National University of Computer and Emerging Sciences

Laboratory Manuals
for

Database Systems Lab

(CL -2005)

Course Instructor Ms. Hina Iqbal

Lab Instructor Ahmad Jawad Mustasim
Lab TA Talha Azhar
Section BSE-4A
Semester Spring 2025

Department of Computer Science

FAST-NU, Lahore, Pakistan

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 Lab Manual 12
SQL
SQL tutorial gives unique learning on Structured Query Language and it helps to make practice on SQL
commands which provides immediate results. SQL is a language of database, it includes database
creation, deletion, fetching rows and modifying rows etc. SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards
Institute) standard, but there are many different versions of the SQL language.

Why SQL?
● Allows users to access data in relational database management systems.
● Allows users to describe the data.
● Allows users to define the data in the database and manipulate that data.
● Allows embedding within other languages using SQL modules, libraries & pre-compilers.
● Allows users to create and drop databases and tables.
● Allows users to create views, stored procedure, functions in a database.
● Allows users to set permissions on tables, procedures and views

SQL Process
When you are executing an SQL command for any RDBMS, the system determines the best way to carry
out your request and SQL engine figures out how to interpret the task.

There are various components included in the process. These components are Query Dispatcher,
Optimization Engines, Classic Query Engine and SQL Query Engine, etc. Classic query engine handles
all non-SQL queries, but SQL query engine won't handle logical files.

Following is a simple diagram showing SQL Architecture:

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 1. CTEs
A CTE (Common Table Expression) is a temporary named result set in SQL that you can
reference within a SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement.

Think of it as a temporary view that's only available during the execution of a single query.

2. PRINT KEYWORD
● Used to display a message in the query output (mainly in SQL Server).
● Helpful for debugging and tracking execution flow inside stored procedures or scripts.

3. RAND() FUNCTION
● Returns a random float value between 0 and 1.
● Useful for generating test data or randomizing results.

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 ● To generate a random integer between two numbers:

PL SQL
PL/SQL stands for Procedural Language extensions to SQL. It is Oracle's procedural programming
language, designed to extend the power of SQL with the ability to use programming constructs like
variables, loops, conditions, and error handling.

Key Features:

a. Block-structured: Code is written in logical blocks (DECLARE, BEGIN, EXCEPTION, END).

b. Supports control flow: Includes IF, LOOP, WHILE, FOR, CASE, etc.

c. Reusable logic: Write stored procedures, functions, triggers, and packages.

d. Exception handling: Built-in error management using EXCEPTION blocks.

e. Tightly integrated with SQL: Allows use of DML/DDL statements within procedural code.

Handling Variables

● Declaration
○ You declare a variable to store and reuse data within SQL blocks, procedures,
or functions.

● Setting

● Using
○ Once declared and set, variables can be used in conditions, calculations, and output.

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 Code Block
● A group of statements executed together, often enclosed in BEGIN ... END

IF...ELSE

CASE Expression
● Inline conditional logic—used in SELECT, WHERE, ORDER BY, etc.

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WHILE Loop
● Repeats code block while a condition is true.

BREAK and CONTINUE

● Used within WHILE loops:
○ BREAK exits the loop.
○ CONTINUE skips current iteration and moves to next.

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GOTO
● Transfers execution to a labeled part of the script (less recommended for clarity).

Stored Procedure (For detail, refer previous manual for SPs)

● Reusable collection of SQL statements with optional input/output parameters.

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 Trigger (For Detail, refer previous manuals specific to triggers)
● Automatically executes in response to a SQL event (INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE).

Scalar Function
A scalar function is a user-defined or built-in SQL function that returns a single value (a scalar), based on
input values or expressions. Unlike table-valued functions (which return rows/columns), scalar
functions always return only one value of a defined data type.

Built-In Types
These are provided by SQL and categorized into:

● String Functions: LEN(), UPPER(), LOWER(), SUBSTRING()

● Numeric Functions: ROUND(), ABS(), POWER()

● Date/Time Functions: GETDATE(), DATEADD(), DATEDIFF()

● Conversion Functions: CAST(), CONVERT()

● System Functions: ISNULL(), COALESCE(), NEWID()

User Defined Types

These are custom functions created by users to encapsulate logic and reuse it across queries.

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Example

Using Scalar Function as Computed Column in SELECT

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Using Scalar Function as Computed Column in ALTER TABLE

● The column FullName will automatically compute using the function.

● It is virtual (not physically stored unless PERSISTED is specified).

Applications
1. Scalar Function

● Data formatting (e.g., full names, initials)

● Reusable business logic (e.g., tax calculations)

● Clean up complex queries

2. Trigger

● Maintain audit logs

● Auto-enforce data integrity rules

● Prevent/limit unwanted data changes

3. Stored Procedure

● Wrap and reuse large logic blocks

● Improve performance via precompiled execution

● Parameterized operations (e.g., filter by user input)

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Comparison of Stored Procedures, Triggers and Scalar Functions

Feature Stored Procedure Scalar Function Trigger

Returns None / Result sets Single scalar value No return (executes

automatically)

Execution Manually invoked Called in expressionsAutomatically triggered

Parameters Supports IN/OUT/INOUT Input only None

Can Modify Data

Yes No Yes

Usage Context Batch operations, workflows Computation, Auditing, enforcing rules

formatting

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 Happy learning and querying!

Download sql file provided with this manual. Run that file and a schema with
following details will be created:

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 In Lab Exercises

Super Dog and the Carbon Code Crackdown

In a futuristic city called EcoMetra, pollution has been on the rise. But there's hope! The
legendary hero, Super Dog, has sniffed out a new mission — to analyze and reduce carbon
emissions across the city. With his sharp instincts, high-speed tail-powered jetpack, and a team
of brilliant animal sidekicks, he sets out to understand where all the carbon is coming from.

Characters:

● Super Dog – The hero! Can fly, analyze data at super-speed, and communicate with AI systems.

● EcoCat – Expert in Scope 1, 2, and 3 emissions, has infrared vision to detect direct emissions.

● PandaBytes – The coder panda, good with spreadsheets, databases, and modeling.

● Chameleon Camo – Disguises herself to infiltrate polluting facilities and collect raw data.

Mission Objective:
Help Super Dog and his team gather, calculate, and analyze carbon emissions data from different
suppliers, sites, and emission scopes to build a full emissions profile for EcoMetra’s organizations.

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Write these queries to getting started with in-lab work
1. SuperDog noticed that Site Managers accidentally submit the same emission patrol record
multiple times for the same source on the same day. Help SuperDog by writing a trigger
that blocks duplicate entries for the same site_id, source_id, and record_date

2. Professor Bark wants to classify all emission records into “Low,” “Moderate,” or “High” levels so
he can assign cleanup teams accordingly. Create a scalar function called
fn_GetEmissionCategory that:

● Returns Low if emissions < 500

● Returns Moderate if < 5000

● Returns High otherwise

Use this function in a SELECT query to show all records and their category!

3. GadgetTail wants each emission record to show its category right in the table for
dashboard display.

○ Use ALTER TABLE to add a computed

column emission_category

○ Use your earlier function fn_GetEmissionCategory

in it

○ Remember to PERSIST the computed column!

4. Dr. Barkstein is building a Risk Dashboard using a Risk

Index formula

Write a scalar function fn_ComputeRiskScore to do the formula and ALTER TABLE

Emission_Record to add a computed column risk_score that uses this function

5. If a site consumes > 20000 liters of diesel in a single record, it's considered an emergency
fuel burn. This requires:

● Auto-sending an alert (insert into Emergency_Alerts)

● Auto-tagging the emission source (e.g., source_type += ' - Emergency

Burn') Write a trigger that:

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 ○ Detects this case on insert/update

○ Performs both of the above actions

○ Handles potential string length overflow in source_type safely

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Part-II: Snake & Ladder Game Simulation using SQL

Simulate a two-player Snake & Ladder game using SQL. Players take turns rolling a dice, and their
positions on a board are updated based on the dice roll. The game alternates between Player 1 and
Player 2, with every odd record being Player 1's turn and every even record being Player 2's turn

Requirements:
1. Table Design: Create a table LudoGamePlay to track each player's move. The table should
store the following

○ game_id (auto-incremented primary key)

○ player_id (1 for Player 1, 2 for Player 2)

○ dice_roll (random number between 1 and 6)

○ position (current position of the player on the board)

2. Game Flow
○ Player 1 starts first. Each player rolls a dice and moves accordingly.

○ The dice roll is randomly generated using SQL.

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 ○ If the dice roll takes a player past position 100, they remain at position 100.

○ The game alternates between Player 1 and Player 2 until one of them reaches
position 100.

Logic Help & Tips:

1. Dice Roll

A record will be inserted into the LudoGamePlay table having the value for dice_roll
calculated by rand()

2. Create a Scalar Function: Calculate New Position

CalculateNewPosition(@current_position INT, @dice_roll INT)

3. Create a Trigger to Update Position on each dice

roll e.g.

CREATE TRIGGER trg_UpdatePosition ON

LudoGamePlay

AFTER INSERT

4. Create a Stored Procedure to Simulate a Turn

5. To perform a turn run the stored procedure
6. Make a gameloop like this:

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 Submission Guidelines

1. submit following files strictly following the naming convention: l231234.sql

Best of Luck! Happy Querying

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