DATA STRUCTURE AND ALGORITHMS

READING MANUAL

BY

ENGR. YEKINI NURENI A.

YABATECH LAGOS

ALGORITHMS
Algorithms are a set of instructions that are used to solve a particular problem or
perform a specific task. They are a fundamental part of computer science and are
used in a wide range of fields, including programming, data analysis, and artificial
intelligence.

Types of Algorithms:
1. Sorting algorithms: used to sort data in a specific order.
2. Searching algorithms: used to find specific data in a dataset.
3. Graph algorithms: used to manipulate and analyze graph data structures.
4. Dynamic programming algorithms: used to solve complex problems by
breaking them down into smaller subproblems.
5. Backtracking algorithms: used to solve problems by recursively exploring all
possible solutions.
6. Greedy algorithms: used to solve problems by making the locally optimal
choice at each stage.
7. String algorithms: used to manipulate and analyze string data.
8. Geometric algorithms: used to solve problems involving geometric shapes and
transformations.

Characteristics of Algorithms:
1. Input: the data or parameters provided to the algorithm.
2. Output: the result or solution produced by the algorithm.
3. Correctness: the algorithm should produce the correct output for a given input.
4. Efficiency: the algorithm should use resources such as time and memory
efficiently.
5. Scalability: the algorithm should be able to handle large inputs or scale to meet
the needs of a growing system.

Algorithm Design Techniques:

1. Divide and Conquer: break down a problem into smaller subproblems and
solve each recursively.
2. Dynamic Programming: solve a problem by breaking it down into smaller
subproblems and storing the solutions to subproblems to avoid redundant
computation.
3. Greedy Method: make the locally optimal choice at each stage to find a global
optimum.
4. Backtracking: recursively explore all possible solutions to find the correct
one.
5. Algorithm Analysis:
6. Time Complexity: the amount of time an algorithm takes to complete as a
function of the size of the input.
7. Space Complexity: the amount of memory an algorithm uses as a function of
the size of the input.
8. Trade-offs: the balance between time and space complexity, or other
competing factors.
DATA STRUCTURE
Data structures are a fundamental concept in computer science, and they are used to
organize, manage, and store data in a way that allows for efficient access,
modification, and manipulation.

Here are some common types of data structures:

1. Arrays: A collection of elements of the same data type stored in contiguous
memory locations.
2. Linked Lists: A sequence of nodes, each containing a data element and a
reference (or link) to the next node.
3. Stacks: A last-in, first-out (LIFO) data structure that allows elements to be
added and removed from the top.
4. Queues: A first-in, first-out (FIFO) data structure that allows elements to be
added to the end and removed from the front.
5. Trees: A hierarchical data structure consisting of nodes with a parent-child
relationship.
6. Graphs: A non-linear data structure consisting of nodes (vertices) connected
by edges.
7. Hash Tables: A data structure that maps keys to values using a hash function.
8. Heaps: A specialized tree-based data structure that satisfies the heap property.

Data Structure are basically classified into two.

1. Linear Data structure

2. Non-Linear Data structure

Each data structure has its own strengths and weaknesses and is suited for specific
use cases. Understanding data structures is crucial for any programmer or software
developer, as they are the building blocks of algorithms and software applications.

Linear Data structure

A linear data structure is a type of data structure in which the elements are arranged
in a linear sequence, one after the other. Each element is connected to the next
element, and each element has a unique predecessor and successor (except for the
first and last elements).

Examples of linear data structures include:

1. Arrays
2. Linked lists
3. Stacks
4. Queues
5. Vectors

Characteristics of linear data structures:

 1. Elements are arranged in a linear sequence
2. Each element has a unique predecessor and successor (except for the first and
last elements)
3. Elements can be accessed in a sequential manner
4. Insertion and deletion of elements can be done at any position
5. Searching for an element can be done in O(n) time

Advantages of linear data structures:

1. Efficient use of memory
2. Fast search and insertion times
3. Easy to implement and understand

Disadvantages of linear data structures:

1. Limited flexibility
2. Difficult to insert or delete elements in the middle of the structure
3. Not suitable for large amounts of data

Common operations performed on linear data structures:

1. Insertion
2. Deletion
3. Searching
4. Sorting
5. Traversal

Linear data structures are widely used in computer science and programming, and
are an essential part of many algorithms and data structures.

Linked lists
A linked list is a data structure in which elements are stored as a sequence of nodes,
each of which contains a value and a reference (i.e., a "link") to the next node in the
list. This allows for efficient insertion and deletion of elements at any position in the
list.

Types of Linked Lists:

1. Singly Linked List: Each node only has a reference to the next node in the list.
2. Doubly Linked List: Each node has references to both the previous and next
node in the list.
3. Circularly Linked List: The last node in the list has a reference to the first
node, forming a circle.

Advantages of Linked Lists:

1. Dynamic size: Linked lists can grow or shrink as elements are added or
removed.
 2. Efficient insertion and deletion: Elements can be added or removed at any
position in the list in O(1) time.
3. Good memory usage: Linked lists only use memory for the elements that are
actually in the list.

Disadvantages of Linked Lists:

1. Slow search: Finding an element in a linked list can take O(n) time.
2. More complex implementation: Linked lists require more code to implement
than arrays.

Common Operations on Linked Lists:

1. Insertion
2. Deletion
3. Search
4. Traversal

Linked lists are useful in many applications, such as:

1. Database query results
2. Dynamic memory allocation
3. Browser history
4. Undo/redo functionality
5. Compilers and interpreters

Stacks
Stacks are a type of data structure that follow the Last-In-First-Out (LIFO) principle,
meaning that the last element added to the stack is the first one to be removed. A
stack can be thought of as a vertical pile of plates, where plates are added and
removed from the top of the pile.

Basic Operations on Stacks:

1. Push: Add an element to the top of the stack.
2. Pop: Remove the top element from the stack.
3. Peek: Look at the top element without removing it.
4. isEmpty: Check if the stack is empty.

Types of Stacks:
1. Array Stack: Implemented using an array.
2. Linked Stack: Implemented using a linked list.
3. Dynamic Stack: Can grow or shrink as elements are added or removed.

Stacks are useful in many applications, such as:

1. Evaluating postfix expressions
2. Implementing recursive algorithms
3. Managing memory
 4. Parsing syntax in programming languages
5. Undo/redo functionality

Advantages of Stacks:
1. Efficient use of memory
2. Fast insertion and deletion
3. Easy to implement

Disadvantages of Stacks:
1. Limited access to elements (only the top element can be accessed)
2. Not suitable for searching or sorting

Common Stack Operations:

1. Push
2. Pop
3. Peek
4. isEmpty
5. size (returns the number of elements in the stack)

Queues
Queues are a type of data structure that follow the First-In-First-Out (FIFO)
principle, meaning that the first element added to the queue is the first one to be
removed. A queue can be thought of as a line of people waiting for a service, where
people are added to the end of the line and removed from the front of the line.

Basic Operations on Queues:

1. Enqueue: Add an element to the end of the queue.
2. Dequeue: Remove the front element from the queue.
3. Peek: Look at the front element without removing it.
4. isEmpty: Check if the queue is empty.
5. size: Returns the number of elements in the queue.

Types of Queues:
1. Linear Queue: Implemented using an array.
2. Circular Queue: Implemented using a circular array.
3. Linked Queue: Implemented using a linked list.
4. Priority Queue: Elements are ordered based on priority.

Queues are useful in many applications, such as:

1. Job scheduling
2. Print queues
3. Network buffers
4. Customer service queues
5. Thread pools
Advantages of Queues:
1. Efficient use of memory
2. Fast insertion and deletion
3. Easy to implement
4. Suitable for applications where order matters

Disadvantages of Queues:
1. Limited access to elements (only the front element can be accessed)
2. Not suitable for searching or sorting
Common Queue Operations:
1. Enqueue
2. Dequeue
3. Peek
4. isEmpty
5. size

Vectors
Vectors are a type of data structure that store elements of the same data type in a
single row or column. They are similar to arrays, but with additional features and
operations.

Key Characteristics of Vectors:

1. Homogeneous: All elements in a vector are of the same data type.
2. Dynamic size: Vectors can grow or shrink as elements are added or removed.
3. Indexing: Elements in a vector can be accessed using an index or subscript.
4. Operations: Vectors support various operations like addition, subtraction,
scalar multiplication, and more.

Types of Vectors:
1. Row Vector: A vector with only one row.
2. Column Vector: A vector with only one column.
3. Matrix Vector: A vector with multiple rows and columns.

Operations on Vectors:
1. Vector Addition
2. Vector Subtraction
3. Scalar Multiplication
4. Dot Product (Inner Product)
5. Cross Product (Outer Product)
6. Norm (Length)
7. Unit Vector
Vectors are used in various applications, including:
1. Physics and Engineering
2. Computer Graphics
3. Machine Learning
4. Data Analysis
5. Linear Algebra

Advantages of Vectors:
1. Efficient storage and manipulation of data
2. Fast operations and computations
3. Useful in various mathematical and scientific applications

Disadvantages of Vectors:
1. Limited to homogeneous data types
2. May have performance issues with large datasets

Nonlinear Data structure

A non-linear data structure is a type of data structure that does not have a linear
relationship between its elements. In other words, the elements are not stored in a
sequential manner, and the relationships between them are more complex.
Examples of non-linear data structures include:
1. Trees
2. Graphs
3. Hash tables
4. Heaps
5. Maps
6. Sets

Characteristics of non-linear data structures:

1. Non-sequential storage
2. Complex relationships between elements
3. Efficient search, insertion, and deletion operations
4. Often used in applications where data is sparse or has complex relationships

Advantages of non-linear data structures:

1. Efficient use of memory
2. Fast search and retrieval times
3. Flexible and adaptable to changing data sets
4. Can handle complex relationships between data elements

Disadvantages of non-linear data structures:

1. More difficult to implement and understand
2. Can be slower than linear data structures for certain operations
3. May require more memory to store
Common operations on non-linear data structures:

1. Search
2. Insertion
3. Deletion
4. Traversal
5. Sorting

Non-linear data structures are essential in many applications, including:

1. Database indexing
2. File systems
3. Compilers
4. Web browsers
5. Social network analysis
6. Recommendation systems

Trees
Trees are a type of non-linear data structure composed of nodes, where each node
has a value and zero or more child nodes. The topmost node is called the root node,
and the nodes that have no child nodes are called leaf nodes.

Types of Trees:
1. Binary Trees: Each node has at most two child nodes.
2. B- Trees: Self-balancing binary search trees.
3. AVL Trees: Self-balancing binary search trees.
4. Heap Trees: Specialized tree-based data structures for efficient sorting and
priority queuing.
5. Trie Trees: Prefix trees for storing and retrieving data.

Tree Terminology:
1. Node: A single element in the tree.
2. Edge: The connection between two nodes.
3. Parent Node: The node directly above a given node.
4. Child Node: A node directly below a given node.
5. Sibling Nodes: Nodes with the same parent node.
6. Leaf Node: A node with no child nodes.
7. Root Node: The topmost node in the tree.

Tree Operations:
1. Insertion: Adding a new node to the tree.
2. Deletion: Removing a node from the tree.
3. Traversal: Visiting each node in a specific order.
4. Search: Finding a specific node in the tree.
Tree Applications:
1. File Systems
2. Database Indexing
3. Compilers
4. Webpage Navigation
5. Social Network Analysis
6. Data Compression

Tree Advantages:
1. Efficient data storage and retrieval
2. Flexible data structure
3. Fast search and insertion times
4. Scalable

Tree Disadvantages:
1. Complex implementation
2. Difficult to balance and maintain
3. May have slow deletion times

Graphs
Graphs are a type of non-linear data structure consisting of nodes (also called
vertices) connected by edges. Each node may have multiple edges connecting it to
other nodes.

Types of Graphs:
1. Undirected Graphs: Edges do not have direction.
2. Directed Graphs (Digraphs): Edges have direction.
3. Weighted Graphs: Edges have weights or labels.
4. Unweighted Graphs: Edges do not have weights.
5. Cyclic Graphs: Graphs with at least one cycle.
6. Acyclic Graphs (DAGs): Graphs with no cycles.

Graph Terminology:
1. Node (Vertex): A single element in the graph.
2. Edge: The connection between two nodes.
3. Neighborhood: The nodes directly connected to a given node.
4. Degree: The number of edges incident on a node.
5. Path: A sequence of nodes and edges connecting them.
6. Cycle: A path that starts and ends at the same node.
7. Connected Components: Subgraphs with nodes and edges that are connected.

Graph Operations:
1. Addition: Adding nodes or edges to the graph.
 2. Deletion: Removing nodes or edges from the graph.
3. Traversal: Visiting each node and edge in a specific order.
4. Search: Finding a specific node or edge in the graph.

Graph Applications:
1. Social Network Analysis
2. Webpage Navigation
3. Traffic Networks
4. Computer Networks
5. Recommendation Systems
6. Scheduling

Graph Advantages:
1. Flexible data structure
2. Efficient data storage and retrieval
3. Fast search and traversal times
4. Scalable

Graph Disadvantages:
1. Complex implementation
2. Difficult to maintain and update
3. May have slow deletion times

Hash Tables
Hash tables (also known as hash maps) are a type of data structure that store key-
value pairs in a way that allows for efficient lookup, insertion, and deletion of
elements.

Hash Table Basics:

1. Keys: Unique identifiers for each element.
2. Values: The data associated with each key.
3. Hash function: A function that maps keys to indices in an array.
4. Index: The position in the array where a key-value pair is stored.
5. Buckets: The arrays that store key-value pairs.

Hash Table Operations:

1. Insertion: Adding a new key-value pair to the hash table.
2. Deletion: Removing a key-value pair from the hash table.
3. Lookup: Finding the value associated with a given key.
4. Search: Finding all key-value pairs that match a given search criterion.

Hash Table Types:

1. Chained Hash Tables: Use linked lists to handle collisions.
2. Open-Addressed Hash Tables: Use probing to find an empty slot.
 3. Double Hashing: Use two hash functions to reduce collisions.

Hash Table Advantages:

1. Fast lookup, insertion, and deletion times
2. Efficient use of memory
3. Scalable

Hash Table Disadvantages:

1. Can be sensitive to hash function quality
2. May have collisions that lead to performance issues
3. Can be challenging to implement and maintain

Hash Table Applications:

1. Database indexing
2. Caches
3. Set implementations
4. Map implementations
5. Distributed systems

Heaps
Heaps are a type of specialized tree-based data structure that satisfy the heap
property: the parent node is either greater than (max heap) or less than (min heap)
its child nodes. This structure allows for efficient sorting, searching, and insertion
operations.

Heap Types:
1. Max Heap: Parent node is greater than child nodes.
2. Min Heap: Parent node is less than child nodes.

Heap Operations:
1. Insert: Adding a new node to the heap.
2. Delete: Removing a node from the heap.
3. Search: Finding a specific node in the heap.
4. Extract: Removing the root node (max or min value).

Heap Applications:
1. Sorting algorithms (Heapsort)
2. Priority queues
3. Graph algorithms (e.g., Dijkstra's algorithm)
4. Event scheduling
5. Memory management

Heap Advantages:
1. Efficient sorting and searching
 2. Fast insertion and deletion
3. Scalable
4. Simple implementation

Heap Disadvantages:
1. Limited to max or min heap property
2. Can be slow for large datasets
3. Not suitable for all types of data

Maps
Maps are a type of data structure that store key-value pairs in a way that allows for
efficient lookup, insertion, and deletion of elements. They are also known as
associative arrays, dictionaries, or hash tables.

Map Operations:
1. Insert: Adding a new key-value pair to the map.
2. Delete: Removing a key-value pair from the map.
3. Lookup: Finding the value associated with a given key.
4. Search: Finding all key-value pairs that match a given search criterion.

Map Types:
1. Hash Maps: Use a hash function to map keys to indices in an array.
2. Tree Maps: Use a balanced search tree to store key-value pairs.
3. Linked Hash Maps: Use a linked list to store key-value pairs.

Map Advantages:
1. Fast lookup, insertion, and deletion times
2. Efficient use of memory
3. Scalable
4. Flexible data structure

Map Disadvantages:
1. Can be sensitive to hash function quality
2. May have collisions that lead to performance issues
3. Can be challenging to implement and maintain

Map Applications:
1. Database indexing
2. Caches
3. Configuration files
4. JSON data storage
5. Graph algorithms
Sets
Sets are a type of data structure that store unique elements, without duplicates, in a
way that allows for efficient insertion, deletion, and searching operations.

Set Operations:
1. Insert: Adding a new element to the set.
2. Delete: Removing an element from the set.
3. Search: Finding an element in the set.
4. Union: Combining two sets into one.
5. Intersection: Finding the common elements between two sets.
6. Difference: Finding the elements that are in one set but not in another.

Set Types:
1. Hash Sets: Use a hash function to store elements.
2. Tree Sets: Use a balanced search tree to store elements.
3. Linked Sets: Use a linked list to store elements.

Set Advantages:
1. Fast insertion, deletion, and search times
2. Efficient use of memory
3. Scalable
4. Flexible data structure

Set Disadvantages:
1. Can be sensitive to hash function quality
2. May have collisions that lead to performance issues
3. Can be challenging to implement and maintain

Set Applications:
1. Database indexing
2. Caches
3. Configuration files
4. JSON data storage
5. Graph algorithms
6. Set operations (union, intersection, difference)