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MODULE IV
Computational Approaches to Problem-Solving
Computational approaches to problem-solving use the power of computers to solve complex
problems efficiently. This module covers key strategies such as:
 Brute Force: Trying all possible solutions to find the correct one.
 Divide-and-Conquer: Breaking a problem into smaller parts, solving each, and
combining the results.
 Dynamic Programming: Solving problems by reusing solutions to smaller
subproblems.
 Greedy Algorithms: Making the best choice at each step to find a solution.
 Randomized Approaches: Using randomness to explore solutions in an
unpredictable way.

BRUTE-FORCE APPROACH TO PROBLEM SOLVING

The Brute-Force Approach is a basic, straightforward method for solving problems by
systematically testing all possible solutions until the correct one is found. While it guarantees
finding the solution if one exists, it is often inefficient due to its exhaustive nature.
It relies on trying every possible combination to find the correct result.
This approach is commonly used in scenarios where:
 The solution space is small.
 Simplicity is preferred over efficiency.
 No better algorithm is readily available.
Characteristics of Brute-Force Solutions

1. Exhaustive Search: Every possible solution is examined without any optimization.

2. Simplicity: Easy to understand and implement.
3. Inefficiency: Often slow due to the large number of possibilities.
4. Guaranteed Solution: If a solution exists, the brute-force method will eventually find it.
Examples:
1. Padlock Combination:
 Imagine a padlock with 3 dials, each having 10 digits (0-9).
 The brute-force approach would involve trying all 1,000 combinations (000 to 999)
until the correct one unlocks the padlock.
 Steps:
1. Start with 000.
2. Increment sequentially: 001, 002, ..., 999.
3. Stop when the lock opens.

Program:
# Brute-force approach to unlock a padlock
def padlock(key):
for combination in range(1000): # 000 to 999
guess = f"{combination:03}" # Format to always have 3 digits
print(f"Trying combination: {guess}")
if guess == key:
print(f"Padlock opened with combination: {guess}")
break

# Example usage
padlock(“302”)
2. Password Guessing

In cybersecurity, brute-force attacks involve systematically trying every possible password

combination until the correct one is found. This method works well on weak passwords, such
as short or simple ones. For example, cracking a 6-character password made up of letters,
digits, and special characters requires testing all 217.8 trillion possible combinations (95^6)
until the correct one is discovered.

Here, 95 is the total number of possible characters (26 lowercase + 26 uppercase + 10 digits +
33 special characters), and 956 gives the total number of possible combinations for a 6-
character password.

Python Program: (For a 3-letter alpha-numeric password)

import itertools
import string

# Brute-force approach to guess a password

def check_password(password):
characters = string.printable # contain all the printable characters
for guess in itertools.product(characters, repeat=3):
guess = ''.join(guess) # Convert tuple to string
print(f"Trying password: {guess}")
if guess == password:
print(f"Password found: {guess}")
return

# Example usage
password = "CaT" # Set the correct password
check_password(password)
Divide and Conquer Algorithm

Divide and Conquer Algorithm is a problem-solving technique used to solve problems by dividing the
main problem into sub-problems, solving them individually and then merging them to find solution to
the original problem.

Working of Divide and Conquer Algorithm

The Divide and Conquer algorithmic approach consists of three main steps: Divide,
Conquer, and Merge.

1. Divide

 Goal: Break down the original problem into smaller, more manageable subproblems.
 Each subproblem represents a part of the overall problem.
 The division continues recursively until the subproblems are simple enough to solve
directly.

2. Conquer

 Goal: Solve each subproblem individually.

 If a subproblem is small enough (reaching a base case), it is solved directly without
further recursion.
 Each subproblem is processed independently to find its solution.
3. Merge

 Goal: Combine the solutions of the subproblems to form the solution to the original
problem.
 Once the subproblems are solved, their solutions are recursively merged to resolve the
overall problem efficiently.

Characteristics of Divide and Conquer Algorithm

1. Dividing the Problem

o The problem is recursively broken down into smaller subproblems until they
become simple enough to solve directly.
2. Independence of Subproblems
o Each subproblem is independent, meaning the solution of one subproblem
does not rely on another.
o This allows for parallel or concurrent execution of subproblems, improving
efficiency.
3. Conquering Each Subproblem
o After dividing the problem, each subproblem is solved individually, often
applying the divide and conquer strategy recursively.
4. Combining Solutions
o The solutions to the subproblems are merged to form the final solution.
o This merging step is designed to be efficient and seamless.

Examples of Divide and Conquer Algorithm:

1. Finding the Maximum Element in an Array Using Divide and Conquer

The Divide and Conquer algorithm can efficiently find the maximum element in an array by
following these steps:

 Divide:

 Split the array into two halves.

 Recursively divide each half until subarrays of size 1 are reached.

 Conquer:

 Once the subarrays have only one element, return that element as the maximum of
that subarray.

 Merge:

 Compare the maximums of the two halves and return the larger value as the maximum
for the combined array.
Python Program:

def find_max(arr, left, right):

# Base case: when there's only one element

if left == right:

return arr[left]

# Find the middle index

mid = (left + right) // 2

# Recursively find the maximum in the left and right halves

max_left = find_max(arr, left, mid)

max_right = find_max(arr, mid + 1, right)

# Return the maximum of the two halves

return max(max_left, max_right)

arr = [12, 34, 67, 89, 23, 45, 78]

result = find_max(arr, 0, len(arr) - 1)

print("The maximum element is:", result)

Merge Sort
Ref: Notes/Video : Module 3 – Part – 8

Merge Sort is a classic example of problem decomposition. It uses a divide-and-conquer

approach to sort an array.

1. Divide: The array is divided into two halves recursively until each subarray has one
element.
2. Sort: Each sub-array is sorted individually.
3. Merge: The sorted sub-arrays are merged to produce a single sorted array.

Merge Sort Example:

Algorithm Outline:

 Input: An unsorted array arr of size n.

 Process:
o Divide arr into two halves left and right.
o Recursively sort left and right.
o Merge left and right into a sorted array.
 Output: A sorted array.
Dynamic Programming Approach

1. Breakdown Complex problems to sub problems

2. Find the optimal solutions to the sub problems
3. Store the results of sub problems
4. Reuse the results of sub problems to avoid repeated calculations
5. Finally find the result of complex problem

Consider a program to generate Fibonacci series up to n terms using recursive method

def fib(n):

if n <= 1:

return n

else:

return(fib(n-1) + fib(n-2))

n = int(input("Enter n :"))

if n <= 0:

print("Plese enter a positive integer")

else:

print("Fibonacci sequence:")

for i in range(n):

print(fib(i),end = " ")

Consider n = 5 ; We know fib(0) = 0 and fib(1) = 1

Fib(5)

Fib(4) Fib(3)

Fib(2) Fib(1)
Fib(3) Fib(2)

Fib(1) Fib(0)
Fib(2) Fib(1) Fib(1) Fib(0)

Fib(1) Fib(0)

Challenges with Recursive Approach

Even though the recursive approach is intuitive, it often leads to increased time complexity.
This is because the same subproblems are repeatedly calculated, resulting in redundant
computations and inefficient performance.

Approaches in Dynamic Programming

Dynamic Programming can be implemented using two main approaches:

1. Memoization (Top-Down Approach)

 Definition:
Memoization solves the problem recursively while storing the results of subproblems
in a table (often a dictionary or array).
 Process:
o When a subproblem is solved, its result is saved.
o If the same subproblem is encountered again, the solution is retrieved from the
table instead of being recalculated.
2. Tabulation (Bottom-Up Approach)

 Definition:
Tabulation solves the problem iteratively by filling a table (usually an array) in a
bottom-up manner.
 Process:
o Starts by solving the smallest subproblems.
o Uses their solutions to iteratively build solutions for larger subproblems.
 Advantages:
o Eliminates recursion overhead.
o Suitable for problems where all subproblems need to be solved.

Solution using Tabulation :

def fib(n):

array = [0] * (n)

array[0] = 0 # First Fibonacci number
if n > 1:
array[1] = 1 # Second Fibonacci number

for i in range(2, n):

array[i] = array[i - 1] + array[i - 2]

return array

n = int(input("Enter the number of terms: "))

if n <= 0:
print("Please enter a positive integer")
else:
print("Fibonacci sequence:")
print(fib(n))
Compare Recursion and Dynamic Programming

Features Recursion Dynamic Programming

By breaking a difficulty down

It is a technique by breaks
into smaller problems of the
them into smaller problems
same problem, a function calls
and stores the results of these
itself to solve the problem
subproblems to avoid
until a specific condition is
repeated calculations.
Definition met.

Using a bottom-up
Recursion frequently employs
methodology, dynamic
a top-down method in which
programming starts by
the primary problem is broken
resolving the smallest
down into more manageable
subproblems before moving
subproblems.
Approach on to the primary issue.

To avoid infinite loops, it is Although dynamic

necessary to have a base case programming also needs a
(termination condition) that base case, it focuses mostly on
stops the recursion when a iteratively addressing
Base Case certain condition is satisfied. subproblems.

Recursion might be slower due Dynamic programming is often

to the overhead of function faster due to optimized
calls and redundant subproblem solving and
Performance calculations. memoization.

Dynamic programming require

additional memory to record
intermediate results.
It does not require extra
memory, only requires stack
space

Memory Usage
Features Recursion Dynamic Programming

Higher, often exponential for

problems with overlapping
subproblems. Lower
Time Complexity

Slower for problems with Faster due to elimination of

Performance overlapping subproblems. redundant calculations.
Greedy Algorithm for Problem Solving

A Greedy Algorithm is a problem-solving approach that builds up a solution piece

by piece, always choosing the option that looks best at every step. It focuses on
making a sequence of locally optimal choices, with the hope that these decisions
will lead to a globally optimal solution.

Example: Traveling from Thiruvananthapuram to Ernakulam Using the

Greedy Approach

Let’s consider the task of traveling from Thiruvananthapuram to Ernakulam with multiple
available modes of transport: bike, car, bus, train, airplane, or even walking. The goal is to
select the mode of transport based on a set of constraints or objectives:

1. Minimizing Travel Time

2. Minimizing Cost
3. Satisfying Practical Constraints

Step 1: Apply the Greedy Approach

At each step, the greedy algorithm makes the locally optimal choice by filtering options
based on the immediate constraint.

Stage 1: Minimize Travel Time

To reach the destination quickly, we first prioritize speed.

 Available Options:
o Bike: 6 hours
o Car: 4.5 hours
o Bus: 5 hours
o Train: 3.5 hours
o Airplane: 1 hour
o Walking: 40 hours

Greedy Decision:
Select modes that satisfy the time constraint of reaching as quickly as possible. The airplane
(1 hour) is the fastest, followed by the train (3.5 hours).

Filter Outcome:
Airplane, Train.
Stage 2: Minimize Cost (Economical Constraint)

Among the remaining options, we now focus on minimizing cost.

 Cost of Airplane: ₹3,500

 Cost of Train: ₹500

Greedy Decision:
Select the train as it is cheaper and satisfies the economical constraint.

Filter Outcome:
Train.

Stage 3: Practical Constraints

Lastly, consider practical constraints like availability of tickets, comfort, or personal

preferences. If the train has tickets available and meets other needs, it will be chosen.

Final Decision

The algorithm selects the train as the final mode of transport based on:

1. Minimizing time (after filtering slower options).

2. Minimizing cost.
3. Satisfying practical constraints.

Greedy Approach Explanation

 Locally Optimal Choices: At each step, the algorithm optimizes for the immediate
constraint (time, cost, practicality) without revisiting earlier decisions.
 Global Solution: The sequence of locally optimal decisions leads to an efficient and
practical final solution.

Example: Coin Changing Problem

The Coin Changing Problem aims to find the minimum number of coins required to
make a specified amount using valid Indian Rupee coins. The greedy algorithm
repeatedly selects the largest denomination that fits into the remaining amount.

Valid Indian Coin Denominations:

₹1, ₹2, ₹5, ₹10

Example:

To make ₹18 using the greedy algorithm:

1. Start with ₹10: Take one ₹10 coin (₹18 - ₹10 = ₹8 left).
2. Next, ₹5: Take one ₹5 coin (₹8 - ₹5 = ₹3 left).
3. Next, ₹2: Take one ₹2 coin (₹3 - ₹2 = ₹1 left).
4. Finally, ₹1: Take one ₹1 coin (₹1 - ₹1 = ₹0 left).

Total coins used: 4 (1×₹10, 1×₹5, 1×₹2, 1×₹1).

Motivations for the Greedy Approach

The Greedy Approach is an effective problem-solving strategy due to several key

motivations:

1. Simplicity and Ease of Implementation

o Straightforward Logic: Makes optimal local choices, simplifying
understanding and implementation.
o Minimal Requirements: Requires less complex data structures

2. Efficiency in Time and Space

o Fast Execution: Suitable for large inputs.
o Low Memory Usage: Uses minimal memory by avoiding extensive
intermediate storage.
3. Optimal Solutions for Specific Problems
o Greedy-Choice Property: Local optimal choices lead to a global optimum.
o Optimal Substructure: Global optimal solutions can be built from optimal
subproblem solutions.
4. Real-World Applicability
o Practical Applications: Used in scheduling, network routing, and resource
allocation.
o Quick, Near-Optimal Solutions: Offers efficient solutions when exact results
aren't necessary.

Characteristics of Greedy Algorithms

1. Local Optimization
o Makes the best possible choice at each step using only current state
information.
2. Irrevocable Decisions
o Choices are final; no backtracking or revision of earlier decisions.
3. Problem-Specific Heuristics
o Relies on heuristics tailored to the problem's properties for decision-making.
4. Optimality
 o
Guarantees optimal solutions for problems like coin change, Huffman coding,
and Kruskal's algorithm, but not universally applicable.
5. Efficiency
o High efficiency in time and space due to reliance on local information and
limited exploration of solutions.

Pr o b l e m ( T as k C o m p l eti o n Pr o bl e m )
Given an array of positive integers each indicating the completion time for a task, find the maximum
number of tasks that can be completed in the limited amount of time that you have.

Consider the example usage with c o m p l e t i o n _ t i m e s = [ 2, 3, 1, 4, 6]

and a v a i l a b l e _ t i m e = 8

Steps:

1. Sort Tasks: Arrange tasks by completion time (ascending).

2. Iterate & Track: Add tasks sequentially as long as the total time doesn’t exceed the
limit. Update the task count accordingly.

• After sorting: [1, 2, 3, 4, 6]

• Iterating:

– Add task with time 1: total_time = 1, task_count = 1

– Add task with time 2: total_time = 3, task_count = 2

– Add task with time 3: total_time = 6, task_count = 3

– Next task with time 4 would exceed available_time, so the loop

breaks.

The maximum number of tasks that can be completed in 8 units of time is 3.

Program:

def max_tasks(completion_times, available_time):

completion_times.sort() # Step 1: Sort tasks by completion times

total_time = 0

task_count = 0

# Step 2: Iterate through the sorted list of tasks

for time in completion_times:

if total_time + time <= available_time:

total_time += time

task_count += 1

else:

break

return task_count

# Example usage

completion_times = [2, 3, 1, 4, 6]

available_time = 8

print(f"Maximum number of tasks that can be completed:

{max_tasks(completion_times, available_time)}")
Comparison between Dynamic programming and Greedy Approach

Advantages and Disadvantages

 Advantages

 Easy to implement: Greedy algorithms are relatively easy to understand and

implement.

 Time complexity: Greedy algorithms usually have a smaller time complexity.

 Optimization: Greedy algorithms can be used for optimization or to find solutions

that are close to optimal for hard problems.

 Disadvantages

 Not guaranteed to find the best solution: Greedy algorithms may not find the best
solution because they don't consider all the data.

 Local optima: Greedy algorithms may get stuck in local optima and fail to find the
global optimum.

 Lack of backtracking: Once a decision is made, it cannot be undone.

 Dependence on problem structure: Greedy algorithms may not work well for
problems that don't fit the greedy paradigm.

 Lack of rigorous proof: Greedy algorithms often lack a rigorous proof of correctness
Python's random module provides various functions to generate random numbers and perform
random operations. Here's an overview of the most commonly used functions:

1. Basic Random Number Generators

 random.random()
o Returns a random float number between 000 (inclusive) and 111 (exclusive).
o Example:

import random
print(random.random()) # e.g., 0.7234

 random.uniform(a, b)
o Returns a random float between aaa and bbb (inclusive).
o Example:

print(random.uniform(1, 10)) # e.g., 7.3521

 random.randint(a, b)
o Returns a random integer between aaa and bbb (both inclusive).
o Example:

print(random.randint(1, 10)) # e.g., 4

2. Working with Sequences

 random.choice(sequence)
o Returns a random element from a non-empty sequence (like a list, tuple, or
string).
o Example:

items = ['apple', 'banana', 'cherry']

print(random.choice(items)) # e.g., 'banana'

 random.choices(sequence, k=n)
o Returns a list of n random elements (with replacement).
o Example:

print(random.choices(items, k=2)) # e.g., ['apple', 'cherry']

 random.shuffle(sequence)
o Shuffles the sequence in place.
o Example:

nums = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
random.shuffle(nums)
print(nums) # e.g., [3, 1, 5, 2, 4]
Randomized Approach to Problem Solving

Introduction

The randomized approach in computational problem-solving leverages randomness to

simulate and analyze complex problems. Unlike deterministic methods, it provides
probabilistic solutions that can simplify problem complexity and offer practical insights.

Calculating the area of a unit circle using a randomized approach involves Monte Carlo
simulation, a technique often used in numerical methods to estimate values through random
sampling.

Steps to Calculate the Area of a Unit Circle Using Monte Carlo Simulation:

1. Understand the Problem:

2
o The unit circle has a radius of 1, and its area is given by πr = π (since r=1).
o We want to estimate this area.
2. Define the Bounding Square:
o The unit circle is inscribed in a square with side length 2 (since the diameter of
the circle is 2).
o The square spans from (−1,−1) to (1,1) on a Cartesian plane.
3. Random Sampling:
o Randomly generate points (x,y) within the bounding square.
o Each x and y value is chosen uniformly between −1and 1
4. Check if Points Lie Inside the Circle:
2 2
o A point (x,y) lies inside the circle if x +y ≤ 1
5. Calculate the Ratio:
o Let Ncircle be the number of points that lie inside the circle.
o Let Ntotal be the total number of points generated.
o The ratio Ncircle / Ntotal approximates the ratio of the area of the circle to the
area of the square.
o Since the area of the square is 4, the area of the circle is approximately:
Area of Circle ≈ 4×(Ncircle / Ntotal).
6. Iterate for Accuracy:
o The more points you sample, the better the approximation.
Program

import random

num_points = 100000

inside_circle = 0

for _ in range(num_points):

x = random.uniform(-1,1)

y = random.uniform(-1,1)

if x**2 + y**2 <= 1:

inside_circle = inside_circle + 1

area_of_circle = 4 * (inside_circle/num_points)

print(f"Estimated area : {area_of_circle}")

Example : Random Coin Flips

 Problem: Estimate the probability distribution of heads in a series of coin flips.

 Approach:
o Simulate repeated coin flips.
o Record outcomes and analyze the distribution of heads.
 Application: Empirical analysis of probabilistic events.

Key Concepts and Examples

1. Monte Carlo Simulation (Estimating Circle Area)

o Problem: Estimate the area of a circle inscribed in a square.
o Approach:
 Randomly place points within the square.
 Calculate the proportion of points that fall inside the circle.
 Use this ratio to estimate the circle's area relative to the square.
o Application: Solves geometric problems via probabilistic modeling.
2. Birthday Problem
o Problem: Find the probability that at least two people in a group share the
same birthday.
 oApproach:
 Simulate birthdays for a group multiple times.
 Record how often at least two birthdays match.
 Estimate the probability based on these simulations.
o Application: Simplifies combinatorial probability analysis.
3. Random Walk on a Grid
o Problem: Determine the expected return time to the starting point for a person
taking random steps on a grid.
o Approach:
 Simulate random walks.
 Calculate average return time from multiple trials.
o Application: Models stochastic processes and dynamics.
4. Random Coin Flips
o Problem: Estimate the probability distribution of heads in a series of coin
flips.
o Approach:
 Simulate repeated coin flips.
 Record outcomes and analyze the distribution of heads.
o Application: Empirical analysis of probabilistic events.

Coin Toss Experiment

Tossing a fair coin once

Let us say we have a fair coin and toss the coin 'n' times. We will
observe either a head or a tail in each flip. We can code 1 for head and
0 for tail.

import random

head=0

tail=0

n=int(input("Enter the number of coin tosses you want to perform

: "))

for _ in range(n):

if random.randint(0,1)==1:
 head=head+1

else:

tail=tail+1

print("Number of heads = ",head)

print("Number of tails = ",tail)

Q. Toss the coin N=100,500,1000,5000 and 500000 times and compute the
probability (p) of head in each case.

import random
n = [100,500,1000,5000,500000]
prob=[]
count=0
while(count<len(n)):
head=0
tail=0
for i in range(n[count]):
if random.randint(0,1)==0:
head=head+1
else:
tail=tail+1
p=head/(head+tail)
prob.append(p)
count=count+1
print(prob)

Motivations for Randomized Approach

1. Complexity Reduction
o Simplifies problems by introducing probabilistic decisions.
o Example: Optimizing screening station placements by sampling.
2. Versatility
o Adaptable across domains like optimization and simulations.
3. Performance
o Enhances efficiency in large datasets.
Characteristics of Randomized Approach

1. Probabilistic Choices
o Decisions are based on random sampling, leading to variable but statistically
predictable outcomes.
2. Efficiency
o Sacrifices deterministic guarantees for probabilistic correctness.
3. Average-Case Complexity
o Performance is evaluated over multiple iterations, focusing on typical behavior
rather than worst-case scenarios.

Comparison: Randomized vs. Deterministic Methods

 Randomized:
o Incorporates chance.
o Efficient for large, complex, or variable datasets.
o Example: Estimating customer satisfaction via random sampling.
 Deterministic:
o Yields exact, repeatable results.
o Suitable for precision-critical problems.
o Example: Exact cost calculation in shopping.
Problem Details

Mr. Chottu has a bag with a capacity of 15 kg, and he plans to fill it with objects to maximize his
profit as he heads to the market for a sale. He has the following items with their respective weights
and profits:

Objects Weight Profit

A 2 10
B 3 5
C 5 15
D 7 7
E 1 6
F 4 18
G 1 3

Types of Knapsack Problems

1. 0/1 Knapsack Problem:

o Items cannot be divided; you either take the whole item or leave it.
o Example: Carrying specific tools in a toolbox.
2. Fractional Knapsack Problem:
o Items can be divided into fractions, allowing you to take portions of items.
o Example: Packing grains in a bag where partial quantities are possible.

Objective: (Here we are following Fractional Knapsack Approach)

Maximize profit by optimizing the selection of objects, considering the profit-to-weight

(P/W) ratio.

Steps:

1. Calculate P/W ratio for each object.

P/W=Profit ÷Weight
2. Sort objects in descending order of P/W ratio.
3. Iteratively add objects to the knapsack:
o If the object can fit entirely in the knapsack, take it.
o If the object cannot fit entirely, take the fractional part.
4. Stop when the knapsack is full.
Table of Calculations:

Weight
Object Profit (P) P/W
(W)

1 10 2 5.0

2 5 3 1.67

3 15 5 3.0

4 7 7 1.0

5 6 1 6.0

6 18 4 4.5

7 3 1 3.0
Sorted by P/W (Descending):

Object Profit Weight P/W

(P) (W)

5 6 1 6

1 10 2 5

6 18 4 4.5

3 15 5 3

7 3 1 3

2 5 3 1.67

4 7 7 1
Execution:

Start with the highest P/W:

1. Take Object 5 (6 profit, 1 kg):

Remaining capacity: 15−1=14
Total profit: 6
2. Take Object 1 (10 profit, 2 kg):
Remaining capacity: 14−2=12
Total profit: 6+10=16
3. Take Object 6 (18 profit, 4 kg):
Remaining capacity: 12−4=8
Total profit: 16+18=34
4. Take Object 3 (15 profit, 5 kg):
Remaining capacity: 8−5=3
Total profit: 34+15=49
5. Take Object 7 (3 profit, 1 kg):
Remaining capacity: 3−1=2
Total profit: 49+3 = 52
6. Take fraction of Object 2 :
Remaining capacity: 2−2 = 0
Total profit: 52+(2*1.67) = 55.34