HASHING

-PROF. ANJALI DESHPANDE

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BACKGROUND
Suppose we want to design a system for storing students records and we want to perform following
operations efficiently:
• Insert, Search and Delete operations based on student id

• Possible data structure options and their respective time complexity

• Array implementation would take O(log n)time if binary search is used.
• A linked list implementation would take O(n) time. .
• Is there an alternative to obtain faster access time ?
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HASHING
• Hashing is the process of indexing and retrieving element in a data structure
to provide faster way of finding the element using the hash key.
• With hashing we get O(1) search time on average (under reasonable assumptions) and O(n) in worst
case.
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REAL-WORLD APPLICATIONS OF
HASH TABLES
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DICTIONARY
• Dictionary is a collection of data elements uniquely identified by a field called key.
• A dictionary supports the operations of search, insert and delete.
• The ADT of a dictionary is defined as a set of elements with distinct keys supporting the operations
of search, insert, delete and create (which creates an empty dictionary).
• While most dictionaries deal with distinct keyed elements, it is not uncommon to find applications
calling for dictionaries with duplicate or repeated keys
• Hence it is essential that the dictionary evolves rules to resolve the ambiguity that may arise while
searching for or deleting data elements with duplicate keys.
• A dictionary supports both sequential and random access.
• A sequential access is one in which the data elements of the dictionary are ordered and accessed
according to the order of the keys (ascending or descending, for example).
• A random access is one in which the data elements of the dictionary are not accessed according to a
particular order.
• Hash tables are ideal data structures for dictionaries.
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Database Indexing
• Hash tables are used to implement hash indexes in databases to allow for fast data retrieval.
• For example, searching for a record by a key (e.g., user ID or product SKU) can be done in constant
time on average.
Caching Systems
• Caches use hash tables to store data temporarily for quick access.
• Examples include web browsers caching recently visited websites or content delivery networks
(CDNs) caching popular web pages.
• Key-value pairs in a cache represent URLs (keys) and their corresponding web content (values).
Password Storage
• Hash tables, combined with cryptographic hashing algorithms, store hashed passwords securely.
• When a user enters a password, the system hashes the input and compares it with the stored hash.
DNS Resolution
• The Domain Name System (DNS) uses hash tables to map domain names (e.g., example.com) to IP
addresses.
• This enables quick resolution of domain names to their corresponding servers.
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Blockchain
Hash tables are integral to storing and verifying transaction data in blockchains.
Hash functions ensure the immutability and integrity of transaction blocks.
Gaming
Hash tables store game state data, such as the mapping of game objects to their properties or locations.
They are also used in AI algorithms, such as pathfinding and move evaluation in board games like chess.
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HASH TABLE STRUCTURE

• A hash function H(X) is a mathematical function which given a key X of the dictionary D, maps it to
a position P in a storage table termed hash table.
• The process of mapping the keys to their respective positions in the hash table is called hashing.

• When the data elements of the dictionary are to be stored in the hash table, each key Xi is mapped to
a position Pi in the hash table as determined by the value of H(Xi), (i.e.) Pi = H(Xi).
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HASH TABLE STRUCTURE

• To search for a key X in the hash table all that one does is to determine the position P by computing
P = H(X) and access the appropriate data element.
• In the case of insertion of a key X or its deletion, the position P in the hash table where the data
element needs to be inserted or from where it is to be deleted respectively, is determined by
computing P = H(X).
• If the hash table is implemented using a sequential data structure, for example arrays, then the hash
function H(X) may be so chosen to yield a value that corresponds to the index of the array.
• In such a case, the hash function is a mere mapping of the keys to the array indices.
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BASIC CONCEPTS OF HASHING

• Buckets: A bucket in a hash file is unit of storage (typically, a disk block) that can hold one
or more records. The hash table consists of b buckets and each bucket consists of s slots.
(Usually s = 1)
• Collision: Collision is situation in which hash function returns the same address for more
than one record.
• Probe: Alternative list of location produces after collision occurs.
• Synonym: The set of keys that hash to the same location are called as synonyms.
• Overflow: When hash table becomes full and new record needs to be inserted then it is
called overflow. An overflow occurs when we hash a new identifier into a full bucket
• Perfect hash function: It is a function that maps distinct key elements into hash table with
no collision
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BASIC CONCEPTS OF HASHING

• Load factor or Load density of hash table:
Load factor=n/m
n = no. of elements stored in the table
m = size of the table

• Bucket Overflow: A Bucket overflow occurs when the home bucket for a new pair (key, element) is
already full.
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PROPERTIES OF A GOOD HASH FUNCTION

1) Hash function should be simple to compute.
2) Number of collisions should be less
2) The hash function ideally must use all the input data.
3) The hash function "uniformly" distributes the data across the entire set of possible hash values.
4) The hash function generates very different hash values for similar strings.
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GENERATING HASH FUNCTIONS

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DIVISION METHOD
• Idea:
• Say that we have a Hash Table of size 'Tablesize', and we want to store a (key, value) pair in the
Hash Table. It is fast as it requires only one computation - modulus.
• Computes hash value from key using the % operator.
• Map a key k into one of the m slots by taking the remainder of k divided by m
h(k) = k mod m
• Works well when m is prime
1. Example: k=1276, m=10,
h(1276) = 1276 mod 10 = 6
Advantage: fast, requires only one operation
Disadvantage: Certain values of m are not good choice,
e.g., power of 2 : Table size that is a power of 2 like 32 and 1024 should be avoided, for it leads to more
collisions.
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MULTIPLICATION METHOD
• Idea:
1. We must choose a constant between 0 and 1, say,
A.
2. Multiply the key with the chosen A.
3. Now, take the fractional part from the product
and multiply it by the table size.
4. The Hash will be the floor (only the integer part)
of the above result.
So, the Hash Function:
H(x) = floor(size(key*A mod 1))
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DIGIT EXTRACTION METHOD

• Idea
• Selected digits are extracted form the key and use as address
• Address = selected digits from key
• Example: If six digit employee number is 379245 then
• select first digit as the index so 379 is the key address.
• Disadvantages:
• May not evenly distribute key values in the hash table
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FOLDING
• Idea • For {1234: "Sudha"}:
• The key is broken down into 2 segments each 1234 = 12 + 34 = 46
• except the last segment. The last segment can 46 % 100 = 46
have less number of digits.
• For {5678: "Venkat"}:
• Now, the Hash Function would be:
5678 = 56 + 78 = 134
• H(x) = (sum of equal-sized segments) mod (size
134 % 99 = 35
of the Hash Table)
• Example:
• sum = (k1k2) + (k3k4) + (k5k6) + (k7k8) +
(k9k10)
• Now, H(x) = sum % 100
• The {key: value} Pairs: {1234: "Sudha", 5678:
"Venkat"}
• Size of the table: 100 (0 - 99)
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MID-SQUARE METHOD
• Idea
1. Square the key -> key * key
2. Choose some digits from the middle of the number to obtain the Hash value.
• Example: Suppose the size of the Hash Table is 10 and
• The key: value pairs are: {10: "Sudha, 11: "Venkat", 12: "Jeevani"}
• Number of digits to be selected: Indexes: (0 - 9)
• H(10) = 10 * 10 = 100 = 0
• H(11) = 11 * 11 = 121 = 2
• H(12) = 12 * 12 = 144 = 4
• Advantage : Works well if the keys do not contain a lot of leading or trailing zeros.
• Disadvantage:
• Selection of middle part
• Non-integer keys have to be pre-processed to obtain corresponding integer
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UNIVERSAL HASHING
• For any choice of hash function, there exists a bad set of identifiers
• A malicious adversary could choose keys to be hashed such that all go into the same slot (bucket)
• Average retrieval time is Θ(n)
• Solution
• a random hash function
• choose hash function independently of keys!
• create a set of hash functions H, from which h can be randomly selected
• A collection H of hash functions is universal if for any randomly chosen f from H (and two keys k
and l),
Pr{f(k)= f(l)} ≤ 1/m
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EXAMPLE

Hash Table
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EXAMPLE
• In the example was assumed that the hash function yields distinct values for the individual keys.
• If this were to be followed as a criterion, then the situation may turn out of control since in the case
of dictionaries with very large set of data elements, the hash table size can be too huge to be handled
efficiently.
• Therefore it is convenient to choose hash functions which yield values lying within a limited range so
as to restrict the length of the table.
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COLLISION
• The phenomenon in which two or more keys yield same hash value for the given hash function is
called as collision.
• This may lead to inconsistencies and issues the storage and retrieval of keys
• Hence, collision handling techniques are needed
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COLLISION HANDLING TECHNIQUES

• Separate chaining
• Open addressing
• Linear Probing
• Quadratic Probing
• Double Probing
SEPARATE CHAINING 25

(OPEN HASHING/EXTERNAL HASHING)

• It is one of the most used techniques by programmers to handle collisions.
• Basically, a linked list data structure is used to implement the Separate Chaining technique.
• When a number of elements are hashed into the index of a single slot, then they are inserted into a
singly-linked list.
• This singly-linked list is the linked list which we refer to as a chain in the Open Hashing technique.
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SEPARATE CHAINING
• Maintain array of linked list
• Separate list is maintained for all elements mapped to the same value
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SEPARATE CHAINING
• Separate Chaining (hashing with chaining/open hashing)
To handle the collision,
1. This technique creates a linked list to the slot for which collision occurs.
2. The new key is then inserted in the linked list.
3. These linked lists to the slots appear like chains.
4. That is why, this technique is called as separate chaining
For Searching-
• In worst case, all the keys might map to the same bucket of the
hash table.
• In such a case, all the keys will be present in a single linked list.
• Sequential search will have to be performed on the linked list to
perform the search.
• So, time taken for searching in worst case is O(n).
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SEPARATE CHAINING
For Deletion-
• In worst case, the key might have to be searched first and then
deleted.
• In worst case, time taken for searching is O(n).
• So, time taken for deletion in worst case is O(n).
Advantages:
1) Simple to implement.
2) Hash table never fills up, we can always add more elements to the
chain.
3) Less sensitive to the hash function or load factors.
4) It is mostly used when it is unknown how many and how
frequently keys may be inserted or deleted. .
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SEPARATE CHAINING
• Disadvantages:
1) Cache performance of chaining is not good as keys are stored using a linked list. Open addressing
provides better cache performance as everything is stored in the same table.
2) Wastage of Space (Some Parts of hash table are never used)
3) If the chain becomes long, then search time can become O(n) in the worst case.
4) Uses extra space for links
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Q
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Q Given a sequence of numbers { 437, 325, 175, 199, 171, 189, 127, 509} and a hash
function H(X) = X mod 10. Use separate chaining collision resolution strategy
for the hash table.
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CLOSED HASHING: OPEN ADDRESSING

In open addressing,
1. Unlike separate
chaining, all the keys
are stored inside the
hash table.
2. No key is stored
outside the hash
table.
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1. Insert Operation-
• Hash function is used to compute the hash value for a key to be inserted.
• Hash value is then used as an index to store the key in the hash table.
In case of collision,
• Probing is performed until an empty bucket is found.
• Once an empty bucket is found, the key is inserted.
• Probing is performed in accordance with the technique used for open addressing.
Search Operation-
To search any particular key,
• Its hash value is obtained using the hash function used.
• Using the hash value, that bucket of the hash table is checked.
• If the required key is found, the key is searched.
• Otherwise, the subsequent buckets are checked until the required key or an empty bucket is found.
• The empty bucket indicates that the key is not present in the hash table
Delete Operation-
• The key is first searched and then deleted.
• After deleting the key, that particular bucket is marked as “deleted”.
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LINEAR PROBING
• When collision occurs, we linearly probe for the next bucket.
• We keep probing until an empty bucket is found.
• Linear probing is one of the forms of open addressing.
• Each cell in the hash table contains a key-value pair, so when the collision occurs by mapping a
new key to the cell already occupied by another key, then linear probing technique searches for
the closest free locations and adds a new key to that empty cell.
• In this case, searching is performed sequentially, starting from the position where the collision
occurs till the empty cell is not found.
Advantage-
1. It is easy to compute.
Disadvantage-
1. The main problem with linear probing is clustering.
2. Many consecutive elements form groups.
3. Then, it takes time to search an element or to find an empty bucket.
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Q Consider a simple hash function as “key mod 30” and a sequence of keys as 3, 1,
63, 5, 11, 15, 18, 16, 46.
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LINEAR PROBING WITHOUT REPLACEMENT

Hash Table Size: 10
• Key 22: 22 % 10 = 2 (No Collision)
• Key 67: 67 % 10 = 7 (No Collision)
• Key 89: 89 % 10 = 9 (No Collision)
• Key 42: 42 % 10 = 2, (Collision, Linear Probing Without
Replacement), 2 + 1 % 10 = 3
• Key 43: 43 % 10 = 3, (Collision, Linear Probing Without
Replacement), 3+1 % 10 = 4
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LINEAR PROBING WITH REPLACEMENT

• Hash Table Size: 10
• Key 22: 22 % 10 = 2 (No Collision)
• Key 67: 67 % 10 = 7 (No Collision)
• Key 89: 89 % 10 = 9 (No Collision)
• Key 42: 42 % 10 = 2, (Collision, Linear Probing With
Replacement), 2 + 1 % 10 = 3
• Key 43: 43 % 10 = 3, (Collision, Linear Probing With
Replacement), 3+1 % 10 = 4
LINEAR PROBING :CHAINING WITHOUT39
REPLACEMENT
• In collision handling method chaining is a concept Index Data Chain
which introduces an additional field with data i.e.
chain.
0 -1 -1
• A separate chain table is maintained for colliding
data. 1 131 2
• When collision occurs, we store the second 2 21 5
colliding data by linear probing method. The
address of this colliding data can be stored with the 3 3 -1
first colliding element in the chain table, without 4 4 -1
replacement.
5 61 7
• For example, consider elements:
6 6 -1
131, 3, 4, 21, 61, 6, 71, 8, 9
7 71 -1
8 8 -1
9 9 -1
LINEAR PROBING :CHAINING WITHOUT40
REPLACEMENT
Q. Linear probing with chaining without replacement:
131,3,4,21,61,671,8,7
LINEAR PROBING :CHAINING WITH 41

REPLACEMENT
Suppose we have to store following elements :
131, 21, 31, 4, 5
LINEAR PROBING :CHAINING WITH 42

REPLACEMENT
After Insertion
131, 21, 31, 4, 5
LINEAR PROBING :CHAINING WITH 43

REPLACEMENT
LINEAR PROBING :CHAINING WITH 44

REPLACEMENT
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QUADRATIC PROBING
When collision occurs, we probe for i2 bucket in ith iteration.
• We keep probing until an empty bucket is found.
• Quadratic probing is an open addressing technique that uses quadratic polynomial for searching until
an empty slot is found.
• It allows the insertion ki at first free location from (position+i2)%m where i=0 to m-1.
h´(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚
ℎ(𝑥, 𝑖) = (ℎ´(𝑥) + 𝑖2)𝑚𝑜𝑑 𝑚
• The value of i = 0, 1, . . ., m – 1. So, we start from i = 0, and increase this until we get one free space.
• So initially when i = 0, then the h(x, i) is same as h´(x).
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QUADRATIC PROBING
In short,
If the slot hash(x) % S is full, then we try (hash(x) + 1*1) % S.
If (hash(x) + 1*1) % S is also full, then we try (hash(x) + 2*2) %S.
If (hash(x) + 2*2) % S is also full, then we try (hash(x) + 3*3) %S.
This process is repeated for all the values of i until an empty slot is found.
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QUADRATIC PROBING
QUADRATIC PROBING 48

Example: Let us consider table Size = 7, hash function as Hash(x) = x % 7 and collision resolution
strategy to be f(i) = i2 . Insert = 22, 30, and 50.
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Q. Using Linear probing and Quadratic probing, insert the following values in the hash table of size
10. Show how many collisions occur in each iterations
• 28, 55, 71, 67, 11, 10, 90, 44
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Q. We have a hash table of size 10 to store integer keys, with hash function h(x) = x mod 10. Construct
a hash table step by step using linear probing without replacement strategy and insert elements in the
order 31,3,4,21,61,6,71,8,9,25. Calculate average number of comparisons required to search given data
from hash table using linear probing without replacement.

Average no. of comparisons = (Total no. of comparisons / Total no. of successful searches)
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Q. Insert the following data in the hash table of size 10 using linear probing with chaining by applying
with replacement : 11, 33, 20, 88, 79, 98, 68, 44, 66, 24. Calculate average number of comparisons
required to search given data from hash table.

Average no. of comparisons = (Total no. of comparisons / Total no. of successful searches)
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DOUBLE HASHING-
• We use another hash function hash2 (x) and look for i * hash2 (x) bucket in ith iteration.
• It requires more computation time as two hash functions need to be computed.
• Double hashing is a collision resolving technique in Open Addressed Hash tables.
• Double hashing uses the idea of applying a second hash function to key when a collision
occurs
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ADVANTAGES OF DOUBLE HASHING

1. The advantage of Double hashing is that it is one of the best form of probing, producing a
uniform distribution of records throughout a hash table.
2. This technique does not yield any clusters.
3. It is one of effective method for resolving collisions
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DOUBLE HASHING
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DOUBLE HASHING
• Double hashing can be done using :
(hash1(key) + i * hash2(key)) % TABLE_SIZE
• Here hash1() and hash2() are hash functions and TABLE_SIZE is size of hash table.
(We repeat by increasing i when collision occurs)
• First hash function is typically hash1(key) = key % TABLE_SIZE
• A popular second hash function is : hash2(key) = PRIME – (key % PRIME) where PRIME is a prime
smaller than the TABLE_SIZE.
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DOUBLE HASHING
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DOUBLE HASHING
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DOUBLE HASHING
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DOUBLE HASHING
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DOUBLE HASHING
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DOUBLE HASHING
Q. Imagine you need to store some items inside a hash table of size 20. The values given are:
(16, 8, 63, 9, 27, 37, 48, 5, 69, 34, 1).
• h1(n)=n%20
• h2(n)=n%13
• h(n, i) = (h1 (n) + i*h2(n)) mod 20
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DOUBLE HASHING
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REHASHING
• Rehashing is a collision resolution technique.
• Rehashing is a technique in which the table is resized, i.e., the size of table
is approx. doubled by creating a new table.
• Situations in which the rehashing is required.
• When table is completely full
• With quadratic probing when the table is filled half.
• When insertions fail due to overflow.
• In such situations, we have to transfer entries from old table to the new
table by re-computing their positions using hash functions
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REHASHING
• Rehashing means hashing again.
• Basically, when the load factor increases to more than its predefined value
(default value of load factor is 0.75), the complexity increases.
• So to overcome this, the size of the table is increased (doubled) and all the values
are hashed again and stored in the new double sized array to maintain a low load
factor and low complexity.
• How Rehashing is done?
• For each addition of a new entry to the table, check the load factor.
• If it’s greater than its pre-defined value (or default value of 0.75 if not given), then
Rehash.
• For Rehash, make a new array of double the previous size and make it the new
bucket array.
• Then traverse to each element in the old bucket Array and call the insert() for
each so as to insert it into the new larger bucket array.
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REHASHING
a) Rehashing is the process of increasing the size of
a hashtable and redistributing the elements to new
buckets based on their new hash values.
b) It is done to improve the performance of the
hashtable and to prevent collisions caused by a high
load factor.
c) When a hashtable becomes full, the load factor
(i.e., the ratio of the number of elements to the
number of buckets) increases.
d) As the load factor increases, the number of
collisions also increases, which can lead to poor
performance.
e) To avoid this, the hash table can be resized and
the elements can be rehashed to new buckets,
which decreases the load factor and reduces the
number of collisions.
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EXTENSIBLE / EXTENDIBLE HASHING
1. The dynamic hashing method is used to overcome the problems of static hashing
like bucket overflow.
2. In this method, data buckets grow or shrink as the records increases or decreases.
This method is also known as Extendable hashing method.
3. This method makes hashing dynamic, i.e., it allows insertion or deletion without
resulting in poor performance.
• How to insert a new record
1. Firstly, you have to follow the same procedure for retrieval, ending up in some
bucket.
2. If there is still space in that bucket, then place the record in it.
3. If the bucket is full, then we will split the bucket and redistribute the records.
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EXTENSIBLE / EXTENDIBLE HASHING
How to search a key
1. First, calculate the hash address of the key.
2. Check how many bits are used in the directory, and these bits are called as i.
3. Take the least significant i bits of the hash address. This gives an index of the
directory.
4. Now using the index, go to the directory and find bucket address where the
record might be.
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EXTENSIBLE / EXTENDIBLE HASHING
Consider the following grouping of keys into buckets, depending on their hash
address:
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EXTENSIBLE / EXTENDIBLE HASHING
The last two bits of 2 and 4 are 00. So it will go into bucket B0. The last two bits of 5 and 6
are 01, so it will go into bucket B1. The last two bits of 1 and 3 are 10, so it will go into
bucket B2. The last two bits of 7 are 11, so it will go into B3.
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EXTENSIBLE / EXTENDIBLE HASHING
Insert key 9 with hash address 10001 into the above structure:
1. Since key 9 has hash address 10001, it must go into B1. But bucket B1 is full,
so it will get split.
2. The splitting will separate 5, 9 from 6 since last three bits of 5, 9 are 001, so
it will go into bucket B1, and the last three bits of 6 are 101, so it will go into
bucket B4.
3. Keys 2 and 4 are still in B0. The record in B0 pointed by the 000 and 100
entry because last two bits of the entry are 00.
4. Keys 1 and 3 are still in B2. The record in B2 pointed by the 010 and 110
entry because last two bits of both the entry are 10.
5. Key 7 are still in B3. The record in B3 pointed by the 111 and 011 entry
because last two bits of both the entry are 11.
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EXTENSIBLE / EXTENDIBLE HASHING

B4
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ADVANTAGES OF EXTENSIBLE HASHING
1. In this method, the performance does not decrease as the data grows in the
system.
2. It simply increases the size of memory to accommodate the data.
2. In this method, memory is well utilized as it grows and shrinks with the data.
There will not be any unused memory lying.
3. This method is good for the dynamic database where data grows and shrinks
frequently
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DISADVANTAGES OF EXTENSIBLE HASHING

1. In this method, if the data size increases then the bucket size is also
increased.
2. In this case, the bucket overflow situation will also occur. But it might take
little time to reach this situation than static hashing.
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SKIP LIST
1. A skip list is a probabilistic data structure.
2. The skip list is used to store a sorted list of elements or data with a linked
list.
3. It allows the process of the elements or data to view efficiently.
4. In one single step, it skips several elements of the entire list, which is why
it is known as a skip list
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SKIP LIST
4. The skip list is an extended version of the linked list.
5. It allows the user to search, remove, and insert the element very quickly.
6. It consists of a base list that includes a set of elements which maintains the
link hierarchy of the subsequent elements.
Skip list structure
• It is built in two layers: The lowest layer and Top layer.
• The lowest layer of the skip list is a common sorted linked list, and the
top layers of the skip list are like an "express line“ where the elements are
skipped.
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SKIP LIST
• Let's take an example to understand the working of the skip list. In this
example, we have 14 nodes, such that these nodes are divided into two layers, as
shown in the diagram.
• The lower layer is a common line that links all nodes, and the top layer is an
express line that links only the main nodes, as you can see in the diagram.
• Suppose you want to find 47 in this example. You will start the search from
the first node of the express line and continue running on the express line until
you find a node that is equal a 47 or more than 47.
• You can see in the example that 47 does not exist in the express line, so you
search for a node of less than 47, which is 40. Now, you go to the normal line
with the help of 40, and search the 47, as shown in the diagram.
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SKIP LIST
Skip List Basic Operations
There are the following types of operations in the skip list.
1. Insertion operation: It is used to add a new node to a particular location in a specific
situation.
2. Deletion operation: It is used to delete a node in a specific situation.
3. Search Operation: The search operation is used to search a particular node in a skip list.
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ADVANTAGES OF SKIP LIST

1. If you want to insert a new node in the skip list, then it will insert the node very fast
because there are no rotations in the skip list.
2. The skip list is simple to implement as compared to the hash table and the binary search
tree.
3. It is very simple to find a node in the list because it stores the nodes in sorted form.
4. The skip list algorithm can be modified very easily in a more specific structure, such as
indexable skip lists, trees, or priority queues.
5. The skip list is a robust and reliable list.
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APPLICATIONS OF SKIP LIST

1. Skip list are used in distributed applications. In distributed systems, the nodes of skip list
represents the computer systems and pointers represent network connection.
2. Skip list are used for implementing highly scalable concurrent priority queues with less
lock contention (struggle for having a lock on a data item)
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