits of data is considered as the address of the sender. The
next 8 bits is considered to be the address of the receiver. The
remaining bits are considered as the message itself.
 • Semantics : Semantics defines data transmitted between devices. It
provides rules and norms for understanding message or data element
values and actions.
• Timing : Timing refers to the synchronization and coordination
between devices while transferring the data. Timing ensures at what
time data should be sent and how fast data can be sent. For example,
If a sender sends 100 Mbps but the receiver can only handle 1 Mbps,
the receiver will overflow and lose data. Timing ensures preventing
data loss, collisions and other timing related issues.
• Sequence control : Sequence control ensures the proper ordering of
data packets. The main responsibility of sequence control is to
acknowledge the data while it get received, and the retransmission of
lost data. Through this mechanism the data is delivered in correct
order.
• Flow Control : Flow control regulates device data delivery. It limits
the sender’s data or asks the receiver if it’s ready for more. Flow
control prevents data congestion and loss.
• Error Control : Error control mechanisms detect and fix data
transmission faults. They include error detection codes, data resend,
and error recovery. Error control detects and corrects noise,
interference, and other problems to maintain data integrity.
• Security : Network security safeguards data confidentiality, integrity,
and authenticity. which includes encryption, authentication, access
control, and other security procedures. Network communication’s
privacy and trustworthiness are protected by security standards.
Standards
Standards are the set of rules for data communication that are needed
for exchange of information among devices. It is important to follow Standards
which are created by various Standard Organization like IEEE , ISO , ANSI
etc.
Types of Standards
Standards are of two types :
• De Facto Standard.
• De Jure Standard.
De Facto Standard : The meaning of the work ” De Facto ” is ” By Fact ” or
“By Convention”.These are the standard s that have not been approved by any
Organization , but have been adopted as Standards because of it’s widespread
use. Also , sometimes these standards are often established by Manufacturers.
For example : Apple and Google are two companies which established their
own rules on their products which are different . Also they use some same
standard rules for manufacturing for their products.
De Jure Standard : The meaning of the word “De Jure” is “By Law” or
“By Regulations”.Thus , these are the standards that have been approved by
officially recognized body like ANSI , ISO , IEEE etc. These are the standard
which are important to follow if it is required or needed.
For example : All the data communication standard protocols like SMTP ,
TCP , IP , UDP etc. are important to follow the same when we needed them.
Types of Protocol
• Network Layer Protocols : Network layer protocols operate in the
network layer which is also known as the Layer 3 of the
network architecture. Network layer protocols are responsible for
packet routing, forwarding and addressing of data packets throughout
the network . IP and ICMP are the network layer protocols.
• Transport layer Protocols : Transport layer protocols works in
transport layer which provides end-to-end service ensuring data
transfer across apps on different devices. TCP and UDP are the most
popular transport layer protocols.
• Application Layer Protocol : Application layer protocol working in
the application layer of the network architecture provides
communication between applications running on different devices.
The application layer protocols enable cross-device communication.
They format, exchange, and interpret application data. HTTP, FTP, and
SMTP are examples.
• Wireless Protocols : Wireless protocols basically used in wireless
communication which enables data transfer through wireless
networks. Bluetooth, Wi-Fi, and LTE protocols are examples.
• Routing Protocols : Routing protocol establishes the best/optimal
network pathways throughout the network for fastest data
transmission. Routers share information to develop and maintain
routing tables. RIP, OSPF, and BGP are examples.
• Security Protocols : security protocol protects data confidentiality,
integrity, and authenticity while transmission of data over the network.
They include SSL and TLS, encryption methods, and authentication
protocols for providing data security.
• Internet Protocols : IP identifies devices uniquely. Internet protocol
provides data communication through routing and forwarding data
packets from one device to another by unique addressing scheme.

Layered Tasks

In layered architecture of Network Model, one whole network process is divided

into small tasks. Each small task is then assigned to a particular layer which works
dedicatedly to process the task only. Every layer does only specific work.
In layered communication system, one layer of a host deals with the task done by
or to be done by its peer layer at the same level on the remote host. The task is
either initiated by layer at the lowest level or at the top most level. If the task is
initiated by the-top most layer, it is passed on to the layer below it for further
processing. The lower layer does the same thing, it processes the task and passes
on to lower layer. If the task is initiated by lower most layer, then the reverse path
is taken.

Every layer clubs together all procedures, protocols, and methods which it
requires to execute its piece of task. All layers identify their counterparts by
means of encapsulation header and tail.

OSI Model

Open System Interconnect is an open standard for all communication systems.

OSI model is established by International Standard Organization (ISO).

• It is not a standard that networking protocols must follow

• Each layer has specific functions it is responsible for

• All layers work together in the correct order to move data around a network

This model has seven layers:

l
1)Physical Layer
• Deals with all aspects of physically moving data from one computer to
the next
• Converts data from the upper layers into 1s and 0s for transmission over
media
• Defines how data is encoded onto the media to transmit the data
• Defined on this layer: Cable standards, wireless standards, and fiber optic
standards. Copper wiring, fiber optic cable, radio frequencies, anything
that can be used to transmit data is defined on the Physical layer of the OSI
Model
• Device example: Hub
• Used to transmit data

2) Data Link Layer

• Is responsible for moving frames from node to node or computer to
computer
• Can move frames from one adjacent computer to another, cannot move
frames across routers
• Encapsulation = frame
• Requires MAC address or physical address
• Protocols defined include Ethernet Protocol and Point-to-Point Protocol
(PPP
• Device example: Switch
• Two sublayers: Logical Link Control (LLC) and the Media Access
Control (MAC) o Logical Link Control (LLC)
 –Data Link layer addressing, flow control, address notification, error
control
o Media Access Control (MAC)
 –Determines which computer has access to the network media at any
given time
  –Determines where one frame ends and the next one starts, called frame
synchronization

3) Network Layer
• Responsible for moving packets (data) from one end of the network to
the other, called end-to-end communications
• Requires logical addresses such as IP addresses
• Device example: Router
• –Routing is the ability of various network devices and their related
software to move data packets from source to destination

4) Transport Layer
• Takes data from higher levels of OSI Model and breaks it into segments
that can be sent to lower-level layers for data transmission
• Conversely, reassembles data segments into data that higher-level
protocols and applications can use
• Also puts segments in correct order (called sequencing ) so they can be
reassembled in correct order at destination
• Concerned with the reliability of the transport of sent data
• May use a connection-oriented protocol such as TCP to ensure
destination received segments
• May use a connectionless protocol such as UDP to send segments
without assurance of delivery
• Uses port addressing

5)Session Layer
• Responsible for managing the dialog between networked devices
• Establishes, manages, and terminates connections
• Provides duplex, half-duplex, or simplex communications between
devices
• Provides procedures for establishing checkpoints, adjournment,
termination, and restart or recovery procedures.

6)Presentation Layer
• Concerned with how data is presented to the network
• Handles three primary tasks: –Translation , –Compression , –Encryption
7) Application Layer
• Contains all services or protocols needed by application software or
operating system to communicate on the network
• Examples :
o –Firefox web browser uses HTTP (Hyper-Text Transport Protocol)\
o –E-mail program may use POP3 (Post Office Protocol version
to read e-mails and SMTP (Simple Mail Transport Protocol) to send e-
mails
The advantages of the OSI model are
• It is a generic model and acts as a guidance tool to develop any network
model.
• It is a layered model. Changes are one layer do not affect other layers,
provided that the interfaces between the layers do not change drastically.
• It distinctly separates services, interfaces, and protocols. Hence, it is
flexible in nature. Protocols in each layer can be replaced very
conveniently depending upon the nature of the network.
• It supports both connection-oriented services and connectionless services.
The disadvantages of the OSI model are
• It is purely a theoretical model that does not consider the availability of
appropriate technology. This restricts its practical implementation.
• The launching timing of this model was inappropriate. When OSI
appeared, the TCP/IP protocols were already implemented. So, the
companies were initially reluctant to use it.
• The OSI model is very complex. The initial implementation was
cumbersome, slow and costly.
• Though there are many layers, some of the layers like the session layer
and presentation layer have very little functionality when practically
deployed.
• There is a duplication of services in various layers. Services like
addressing, flow control and error control are offered by multiple layers.
• The standards of OSI model are theoretical and do not offer adequate
solutions for practical network implementation.
• After being launched, the OSI model did not meet the practical needs as
well as the TCP/IP model. So it was labeled as inferior quality.
• TCP/IP model was very much preferred by the academia. It was believed
that OSI was a product of the European communities and the US
government, who were trying to force an inferior model to researchers
and programmers. Hence, there was considerable resistance in adopting
it.
The advantages of TCP/IP protocol suite are
• It is an industry–standard model that can be effectively deployed in
practical networking problems.
• It is interoperable, i.e., it allows cross-platform communications among
heterogeneous networks.
• It is an open protocol suite. It is not owned by any particular institute and
so can be used by any individual or organization.
• It is a scalable, client-server architecture. This allows networks to be
added without disrupting the current services.
 • It assigns an IP address to each computer on the network, thus making
each device to be identifiable over the network. It assigns each site a
domain name. It provides name and address resolution services.
The disadvantages of the TCP/IP model are
• It is not generic in nature. So, it fails to represent any protocol stack other
than the TCP/IP suite. For example, it cannot describe the Bluetooth
connection.
• It does not clearly separate the concepts of services, interfaces, and
protocols. So, it is not suitable to describe new technologies in new
networks.
• It does not distinguish between the data link and the physical layers,
which has very different functionalities. The data link layer should
concern with the transmission of frames. On the other hand, the physical
layer should lay down the physical characteristics of transmission. A
proper model should segregate the two layers.
• It was originally designed and implemented for wide area networks. It is
not optimized for small networks like LAN (local area network) and PAN
(personal area network).
• Among its suite of protocols, TCP and IP were carefully designed and
well implemented. Some of the other protocols were developed ad hoc
and so proved to be unsuitable in long run. However, due to the
popularity of the model, these protocols are being used even 30–40 years
after their introduction.

Difference between OSI Model and TCP/IP model

OSI Model TCP/IP Model
OSI stands for Open System TCP/IP stands for transmission
Interconnection. It is called so control protocol/Internet protocol.
because it allows any two different It is named after these two
systems to communicate regardless protocols being part of this model.
of their architecture
Developed by ISO(international Developed by DoD (Department of
standard Organization) Defense)
It has seven layers It has four layers
Session and presentation layers are There if no Session and
present in this model presentation layers are present in
this model
This model provides clear It does not clearly distinguish,
distinction between services, between services, interfaces and
interfaces and protocols. protocols.
In this model, protocols do not fit Tcp/IP protocols fir well in this
well into the model model
OSI model supports both TCP/IP model supports only
connectionless and connection connectionless communication in
oriented communication in network network layer.
layer.