The Copperbelt University

School of Mathematics And Natural Sciences

Department of Mathematics

MA110: Mathematical Methods

June 27, 2020

Group (E), Lecture 08 notes Lecturer: T. Sinyangwe.

Contents
1 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 3
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.1 Properties of Exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.2 Exponential Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.5 Properties of f (x) = bx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.6 Translations of Exponential Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.8 Application of Exponential Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.9 Simple Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.10 Compound Interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.14 Natural Exponential Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.19 Exponential Decay Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.2.23 Law of Exponential Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.3 Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

1
1.3.3 Changing from Logarithmic to Exponential Form and Vice Versa 18
1.3.7 Properties of Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.3.9 Special Properties of Logarithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.3.13 Change of Base Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.3.16 Domain of Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.3.19 Graphs of Logarithmic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.3.21 Natural Logarithm (Base e) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.3.24 Solving Exponential and Logarithmic Equations . . . . . . . . 29

Page 2 of 33
1 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
1.1 Introduction
So far we have only encountered functions of the form f (x) = xn , where n ∈ Z+ . For
example the quadratic function f (x) = x2 .

We now look at functions of the form g(x) = ax , where a ∈ R, a > 0, a 6= 1 is

the base and x is an exponent or index or power is called an exponential function.

Recall that if n is any positive integer then

an = a
|×a×
{z· · · × a}
n−times

For example

23 = 2 × 2 × 2 = 8
(−4)2 = −4 × (−4) = 16
−42 = −(4 × 4) = −16.

1.1.1 Properties of Exponents

(1) If a and b are any positive numbers and m and n are any real numbers, then
the following properties hold true.

(i) bn × bm = bn+m

(ii) (bn )m = bnm

(iii) (ab)n = an bn
 n
a an
(iv) = n
b b
bn
(v) bn ÷ bm = = bn−m .
bm
(2) If b > 0 but b 6= 1, and if m and n are real numbers, then bn = bm if and only
if n = m.

Example 1.1.2 Solve the following exponential equations.

1
(i) 2x = 32 (ii) 23x = (iii) 4x = 32
64
 x−4
2x 2x−1 1 1
(iv) (8 )(4 ) = 16 (v) =
5 125

Page 3 of 33
Solution:
To solve for x, we need to make sure that we have the same bases so that we can apply
Property 1.1.1 (2) above.

(i) Since

2x = 32
⇒ 2x = 25
⇒ x = 5.

(ii) Similarly
1
23x =
64
⇒ 2 = 64−1
3x

⇒ 23x = 2−6
⇒ 3x = −6
⇒ x = −2.

(iii) The exponential equation 4x = 32 is the same as;

(22 )x = 32
⇒ (2)2x = 25
⇒ 2x = 5
5
⇒x= .
2

(iv) The equation (82x )(42x−1 ) = 16 can be written in base 2 as follows;

(23 )2x × (22 )2x−1 = 16

⇒ 26x × 22(2x−1) = 16
⇒ 26x+4x−2 = 24
⇒ 210x−2 = 24
⇒ 10x − 2 = 4
⇒ 10x = 6
3
⇒x= .
5

Page 4 of 33
  x−4
1 1
(v) Here = , can be written as;
5 125

(5−1 )x−4 = (125)−1

⇒ 5−x+4 = 5−3
⇒ 54−x = 5−3
⇒ 4 − x = −3
⇒ −x = −7
⇒ x = 7.

1.2 Exponential Functions

Definition 1.2.1 (Exponential Functions) Let b > 0 and b 6= 1 then the function
f defined by
f (x) = bx
where x is any real number is called an exponential function with base b.

1.2.2 Exponential Graphs

Consider the graphs of two exponential functions in the following examples;

Example 1.2.3 Graph the following exponential functions on the same xy−plane:
 x
x 1
(i) f (x) = 2 (ii) f (x) =
2
Solution:

(i) For the function f (x) = 2x , the table of values is

x −2 −1 0 1 2 3
f (x) 0.25 0.5 1 2 4 8
 x
1
(ii) And the table of values for f (x) = is;
2

x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2
f (x) 8 4 2 1 0.5 0.25

And so graph of (i) and (ii) is

Page 5 of 33
 Figure 1:

Note 1.2.4 The following properties of the graph of the exponential function
f (x) = 2x .

(i) The y-intercept is (0, 1).

(ii) The graph passes through (1, 2).

(iii) As x decreases without bound (that is, as x → −∞), f (x) → 0.

(iv) The graph is a smooth, continuous increasing curve.

 x
1
And for the graph of the function f (x) = , we note the following properties;
2
(i) The y-intercept is (0, 1).
 
1
(ii) The graph passes through 1, .
2
(iii) As x-increases without bound, (that is, as x → ∞), f (x) → 0.

(iv) The graph is smooth, continuous decreasing curve.

Page 6 of 33
1.2.5 Properties of f (x) = bx
For positive real numbers b 6= 1, the exponential function defined by f (x) = bx has
the following properties;

(i) The functions f is a one-to-one function it has the set of real numbers as its
domain and the set of positive real numbers as its range.

(ii) The graph of f is smooth, continuous curve with a y-intercept of (0, 1) and the
graph passes through (1, b).

(iii) If b > 1, f is an increasing function and the graph of f is asymptotic to the

negative x-axis. [As x → ∞, f (x) → ∞, and as x → −∞, f (x) → 0]
See figure 2 below.

Figure 2: f (x) = bx , b > 1

(iv) If 0 < b < 1, f is a decreasing function and the graph of f is asymptotic to the
positive x-axis. [As x → −∞, f (x) → ∞, and as x → ∞, f (x) → 0]
See Figure 3 below:

Page 7 of 33
 Figure 3: f (x) = bx , 0 < b < 1

1.2.6 Translations of Exponential Graphs

(i) The graph of f (x) = bx + c is the graph of f (x) = bx moved upwards c units, in
the y-axis.

(ii) The graph of f (x) = bx − c is the graph of f (x) = bx moved downwards c units
in the y-axis.

(iii) The graph of f (x) = bx+c is the graph of f (x) = bx moved c units to the left in
the x-axis.

(iv) The graph of f (x) = bx−c is the graph of f (x) = bx moved c units to the right
in the x-axis.

(v) The graph of f (x) = −bx is the graph of f (x) = bx reflected across the x-axis.

Example 1.2.7 Sketch the following exponential functions

 x
3
(i) f (x) = +3 (ii) f (x) = 2x+3 − 2 (iii) f (x) = −2x
4
Solution:

3
(i) Since the base is less than 1, we know that the graph of f is a decreasing
4
function. Thus, the graph is given by;

Page 8 of 33
 Figure 4:

(ii) Since the base 2 is greater than 1. Then, f (x) = 2x+3 − 2 has an increasing
graph. Thus,

Figure 5:

Page 9 of 33
(iii) To sketch f (x) = −2x , we first sketch f (x) = 2x , which is an increasing function
and then reflect it across the x-axis.

Figure 6:

1.2.8 Application of Exponential Functions

Interest is defined as the cost of borrowing money as in the case of interest charged on
a loan balance. Conversely, interest can also be the rate paid for money on deposit as
in the case of a certificate of deposit. Interest can be calculated in two ways, simple
or compound interest.

1.2.9 Simple Interest

Simple interest is calculated on the principal (P ), or original, amount of a loan by
principal we mean the original sum of money borrowed in a loan or put into an in-
vestment.

The simple interest is given by

I = P rt

Page 10 of 33
where;

P = principal value (initial investment)

r = rate of interest (this is usually in decimals)
t = time.

1.2.10 Compound Interest

Compound interest is calculated on the principal amount and also on the accumulated
interest of previous periods, and can this, be regarded as ”interest on interest”. The
compound interest is given by
A = P (1 + r)t

P = principal value (initial investment)

r = rate of interest per annnum
t = time in years
A = the amount which accumulates in the account after t years.

Example 1.2.11 Find the total amount accumulated into a bank account if an initial
sum of K1, 000 is invested for 2 years at a rate of 5% per annum.

Solution:
Here, the principal value is P = K1000, rate of interest r = 0.05 and time t = 2
years. Thus,

A = P (1 + r)t
= 1000(1 + 0.05)2
= K1102.5.

Example 1.2.12 What rate of interest is needed for an investment of K1000 to yield
K2000 in two years if interest is compounded annually?

Solution:
Here we are given the principal value to be K1000, the compound interest K2000 and
time 2 years. Thus,

A = P (1 + r)t
⇒ 2000 = 1000(1 + r)2
⇒ 2 = (1 + r)2
√
⇒1+r = 2
√
⇒r = 2−1
⇒ r = 0.41 or 41%.

Page 11 of 33
In the case where the interest is compounded more than once in a year, we use the
following formula;  nt
r
A=P 1+
n
where n is the number of compounding periods in a year.
Example 1.2.13 (i) The amount of K7, 00 is invested for 5 years at 6% per an-
num compounded semi annually, produces;

Solution:
 nt
r
A=P 1+
n
 2×5
0.06
A = 700 1 +
2
= 700(1 + 0.03)10
= K940.74.

(ii) The amount of K7, 00 is invested for 5 years at 6% per annum compounded
quarterly. Calculate the cumulative amount (A).

Solution:
Here
 nt
r
A=P 1+
n
 4×5
0.06
= 700 1 +
4
20
= 700(1.015)
= K942.8.

1.2.14 Natural Exponential Function

Definition 1.2.15 The letter e represents the number that
 n
1
1+
n
approaches as n increases without bound. That is
 n
1
e = lim 1 + ≈ 2.72 (2 dp).
n→∞ n
The approximate value of e can be obtained by evaluating
 n
1
1+
n

Page 12 of 33
for large values of n, as shown below
 n
1
n 1+ n
1 2
10 2.59374246
100 2.704813829
1, 000 2.716923932
100, 000 2.718268237
1, 000, 000 2.718280469

The value of e accurate to eight decimal places is e ≈ 2.71828183. And the exponential
function with e as the base is known as the natural exponential function.

Definition 1.2.16 (Natural Exponential Function) For all real numbers x, the
function defined by
f (x) = ex
is called the natural exponential function.

The graph of f (x) = ex is the same as that of f (x) = bx for b > 1 since e > 1. That
is ;
x f (x) = ex
−2 0.1
−1 0.4
0 1
1 2.7

Figure 7:

Page 13 of 33
We can now derive the formula for interest compounded continuously and indefinitely.
Since;  nt
r
A=P 1+ (1)
n
Then as n gets larger Equation (1) becomes;
 nt
r
A = lim P 1 +
n→∞ n
 nt
r
= P lim 1 +
n→∞ n
 rt× nr
r
= P lim 1 +
n→∞ n
   n rt
1 r
= P lim 1 + n (2)
n→∞
r

n
Let m = , then Equation (2) becomes;
r
  m rt
1
A = P lim 1 +
n→∞ m
| {z }
e
rt
A = Pe .

Note 1.2.17 The formula for compound interest for n compounding per year is given
by  nt
r
A=P 1+
n
And that of continuous compounding is given by

A = P ert

Example 1.2.18 What amount will an account have after 2 years if K5, 000 is in-
vested at an annual rate of 8%

(i) Compounded daily

(ii) Compounded continuously

Solution:
Given that the principal value P = K5, 000, rate per year r = 0.08 in t = 2 year.
Then

Page 14 of 33
 (i) Since there are 365 days in a year, then n = 365. Thus, the compound interest
is;
 nt
r
A=P 1+
n
 365×2
0.08
A = 5000 1 +
365
∴ A ≈ K5, 865.45.

(ii) When compounded continuously, we have;

A = P ert
= 5000 × e0.08×2
= 5000 × e0.16
∴ A ≈ K5, 867.55.

1.2.19 Exponential Decay Problems

An example of exponential decay problems involves radioactive substances.
Definition 1.2.20 (Half-Life) The half-life of a radioactive substance is the amount
of time it takes for half of an initial amount of the substance to disappear as the result
of decay. The half-life of a radioactive substance is given by
  ht
1
Q = Qo ,
2
where Qo is the initial amount of substance, h is the half-life time, t is the period of
time and Q is the amount of substance remaining.
Example 1.2.21 Suppose we have 200 grams of a certain substance that have a half-
life of 5 days. Then;
(i) After t = 5 days, we have
  55  
1 1
Q = 200 = 200 = 100 substance remaining.
2 2

(ii) After t = 10 days, we have

  10  2
1 5 1 200
Q = 200 = 200 = = 50 substance remaining.
2 2 4

(iii) After t = 20 days, we have

  20  4
1 5 1
Q = 200 = 200 = 12.5 substance remaining.
2 2

Page 15 of 33
Example 1.2.22 Barium-140 has a half-life of 13 days. If there are 500 mg of Bar-
ium initially, how many milligrams after

(i) 26 days (ii) 52 days and (iii) 100 days

will remain?

Solution:
Here we have Qo = 500 mg and h = 13 days. Therefore,

(i) After t = 26 days, the remaining Barium will be;

 t   26  2
1 h 1 13 1 1
Q = Qo = 500 = 500 = 500 × = 125 mg.
2 2 2 4

(ii) After t = 52 days, the remaining Barium will be;

 t   52  4
1 h 1 13 1 1
Q = Qo = 500 = 500 = 500 × = 13.25 mg.
2 2 2 16

(iii) After t = 100 days, the remaining Barium will be;

 t   100
1 h 1 13
Q = Qo = 500 mg.
2 2

1.2.23 Law of Exponential Growth

The formula below is used for numerous growth and decay applications.

Qt = Qo ekt

where;

Qt = is the quantity of substance at time t

Qo = is the initial amount of a substance
k = is the growth constant
t = is the time period.

Note 1.2.24 .

(i) If k < 0, then Qt decreases as t increases.

(ii) If k > 0, then Qt increases as t increases.

Page 16 of 33
Example 1.2.25 Cholera is an intestinal disease caused by a cholera bacterium that
multiplies exponentially by cell division as given approximately by

Qt = Qo e1.366t .

If we start with 10 bacteria, how many bacteria will be present in;

(i) 0.6 hours (ii) 3.5 hours;

Solution:
Given that Q0 = 10, then;

(i) In 0.6 hours, we will have;

Q0.6 = 10e1.366(0.6) ≈ 23 bacteria left.

(ii) In 3.5 hours, we will have;

Q3.5 = 10e1.366(3.5) = 1279 bacteria left.

1.3 Logarithmic Functions

Every exponential function of the form f (x) = bx is a one-to-one function and there-
fore, has an inverse function. That is by interchanging the variables, we obtain;

f (x) = bx
y = bx
⇒ x = by

And so none of the previous methods learnt so far can be used to solve the equation
x = by for the exponent y. Thus, we now look at the definition of logarithms.

Definition 1.3.1 (Logarithm and Logarithmic Function) If x > 0 and b is a

positive constant (b 6= 1). then

y = logb x if and only if by = x.

The notation logb x is read as ”the logarithm (or log) of x base b”. The function
defined by f (x) = logb x is called a logarithmic function with base b.

Remark 1.3.2 The function f (x) = logb x is the inverse of an exponential function
g(x) = bx .

Page 17 of 33
1.3.3 Changing from Logarithmic to Exponential Form and Vice Versa
The exponential form of the logarithmic function;

y = logb x is x = by .

And the logarithmic form of the exponential function;

x = by is y = logb x.

It is important to remember that the function f (x) = logb x is the inverse of the
function g(x) = bx . Thus, the composition of logarithmic and exponential functions
holds true. That is,

Let g(x) = bx and f (x) = logb x for all x > 0, b > 0 and b 6= 1, then

(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = bf (x) = blogb x = x.

And
(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = logb g(x) = logb bx = x.

Example 1.3.4 .

(i) Write each equation in its exponential form

(a) 3 = log2 8 (b) 2 = log10 (x + 5) (c) loge x = 4 (d) logb b3 = 3

(ii) Express each exponential form in its logarithmic form.

 −3
3 2 5 1
(a) 5 = 125 (b) 10 = 100 (c) 4 = 32
2 (d) = 125
5
Solution:

(i) Changing from logarithm form to exponential form, we use the definition that,
y = logb x if and only if by = x. Thus,

(a) 3 = log2 8 ⇐⇒ 23 = 8.
(b) 2 = log10 (x + 5) ⇐⇒ 102 = x + 5.
(c) loge x = 4 ⇐⇒ e4 = x.
(d) logb b3 = 3 ⇐⇒ b3 = b3 .

(ii) Changing from exponential form to logarithmic form, we use the definition that
by = x if and only if y = logb x. Thus,

(a) 53 = 125 ⇐⇒ 3 = log5 125.

(b) 102 = 100 ⇐⇒ 2 = log10 100.

Page 18 of 33
 5
(c) 4 2 = 32 ⇐⇒ 52 = log4 32.
 −3
1
(d) = 125 ⇐⇒ −3 = log 1 125.
5 5

Note 1.3.5 If the base of a logarithm is 10, it is usually omitted because this is called
a common base. Thus,
log10 x ≡ log x.

Example 1.3.6 Evaluate the following logarithmic expressions.

(i) log4 64 (ii) log9 3 (iii) log9 9 (iv) log5 5

(v) log 1000 (vi) log2 23

Solution:

(i) Let m = log4 64, then in exponential form we have;

4m = 64
⇒ 4m = 43
⇒m=3

∴ log4 64 = 3.
Since we have the same bases.

(ii) Let x = log9 3, so that

3 = 9x
⇒ (32 )x = 3
⇒ 32x = 31
⇒ 2x = 1
1
⇒x=
2
1
∴ log9 3 = .
2
(iii) Let m = log9 9

⇔ 9m = 91
⇒m=1

∴ log9 9 = 1.

Page 19 of 33
 (iv) Let p = log5 5
⇔ 5p = 51
⇒p=1
∴ log5 5 = 1.
(v) Let x = log 1000
⇔ 10x = 1000
⇒ 10x = 103
⇒x=3
∴ log 1000 = 3
(vi) Let x = log2 23
⇔ 2x = 23
⇒x=3
∴ log2 23 = 3.

1.3.7 Properties of Logarithms

If b > 0 and b 6= 1, then
(i) logb b = 1; since b = b1
(ii) logb 1 = 0; since 1 = b0
(iii) logb bx = x; since bx = bx
(iv) blogb x = x; since f (x) = logb x and g(x) = bx are inverses of each other. Thus,
g(f (x)) = x.
Example 1.3.8 Using the proceeding properties, evaluate each of the following loga-
rithms.
(i) log8 1 (ii) log5 5 (iii) log2 (24 ) (iv) 3log3 7
Solution:

(i) By property (ii), we have;

log8 1 = 0
(ii) By property (i), we have;
log5 5 = 1
(iii) By property (iii), we have;
log2 24 = 4
(iv) By property (iv), we obtain;
3log3 7 = 7.
1

Page 20 of 33
1.3.9 Special Properties of Logarithms
(i) For any positive numbers b 6= 1, r, and s,

logb (r · s) = logb r + logb s

Proof:
Let logb r = x and logb s = y, then by definition of logarithms, it follows that
bx = r and by = s respectively. Thus,

r · s = bx × by = bx+y (3)

in exponential form. And so in logarithmic form, Equation (3) becomes;

logb r · s = x + y. (4)

But x = logb r and y = logb s. Thus, Equation (4) becomes;

logb r · s = logb r + logb s

as required.

(ii) For any positive numbers b 6= 1, r and s, we have;

 
r
logb = logb r − logb s
s

Proof:
Let x = logb r and y = logb s, then by definition of logarithms, we have bx = r
and by = s respectively. Dividing through x by y we have;
r bx
= y = bx−y
s b
which is in exponential form. Thus, changing to logarithmic form, we have;
 
r
logb = x − y. (5)
s
But x = logb r and y = logb s. Thus, Equation (5) becomes,
 
r
logb = logb r − logb s
s
as required.
(i) The function defined by f (x) = log10 x is called the common logarithmic function and is
written as f (x) = log x.
(ii) The function defined by f (x) = loge x is called the natural logarithmic function and is written
as f (x) = ln x.

Page 21 of 33
(iii) If r and b are positive numbers, where b 6= 1 and if x is any real number, then
logb rx = x logb r
Proof:
Let logb rx = z, then by definition of logarithm, it follows that
r x = bz
z
⇒ r = bx . (6)
Equation (6) is in exponential form. And so converting Equation (6) into loga-
rithmic form we obtain;
z
logb r = (7)
x
Multiplying Equation (7) throgh by x we get;
x logb r = z (8)
But z = logb rz . Thus, Equation (8) becomes
logb rz = x logb r
As required.
Example 1.3.10 Given that log2 5 = 2.3219 and log2 3 = 1.5850. Evaluate log2 15
Solution:
Since
log2 15 = log2 3 × 5
= log2 3 + log2 5
= 1.5850 + 2.3219
= 3.9069
q
x
Example 1.3.11 Express logb yz in terms of x, y and z.

Solution:
Since
r   12
x x
logb = logb
yz yz
 
1 x
= logb
2 yz
 
1
= logb x − logb yz
2
 
1
= logb x − (logb y + logb z)
2
 
1
= logb x − logb y − logb z
2
1 1 1
= logb x − logb y − logb z.
2 2 2
Page 22 of 33
Example 1.3.12 Express 2 logb x + 3 logb y − 4 logb z as one logarithm.

Solution:
Here

2 logb x + 3 logb y − 4 logb z = logb x2 + logb y 3 − logb z 4

= logb x2 y 3 − logb z 4
 2 3
xy
= logb .
z4

1.3.13 Change of Base Property

Let a, b and x be any positive real numbers such that a 6= 1 and b 6= 1. Then

logb x
loga x =
logb a

Proof:
Let loga x = m if and only if
am = x (9)
Then taking logb on both sides of Equation (9) we get;

logb am = logb x
⇒ m logb a = logb x
logb x
⇒m= (10)
logb a

But m = loga x. Thus, Equation (10) becomes;

logb x
loga x =
logb a

as required.

Example 1.3.14 Evaluate log3 41.

Solution:
logb x
Since loga x = then
logb a
log 41
log3 41 = .
log 3

Proposition 1.3.15
1
loga x =
logx a

Page 23 of 33
Proof;
Let b = x, then the equation
logb x
loga x =
logb a
can be written as
logx x 1
loga x = = .
logx a logx a
Hence,
1
loga x = .
logx a

1.3.16 Domain of Logarithmic Functions

Definition 1.3.17 The functions f (x) = logb x has its domain the set of positive real
numbers. That is
Domain: = {x ∈ R|x > 0}.

Example 1.3.18 Find the domain of each of the following logarithmic functions.

(i) f (x) = log6 (x − 1)

(ii) f (x) = log2 |x + 2|

 
x
(iii) f (x) = log2
8−x
Solution:

(i) Solving (x − 3) > 0 for x we get x > 3. Thus, domain of f is

Domain: = {x ∈ R|x > 3}.

(ii) The solution set of |x + 2| > 0 consists of all real numbers x except x = −2.
Thus, the domain of f consists of all real numbers x 6= −2. In interval notation,



Domain: = − ∞, −2 ∪ − 2, ∞ .

x
(iii) Solving > 0 yields the set of all real numbers x between 0 and 8. Thus,
8−x
domain of f in interval notation is (0, 8).

Page 24 of 33
1.3.19 Graphs of Logarithmic Functions
Since the function f (x) = logb x is the inverse function of g(x) = bx , then the graph
of f (x) = logb x is a reflection of the graph g(x) = bx across the line y = x.

Recall the graph of g(x) = 2x with table of values below;

x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
1 1 1
g(x) = 2x 1 2 4 8
8 4 2
Then, the table of values for f (x) = log2 x using g values as our x values since f is
an inverse of g, we get;
1 1 1
x 1 2 4 8
8 4 2
f (x) = log2 x −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3
Thus, sketching the two functions on the same axis we get;

Figure 8:

Example 1.3.20 Graph the following logarithmic functions

(i) f (x) = log3 x (ii) f (x) = log 2 x
3

Solution:

Page 25 of 33
(i) Method 1:
To graph f (x) = log3 x, we consider the equivalent exponential equation x = 3y .
Since this equation is solved for x, we choose values of y and calculate the
corresponding values of x as shown in the table of values below.
1 1
x = 3y 9 3
1 3 9
y −2 −1 0 1 2

Figure 9:

Method 2:
Since the function f (x) = log3 x is the inverse of g(x) = 3x . Then finding the
inverse of g(x) = 3x . Let y = 3x . Then
log3 y = log3 3x
= x log3 3
| {z }
1
⇒ x = log3 y
Interchanging x and y we get;
g −1 (x) = f (x) = log3 x.

Page 26 of 33
 Thus, we first sketch the function g(x) = 3x and reflect it across the line y = x
to get the required graph of f (x) = log3 x.

Figure 10:

(ii) To sketch the graph of f (x) = log 2 x. We first sketch the exponential function;
3

 x
2
g(x) =
3

and the reflect it across the line y = x, to get the graph of f (x) = log 2 x as
3
follows;

Page 27 of 33
 Figure 11:

1.3.21 Natural Logarithm (Base e)

Like earlier stated, the function defined by f (x) = loge x is called the natural loga-
rithmic function. It is customarily written written as f (x) = ln x.
That is
f (x) = loge x = ln x.
The notation ln x is commonly used in place of loge x.

Note 1.3.22 All properties of logarithms stated before apply to natural logarithms.
That is;

(i) loge 1 = ln(1) = 0

(ii) loge e = ln(e) = 1

(iii) e ln(x) = x

(iv) ln rs = ln(r) − ln(s)

(v) ln rx = x ln(r)

(vi) ln(rs) = ln(r) + ln(s).

Page 28 of 33
Example 1.3.23 Show that the functions y = ln x and y = ex are inverses of each
other.

Solution:
Let f (x) = ln x and g(x) = ex . If f and g are inverses of each other, then

(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)) = x. (11)

Similarly
(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x)) = x (12)
Consider (11), since

(f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))
= f (ex )
= ln ex
= x.

Similarly from (12), since

(g ◦ f )(x) = g(f (x))

= g(ln x)
= eln x
= x.

Hence, f and g are inverses of each other.

1.3.24 Solving Exponential and Logarithmic Equations

If x > 0, b > 0 and b 6= 1, then logb x = logb y if and only if x = y.

Example 1.3.25 Solve the following exponential equations

(i) 3x = 5 (ii) ex+1 = 5 (iii) 23x−2 = 32x+1 (iv) 22x + 3(2x ) − 4 = 0

Solution:

(i) Here

3x = 5
⇒ log 3x = log 5
⇒ x log 3 = log 5
log 5
⇒x= .
log 3

Page 29 of 33
 (ii) Here

ex+3 = 5
⇒ ln ex+3 = ln (5)
⇒ (x + 3) |{z}
ln e = ln(5)
1
⇒ x + 3 = ln(5)
⇒ x = ln(5) − 3.

(iii) Here

23x−2 = 32x+1
⇒ log 23x−2 = log 32x+1
⇒ (3x − 2) log 2 = (2x + 1) log 3
⇒ 3x log 2 − 2 log 2 = 2x log 3 + log 3
⇒ 3x log 2 − 2x log 3 = log 3 + 2 log 2
⇒ x(3 log 2 − 2 log 3) = log 3 + 2 log 2
log 3 + 2 log 2
⇒x= .
3 log 2 − 2 log 3

(iv) Here

22x + 3(2x ) − 4 = 0
⇒ (2x )2 + 3(2x ) − 4 = 0 (13)

Let t = 2x . Then Equation (13) becomes

t2 + 3t − 4 = 4
⇒ (t + 4)(t − 1) = 0
⇒ t = −4 or t = 1.

When t = −4, we have no solution since 2x 6= −4 for all values of x ∈ R. Thus,

we discard t = −4. Now when t = 1, we have

2x = 1
⇒ 2x = 20
⇒ x = 0.

Therefore, the solution set is {0}.

Example 1.3.26 Solve the following logarithmic equations

(i) log x + log (x − 15) = 2

(ii) ln(x + 2) = ln(x + 10) − ln 3

Page 30 of 33
(iii) log2 (x + 2) + log2 (2x − 1) = log2 x

(iv) log3 x − 4 logx 3 + 3 = 0

Solution:

(i) To solve this, since

log(ab) = log a + log b
Then

log x + log (x − 15) = 2

⇒ log x(x − 15) = 2
⇒ x(x − 15) = 102
⇒ x2 − 15x − 100 = 0
⇒ (x − 20)(x + 5) = 0
⇒ x = 20 or x = −5.

But we know that the values of x ∈ R+ . Thus, we only need x = 20, since
x = −5 < 0 is discarded. Therefore, the solution set is {20}.

(ii) Here, ln(x + 2) = ln(x + 10) − ln 3

x + 10

⇒ ln(x + 2) = ln
3

x+10
⇒ eln(x+2) = eln 3
x + 10

⇒x+2=
3
⇒ 3x + 6 = x + 10
⇒ 2x = 4
⇒x=2

Therefore, solution set is {2}.

(iii) Here, log2 (x + 2) + log2 (2x − 1) = log2 x

⇒ log2 (x + 2)(2x − 1) = log2 x

⇒ (x + 2)(2x − 1) = x
⇒ 2x2 + 2x − 2 = 0
⇒ x2 + x − 1 = 0.

Let D = b2 − 4ac, then

D = 12 − 4(1)(−1)
⇒ D = 5.

Page 31 of 33
 Therefore;
√
−b ± D
x=
2a√
−1 ± 5
=
2√ √
−1 − 5 −1 + 5
⇒x= or x = .
2 2
 √ √ 
−1 − 5 −1 + 5
Thus, solution set is , .
2 2
(iv) To solve; log3 x − 4 logx 3 + 3 = 0. Since

1
logx 3 =
log3 x

by the change of bases property, then the equation becomes

 
1
log3 x − 4 +3=0
log3 x
4
⇒ log3 x − +3=0 (14)
log3 x

Let t = log3 x. Then Equation (14) becomes;

⇒ t2 − 4 + 3t = 0
⇒ t2 + 3t − 4 = 0
⇒ (t + 4)(t − 1) = 0
⇒ t = −4 or t = 1.

When t = −4, we have;

log3 x = −4
⇒ x = 3−4
1
⇒x= .
81
When t = 1, we have;

log3 x = 1
⇒ x = 31
⇒ x = 3.
 
1
Hence, the solution set is ,3 .
81

Page 32 of 33
Example 1.3.27 How long will it take K500 to double if it is invested at 8% com-
pounded quarterly?

Solution:
Here we are given r = 0.08, P = K500, A = K1000, n = 4, but t is unknown. Thus,
using the formula below;  nt
r
A=P 1+ ,
n
we have;
 4t
0.08
1000 = 500 1 +
4
4t
⇒ 2 = (1.02)
⇒ log 2 = log(1.02)4t
⇒ log 2 = 4t log(1.02)
log 2 ln(2)
⇒t= or t = .
4 log(1.02) 4 ln(1.02)
2

2
The next lecture will be on Trigonometry. God Bless You All!!!

Page 33 of 33