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MA1201 Calculus and Basic Linear Algebra II

Chapter 1
Basic Concept of Integration
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What is integration?
Roughly speaking, integration is the reverse process of differentiation: Given a
function 𝑓(𝑥), we would like to find a (differentiable) function 𝐹(𝑥) such that
𝑑
𝐹 (𝑥 ) = 𝑓 (𝑥 ).
𝑑𝑥 𝑑
Differentiation 𝐹(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
𝐹 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥

Integration ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥

Definition (Indefinite Integral)

Given a function 𝑔(𝑥), the (indefinite) integral of 𝑔(𝑥), denoted by
𝐺 (𝑥 ) = ∫ 𝑔(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥, is a function such that
𝑑
𝐺 (𝑥 ) = 𝑔(𝑥 ) (or 𝐺 ′ (𝑥 ) = 𝑔(𝑥 )).
𝑑𝑥
Here, 𝑔(𝑥) is called integrand and 𝐺(𝑥) is called an antiderivative
or a primitive function.
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Integrals of some elementary functions

Example 1
Compute the integral ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.
Solution:
It is equivalent to find a function 𝐹(𝑥) (= ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥) such that
𝐹 ′ (𝑥 ) = cos 𝑥.
From the formula in the differentiation, we guess that 𝐹 (𝑥 ) = sin 𝑥 (so that
𝑑
sin 𝑥 = cos 𝑥). Therefore, we conjecture that
𝑑𝑥

∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥.

Question: Can I try 𝑭(𝒙) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 + 𝟐?

𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
Answer: Yes. It is because 𝐹 ′ (𝑥 ) = (sin 𝑥 + 2) = sin 𝑥 + 2 = cos 𝑥.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
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Remark of Example 1
𝑑
Because of the fact that 𝐶 = 0 for any constant 𝐶, thus for any real constant 𝐶,
𝑑𝑥
the function 𝐹 (𝑥 ) = sin 𝑥 + 𝐶 satisfies

′(
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
𝐹 𝑥) = (sin 𝑥 + 𝐶 ) = sin 𝑥 + 𝐶 = cos 𝑥.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
In general, the integral ∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 is given by

∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥 + 𝐶

where 𝐶 is arbitrary constant.

Since the final answer is not fixed (𝐶 can be any constant), so the integral is called
indefinite integral.
(Practically, 𝐶 will be determined based on some conditions. You can learn more
when you study ordinary differential equation.)
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Example 2 (Integral of polynomial)

𝑑
Using the fact that 𝑥 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑎−1 for any real number 𝑎, compute the integral
𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑥 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 for 𝑎 ≠ −1.
Solution:
Again, we need to find a function 𝐹 (𝑥 ) = ∫ 𝑥 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 such that 𝐹 ′ (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 𝑎 .
1st Trial: Try 𝐹 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 𝑎+1
extra factor!
𝑑 𝑑 𝑎+1
𝐹 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 = ⏞
(𝑎 + 1) 𝑥 𝑎 .
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑎+1
2nd Trial: Try 𝐹 (𝑥 ) =
𝑎+1

𝑑 𝑑 𝑥 𝑎+1
Then 𝐹 (𝑥 ) = = 𝑥 𝑎 . Hence we conclude that
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑎+1
𝑎+1
𝑥
∫ 𝑥 𝑎 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝐶.
𝑎+1
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Remarks of Example 2
In Example 2, we consider the case when 𝑎 ≠ −1. How about the case when
𝑎 = −1? More precisely, what is the integral
1
∫ 𝑥 −1 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 ?
𝑥
𝑎 𝑥 𝑎+1
By direct substitution, one can see that the formula ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝐶 does not
𝑎+1
−1 𝑥 −1+1 1
work for this case since ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝐶 = + 𝐶 which is undefined.
−1+1 0
𝑑 1 Absolute sign is needed since 𝑥 can be
Note that ln|𝑥 | = .
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 positive or negative and ln 𝑥 = log 𝑒 𝑥
Therefore, we conclude that is only defined for 𝑥 > 0.

−1
1
∫𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln |𝑥| + 𝐶.
𝑥
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Example 3
Compute the integrals
1
∫ √𝑥𝑑𝑥 , ∫ 3
𝑑𝑥.
𝑥
1
IDEA: One can first express the functions √𝑥 and into the form 𝑥 𝑎 so
𝑥3
that we can use the result in Example 2 to compute these two integrals

Solution:
1
1 𝑥 2+1 2 3
∫ √𝑥𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝐶 = 𝑥2 + 𝐶
1 3
+1
2
−3+1
1 −3
𝑥 1 −2
∫ 3 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝐶 = − 𝑥 + 𝐶.
𝑥 −3 + 1 2
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Example 4 (Integral of Exponential Function)

Compute the following integral ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥.
Solution:
𝑑
Note that 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 , thus ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝐶.
𝑑𝑥

Example 5 (Integral of trigonometric functions)

Compute the following integrals
(a) ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
(b) ∫ sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
(c) ∫ sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
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Solution:
𝑑
(a) Note that cos 𝑥 = − sin 𝑥, so we should try 𝐹 (𝑥 ) = − cos 𝑥 so that
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
𝐹 ′ (𝑥 ) = (− cos 𝑥 ) = sin 𝑥. Thus
𝑑𝑥

∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cos 𝑥 + 𝐶.

𝑑
(b) Note that tan 𝑥 = sec 2 𝑥, thus
𝑑𝑥

∫ sec 2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥 + 𝐶

𝑑
(c) Note that sec 𝑥 = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥, thus
𝑑𝑥

∫ sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sec 𝑥 + 𝐶

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Summary of the important integral of some elementary functions

𝑓(𝑥) Antiderivative 𝐹(𝑥) Integral
𝐹′(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝐹 (𝑥 ) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
𝑥 𝑎 , 𝑎 is real 𝑥 𝑎+1 𝑥 𝑎+1
𝐹 (𝑥 ) = {𝑎 + 1 if 𝑎 ≠ −1 {𝑎 + 1 + 𝐶 if 𝑎 ≠ −1
ln |𝑥| if 𝑎 = −1 ln |𝑥| + 𝐶 if 𝑎 = −1
𝑒𝑥 𝐹 (𝑥 ) = 𝑒 𝑥 𝑒𝑥 + 𝐶
sin 𝑥 𝐹 (𝑥 ) = − cos 𝑥 − cos 𝑥 + 𝐶
cos 𝑥 𝐹 (𝑥 ) = sin 𝑥 sin 𝑥 + 𝐶
tan 𝑥 𝐹 (𝑥 ) = − ln|cos 𝑥 | − ln|cos 𝑥 | + 𝐶
or 𝐹 (𝑥 ) = ln | sec 𝑥 | or ln|sec 𝑥 | + 𝐶
sec 2 𝑥 𝐹 (𝑥 ) = tan 𝑥 tan 𝑥 + 𝐶
1 𝐹 (𝑥 ) = tan−1 𝑥 tan−1 𝑥 + 𝐶
1 + 𝑥2
1 𝐹 (𝑥 ) = sin−1 𝑥 sin−1 𝑥 + 𝐶
√1 − 𝑥 2
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Example 6
Compute the integrals
(a)
∫ 𝑒 3𝑥+1 𝑑𝑥
(b)
∫ cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
(c) 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 − 3𝑥
Solution
𝑑 𝑑
(a) If we try 𝐹1 (𝑥 ) = 𝑒 3𝑥+1 , then we have 𝐹1 (𝑥 ) = 𝑒 3𝑥+1 = 3𝑒 3𝑥+1 ≠
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 3𝑥+1 .
In order to compute the integral, we need to modify our choice of 𝐹(𝑥) by
1 𝑑 1 𝑑 1
setting 𝐹2 (𝑥 ) = 𝑒 3𝑥+1 so that 𝐹2 (𝑥 ) = 𝑒 3𝑥+1 = (3𝑒 3𝑥+1 ) = 𝑒 3𝑥+1 .
3 𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 3
Therefore, we get
3𝑥+1
1 3𝑥+1
∫𝑒 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 + 𝐶.
3
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𝑑
(b) Note that sin 2𝑥 = 2 cos 2𝑥, we should choose our 𝐹(𝑥) as
𝑑𝑥
1 𝑑 1 𝑑 1
𝐹 (𝑥 ) = sin 2𝑥 so that 𝐹 (𝑥 ) = sin 2𝑥 = (2 cos 2𝑥 ) = cos 2𝑥.
2 𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 2
Therefore, we have
1
∫ cos 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 2𝑥 + 𝐶.
2

𝑑 3
(c) Note that ln |1 − 3𝑥| = − , we should choose our 𝐹(𝑥) as
𝑑𝑥 1−3𝑥
1
𝐹 (𝑥 ) = − ln |1 − 3𝑥|
3
so that
𝑑 1 𝑑 1 −3 1
𝐹 (𝑥 ) = − ln |1 − 3𝑥| = − ( )= .
𝑑𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 3 1 − 3𝑥 1 − 3𝑥

Therefore, we conclude that

1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = − ln |1 − 3𝑥| + 𝐶.
1 − 3𝑥 3
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One useful fact in integration

Inspired by the result from Example 6, we can deduce the following useful result
Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a function.
1
If ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹 (𝑥 ) + 𝐶, then ∫ 𝑓(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝐶.
𝑎
 One can use this fact to upgrade our integration table so that we can compute
some more complicated integrals. For example:

1
∫ cos 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = sin 𝑥 + 𝐶 ∫ cos(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) 𝑑𝑥 = sin(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝐶
𝑎
(original formula) (new formula – more useful)
Put 𝑓(𝑥 ) = cos 𝑥 and 𝐹 (𝑥 ) = sin 𝑥
 Page 14 of 60

Example 7
Compute the integral
(a) 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥
(2𝑥 − 5)4
(b)
∫ √3𝑥 + 1𝑑𝑥

Solution
𝑎 𝑥 𝑎+1
Recall that ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝐶, one can use the above property and upgrade this
𝑎+1
1 (𝑐𝑥+𝑑 )𝑎+1
)𝑎
formula into ∫(𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 𝑑𝑥 = ( ) + 𝐶. Then, we get
𝑐 𝑎+1
𝑐=2,𝑑=−5
1 𝑎=−4 1 (2𝑥 − 5)−4+1 1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(2𝑥 − 5)−4 𝑑𝑥 =
⏞ +𝐶 =− + 𝐶.
(2𝑥 − 5) 4 2 −4 + 1 6(2𝑥 − 5)3
𝑐=3,𝑑=1
1
1 𝑎=1/2
1 (3𝑥 +1)2+1 2 3
∫ √3𝑥 + 1𝑑𝑥 = ∫(3𝑥 + 1)2 𝑑𝑥 =
⏞ + 𝐶 = (3𝑥 + 1)2 + 𝐶.
3 1 9
2+1
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More Properties of indefinite integrals

Using the definition of indefinite integral and the properties of differentiation, we can
discover the following property of indefinite integral:

Property 1
For any continuous function 𝑓(𝑥), we have
𝑑 𝑑
(∫ 𝑓 𝑥 𝑑𝑥) = 𝑓 𝑥 and ∫ ( 𝑓 (𝑥 )) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥 ) + 𝐶.
( ) ( )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

 The property 1 simply follows from the fact that the integration is the reverse
process of differentiation.
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Property 2
Let 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) be two continuous functions with ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹 (𝑥 ) + 𝐶1
and ∫ 𝑔(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 𝐺 (𝑥 ) + 𝐶2 , we have

1. ∫ 𝑐𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐 ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐𝐹 (𝑥 ) + 𝐶.

2. ∫[𝑓 (𝑥 ) ± 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 ± ∫ 𝑔(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹 (𝑥 ) ± 𝐺 (𝑥 ) + 𝐶

1
3. ∫ 𝑓(𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏)𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹 (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏) + 𝐶.
𝑎

Reasons:
All result can be deduced from the properties of differentiation. (You may refer to
Appendix A for more details)
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Remark of Property 2
One has to be careful that there is NO “product rule” or “quotient rule” of integration:
𝑓(𝑥 ) ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ≠ (∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥) (∫ 𝑔(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥) and ∫ 𝑑𝑥 ≠
(
𝑔 𝑥 ) ∫ 𝑔(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥

Take 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 and 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 as an example, we can see that

4
𝑥
∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑔(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶
4
2
𝑥3 𝑥2
(∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥) (∫ 𝑔(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥) = (∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥) (∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥) = ( + 𝐶1 ) ( + 𝐶2 )
3 2
≠ ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑔(𝑥)𝑑𝑥.

Similarly, we have
3
𝑥
𝑓 (𝑥 ) 𝑥2 ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶1 𝑓 (𝑥 )
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = + 𝐶 and = 3 ≠∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑔(𝑥 ) 2 ∫ 𝑔(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 𝑥 2 + 𝐶 𝑔(𝑥 )
2 2
 Page 18 of 60

Example 8
Compute the integral
1
1 − 2𝑥 2 −
∫ √𝑥 𝑑𝑥.
√𝑥
Solution:
Using the property of integration, we have
1 1
1 − 2𝑥 2 − 2
√ 𝑥 1 𝑥 𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 − 2 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ √ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 √𝑥 √𝑥 √𝑥
−
1 3 1
= ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 − 2 ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥
𝑥 𝑎+1
∫ 𝑥 𝑎 𝑑𝑥= 𝑎+1
1 1 3
∫𝑥 𝑑𝑥=ln |𝑥| − +1
𝑥 2 𝑥 2+1 1 4 5
=
⏞ −2 − ln|𝑥 | + 𝐶 = 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 2 − ln|𝑥 | + 𝐶.
1 3 5
− +1 +1
2 2
 Page 19 of 60

Example 9
Compute the integral
1
∫ (𝑒 2𝑥+1 + ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 2𝑥+1
Solution:
Using the property of integration, we have
2𝑥+1
1
∫ (𝑒 + 2𝑥+1 ) 𝑑𝑥
𝑒

= ∫ 𝑒 2𝑥+1 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑒 −2𝑥−1 𝑑𝑥

∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥=𝑒 𝑥 +𝐶
1
∫ 𝑓(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)𝑑𝑥=𝑎𝐹(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)+𝐶
1 2𝑥+1
1 −2𝑥−1
=
⏞ 𝑒 − 𝑒 + 𝐶.
2 2
 Page 20 of 60

Example 10
IDEA:
Compute the integral
We only know how to compute
2𝑥 + 3 1 1
∫ (𝑥−4)4 𝑑𝑥 or ∫ (2𝑥−5)5 𝑑𝑥. We have
∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 − 4)4
to rewrite the given integral so that
we can apply the previous result!
Solution:
2𝑥 + 3 2𝑥 − 8 11
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 − 4)4 (𝑥 − 4)4 (𝑥 − 4)4

1 1
= 2∫ 𝑑𝑥 + 11 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
(𝑥 − 4)3 (𝑥 − 4)4

= 2 ∫(𝑥 − 4)−3 𝑑𝑥 + 11 ∫(𝑥 − 4)−4 𝑑𝑥

(𝑥 − 4)−3+1 (𝑥 − 4)−4+1
=2 + 11 +𝐶
−3 + 1 −4 + 1
11
= −(𝑥 − 4 )−2 − (𝑥 − 4)−3 + 𝐶.
3
 Page 21 of 60

Some useful algebraic tricks in integration

In this section, we will introduce some useful techniques in integration. Some of
them involve the materials that you have learnt in MA1200.
Example 11 (Rationalization)
Compute the integral
𝑥(𝑥 − 3)
∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 − √3
Solution:
𝑥(𝑥 − 3) 𝑥 (𝑥 − 3) √𝑥 + √3 𝑥(𝑥 − 3)(√𝑥 + √3)
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
√𝑥 − √3 √𝑥 − √3 √𝑥 + √3 𝑥 − 3
3
= ∫ 𝑥(√𝑥 + √3)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 + √3 ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥
3
𝑥 2+1 𝑥2 2 5 √3 2
= + √3 ( ) + 𝐶 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 𝐶.
3 2 5 2
+1
2
 Page 22 of 60

Integration of functions involving trigonometric functions

The product-to-sum formula and compound angle formula are very useful in computing the
integral which the integrand consists of a product of some trigonometric functions. Both
formulae aim to express the integrand into the sum of single trigonometric functions so that
one can carry the integration term-by-term.

Product to sum formula and Compound angle formula

1
1. cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 = [cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) + cos(𝐴 − 𝐵)]
2
1
2. sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵 = − [cos(𝐴 + 𝐵) − cos(𝐴 − 𝐵)]
2
1
3. sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 = [sin(𝐴 + 𝐵) + sin(𝐴 − 𝐵)]
2
4. cos(𝐴 ± 𝐵) = cos 𝐴 cos 𝐵 ∓ sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵
5. sin(𝐴 ± 𝐵) = sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵 ± cos 𝐴 sin 𝐵
 Page 23 of 60

Example 12
Compute the integral
∫ sin 8𝑥 sin 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Solution:
Recall that there is no product rule in integration, one has to rewrite the expression
into sum so that the property of integration can be applied.
Using product-to-sum formula, we get
1
∫ sin 8𝑥 sin 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ − [cos(8𝑥 + 3𝑥 ) − cos(8𝑥 − 3𝑥 )]𝑑𝑥
2
1 1
= − ∫ cos 11𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ cos 5𝑥 𝑑𝑥
2 2
1
∫ cos(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)𝑑𝑥=𝑎 sin(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)+𝐶
1 1
=
⏞ − sin 11𝑥 + sin 5𝑥 + 𝐶.
22 10
 Page 24 of 60

Example 13
Compute the integral

∫ cos 2 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

Solution:
Using product to sum formula, we have

∫ cos 2 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(cos 3𝑥 )(cos 3𝑥 )𝑑𝑥

1 1 1
= ∫ [cos(3𝑥 + 3𝑥 ) + cos(3𝑥 − 3𝑥 )]𝑑𝑥 = ∫ cos 6𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 1𝑑𝑥.
2 2 2
1
∫ cos(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)𝑑𝑥=𝑎 sin(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)+𝐶
1 sin 6𝑥 1 1 1
=
⏞ ( )+ 𝑥+𝐶 = sin 6𝑥 + 𝑥 + 𝐶.
2 6 2 12 2
 Page 25 of 60

Use of Partial Fractions

The method of partial fraction allows us to split the function into sum of simpler
rational fractions so that we can do the calculus easily. In MA1200, we have seen
how this method works in differentiation. In fact, we can apply the similar method
when we encounter the integral involving rational functions so that we can compute
the integral easily.
(*We will discuss this method in more detail in later chapter)
Example 14 (Use of Partial Fractions)
1
(a) Decompose the function 𝑓(𝑥 ) = into partial fractions.
𝑥(2𝑥−1)
(b) Hence, compute the integral
1
∫ 𝑑𝑥.
𝑥(2𝑥 − 1)
 Page 26 of 60

Solution of (a)
Using method of partial fraction, we consider the following decomposition:
1 𝐴 𝐵
= + ⇒ 𝐴(2𝑥 − 1) + 𝐵𝑥 = 1.
𝑥(2𝑥 − 1) 𝑥 2𝑥 − 1
1 1
Substitute 𝑥 = into the equation on R.H.S., we get 𝐵 = 1 ⇒ 𝐵 = 2.
2 2

Substitute 𝑥 = 0 into the same equation, we get −𝐴 = 1 ⇒ 𝐴 = −1.

1 1 2
Therefore =− + .
𝑥(2𝑥−1) 𝑥 2𝑥−1

Solution of (b)
1
Using the result of (a) and the fact that ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ln |𝑥| + 𝐶, we have
𝑥

1 1 1 2
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + 2 ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = − ln 𝑥 + ln|2𝑥 − 1| + 𝐶
| |
𝑥(2𝑥 − 1) 𝑥 2𝑥 − 1 2
= − ln|𝑥 | + ln|2𝑥 − 1| + 𝐶.
 Page 27 of 60

Example 15 (Important)
1 −1 𝑑 1
Using the fact that ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = tan 𝑥 + 𝐶 (since tan−1 𝑥 = ), compute the
1+𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 1+𝑥 2
integral
1
(𝑎) ∫ 𝑑𝑥
1 + 16𝑥 2
3
(𝑏) ∫ 2
𝑑𝑥
4+𝑥
1
(𝑐 ) ∫ 2
𝑑𝑥
2𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 4
Solution:
(a) Note that
1
∫ 2 𝑑𝑦=tan−1 𝑦
1+𝑦
1 1 tan−1 4𝑥
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 =
⏞ +𝐶
1 + 16𝑥 2 1 + (4𝑥 )2 4
 Page 28 of 60

(b) IDEA: One needs to rewrite the integral into the form ∫ 𝐶 𝑑𝑦.
(1+𝑦 2 )
−1 𝑥
3 3 1 3 1 3 tan
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ( ) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ( 2) + 𝐶
4 + 𝑥2 4 𝑥2 4 𝑥 2 4 1
1+ 1+( ) 2
4 2
3 −1
𝑥
= tan + 𝐶.
2 2
(c) IDEA: One needs to use “completing square” technique to rewrite the integral
𝐶
into the form ∫ (1+𝑦 2 ) 𝑑𝑦 in order to apply the given result.

1 1 1
∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
2𝑥 + 4𝑥 + 4 2(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 ) + 4 2(𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 1 − 1) + 4
1 1 1 1 −1
=∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = tan (𝑥 + 1) + 𝐶.
(
2+2 𝑥+1)2 (
2 1+ 𝑥+1)2 2
 Page 29 of 60

Definite Integral

Question: How do we measure the area of the shaded region shown below?

𝑥1 𝑥2 … 𝑏

We cut the region into 𝑛 pieces (with equal base length) and each small piece is
approximated by a rectangle:
𝑏−𝑎
Area of rectangles = ∑𝑛𝑖=1 ⏟ × ⏟
𝑓(𝑧𝑖 )
𝑛
base height
where 𝑧𝑖 is some values between 𝑥𝑖−1 and 𝑥𝑖 .
 Page 30 of 60

When 𝑛 is getting larger (i.e., 𝑛 → ∞), the total area of the rectangle gives a good
approximation to the area of shaded region 𝐴. So we expect that
𝑏−𝑎
𝑛 let Δ𝑥= 𝑛
𝑏−𝑎 𝑛
𝐴 = lim ∑ 𝑓(𝑧𝑖 ) =
⏞ lim ∑ 𝑓(𝑧𝑖 )Δ𝑥 .
𝑛→∞ 𝑛 𝑛→∞
𝑖=1 𝑖=1

We define the definite integral of 𝑓(𝑥) from 𝑥 = 𝑎 to 𝑥 = 𝑏 to be the area of

shaded region (the area of the region under the graph of 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥))
𝑏 𝑛

𝐴 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = lim ∑ 𝑓(𝑧𝑖 ) Δ𝑥.

𝑎 𝑛→∞
𝑖=1
𝑏
 Different from the indefinite integral ∫ 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥, the ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 returns an
unique number instead of a function.
 Conceptually, there is no relationship between indefinite and definite integrals.
However, there is a little relationship between the two integrals in terms of
computation (will be explored later).
 Page 31 of 60

As a verification, we compute the area of the following region using the above
approach:
𝑦
(1,1)
By geometric argument, the
𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 area of the triangle 𝑇 is
1 1
(1 × 1) = .
𝑇 2 2

𝑥
0 (1,0)

We first cut divide the region vertically into 𝑛 regions with equal width (i.e., width =
1
).
𝑛
 Page 32 of 60

Next, we consider the 𝑖 th piece of the region. We approximate its area by a

1 𝑖−1 𝑖−1
rectangle with width and the height 𝑓 ( )= .
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛

Then the approximate area of the region is then given by

𝑛 𝑛
𝑖−1 1 1 1
Area ≈ ∑ ( × ) = 2 ∑(𝑖 − 1) = 2 [0 + 1 + 2 + ⋯ + (𝑛 − 1)]
𝑛 𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
𝑖=1 𝑖=1
1 (0 + (𝑛 − 1)) × 𝑛 𝑛2 − 𝑛
= 2 = .
𝑛 2 2𝑛2
Take 𝑛 → ∞, the approximate area becomes
divide both sides
by 𝑛2 1
2
𝑛 −𝑛 1−
Area = lim =
⏞ lim 𝑛=1
𝑛→∞ 2𝑛2 𝑛→∞ 2 2
which agrees with the result obtained by geometric argument.
 Page 33 of 60

Remarks about the definite integral

 The interval [𝑎, 𝑏] is called the range of integration.
 The numbers 𝑎 and 𝑏 are called the lower and upper limits of integration
respectively.
 In fact, the definite integral gives the signed area of region under the curve 𝑦 =
𝑓(𝑥). More precisely,
 The integral is positive if the entire curve is above the 𝑥-axis (i.e. 𝑓(𝑥 ) ≥ 0)
 The integral is negative if the entire curve is below the 𝑥-axis (i.e. 𝑓(𝑥 ) ≤ 0)
In general, if we wish to find the area of the region under curve 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), we
shall use the following modified formula:
𝑏
Area = ∫ |𝑓(𝑥 )|𝑑𝑥 ,
𝑎
Where |𝑓(𝑥 )| is the absolute value of 𝑓(𝑥).
 Page 34 of 60

How to compute the definite integral in general?

In general, it is hard to compute the definite integral using the definition:
𝑏 𝑛

∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = lim ∑ 𝑓 (𝑧𝑖 )Δ𝑥 .

𝑎 𝑛→∞
𝑖=1

In practice, people compute the value of definite integral using the following theorem:

Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

If 𝑓(𝑥) is continuous on the interval [𝑎, 𝑏], then
𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹 (𝑏) − 𝐹 (𝑎)
⏟
𝑎
denoted by 𝐹(𝑥)|𝑏 𝑏
𝑎 or [𝐹 (𝑥)]𝑎

where
The 𝐹(𝑥)
proof of this 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥.is presented in Appendix B.
= ∫theorem

The proof of this theorem is presented in Appendix B.

 Page 35 of 60

Procedure of computing definite integral

𝑏
Using this theorem, one can compute the definite integral ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 as follows:
Step 1: Find 𝐹(𝑥) by computing the indefinite integral 𝐹 (𝑥 ) = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥. (You may
ignore the arbitrarily constant 𝐶 since the constant does not affect the result.)
𝑏 𝑏
Step 2: Compute the integral ∫𝑎 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 using ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹 (𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎).

Example 16
Compute
𝜋
3
2
∫ 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 and ∫ sin 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 .
𝜋
0
4
 Page 36 of 60

Solution:
Step 1: Compute the indefinite integrals
For 𝑥 3 , we have
𝑥 𝑎+1
∫ 𝑥 𝑎 𝑑𝑥= 𝑎+1
𝑥4
𝐹 (𝑥 ) = ∫ 𝑥 3 𝑑𝑥 =
⏞ .
4
For sin 3𝑥, we have
1
∫ sin(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)𝑑𝑥=−𝑎 cos(𝑎𝑥+𝑏)
1
𝐺 (𝑥 ) = ∫ sin 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 =
⏞ − cos 3𝑥.
3
Step 2: Calculate the integrals
𝜋 𝜋
3 4 3 4 4
3
𝑥 3 0 81 2 1 1 2
∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = | = − = , ∫ sin 3𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − cos 3𝑥|𝜋 = − .
0 4 0
4 4 4 𝜋 3 3 √2
4 4
 Page 37 of 60

Example 17
Compute
1
1
∫ 2
𝑑𝑥.
−1 2 + 6𝑥

Solution:
Step 1: Compute the indefinite integral
1 1 1 1 1 1 −1
𝐹 (𝑥 ) = ∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥 = tan √3𝑥.
2 + 6𝑥 2 1 + 3𝑥 2 1 + (√3𝑥) 2√3

Step 2: Compute the integral

1 1
1 1 −1
1 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
∫ 2
𝑑𝑥 = tan √3𝑥| = ( − (− )) = .
−1 2 + 6𝑥 2√3 −1 2 √3 3 3 3√3
 Page 38 of 60

Properties of Definite integral

In this section, we summarize some formulae of definite integral which are useful in
computing the definite integrals. All of them can be derived from the fundamental
theorem of calculus. Here, 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) are two continuous functions.
𝑏 𝑐 𝑏
1. ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 .
𝑎 𝑎 𝑐
𝑎
2. ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 0.
𝑎
𝑐 𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎 𝑐

𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑎

𝑎 𝑐 𝑏 𝑎
 Page 39 of 60

Example 18
𝑥 if 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1
We consider the function defined as 𝑓(𝑥 ) = { 2 .
𝑥 if 𝑥 > 1
Compute the integrals
2
∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 .
0

Solution:
Using the above property, we can compute the integral as
2 1 2 1 2
∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = ∫ ⏟
𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ ⏟2
𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 0 1 0 𝑓(𝑥)=𝑥 1 𝑓(𝑥)=𝑥 2
for 0≤𝑥≤1 for 1<𝑥≤2
1 2
𝑥2 𝑥3 17
= | + | = .
2 0 3 1 6
 Page 40 of 60

Other properties of definite integrals

𝑎 𝑏
3. ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 .
𝑏 𝑎
𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
4. ∫ [𝑐1 𝑓(𝑥 ) + 𝑐2 𝑔(𝑥)]𝑑𝑥 = 𝑐1 ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 + 𝑐2 ∫ 𝑔(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 .
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

5. If 𝑓(𝑥) is an odd function (i.e., 𝑓 (−𝑥 ) = −𝑓(𝑥)), then

𝑎
∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 0.
−𝑎

𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
−𝑎
𝑎
 Page 41 of 60

6. If 𝑓(𝑥) is an even function (i.e., 𝑓 (−𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥)), then

𝑎 𝑎
∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 2 ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 .
−𝑎 0

0 𝑎 𝑎
∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 ∫ 𝑓(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
−𝑎 0 0

−𝑎 0 𝑎

7. If 𝑓 (𝑥 ) ≤ 𝑔(𝑥 ) ≤ ℎ(𝑥) for all 𝑥 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏], then

𝑏 𝑏 𝑏
∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 ≤ ∫ 𝑔(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 ≤ ∫ ℎ(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 .
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
 Page 42 of 60

Example 19 (Integral of odd functions)

Compute the integral
𝜋
sin(𝑥 3 + 𝑥 )
∫ 4
𝑑𝑥 .
−𝜋 𝑥 +3
Solution:
sin(𝑥 3 +𝑥)
Let 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = . We observe that
𝑥 4 +3
sin(−𝜃 )
sin[(−𝑥 )3 + (−𝑥)] sin(−𝑥 3 − 𝑥 ) =− sin 𝜃 sin(𝑥 3 + 𝑥 )
𝑓 (−𝑥 ) = = =
⏞ − = −𝑓(𝑥 ).
(−𝑥 )4 + 3 𝑥4 + 3 𝑥4 + 3
Thus it is an odd function and we can conclude from the property of definite integral
that (with 𝑎 = 𝜋) that
𝜋
sin(𝑥 3 + 𝑥 )
∫ 4+3
𝑑𝑥 = 0,
−𝜋 𝑥
 Page 43 of 60

Integration of absolute value function IDEA:

Example 20 We need to remove the
absolute value sign | ⋅ |
Compute the integral
in the integral first!!
4 2
∫ |𝑥 − 3|𝑑𝑥 , ∫ 𝑒 1+|𝑥−1| 𝑑𝑥
0 0

Solution:
𝑦 if 𝑦 ≥ 0
Recall that |𝑦| = { , one can substitute 𝑦 = 𝑥 − 3 and obtain
−𝑦 if 𝑦 < 0
𝑥−3 if 𝑥 − 3 ≥ 0 𝑥 − 3 if 𝑥 ≥ 3
|𝑥 − 3| = { ={ .
−(𝑥 − 3) if 𝑥 − 3 < 0 3 − 𝑥 if 𝑥 < 3
Then the integral can be computed as
4 3 4 3 4
∫ |𝑥 − 3|𝑑𝑥 = ∫ |𝑥 − 3|𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (|𝑥 − 3|)𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (3 − 𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (𝑥 − 3)𝑑𝑥
0 0 3 0 3
 Page 44 of 60

3 4
𝑥2 𝑥2
= (3𝑥 − )| + ( − 3𝑥)| = ⋯ = 5.
2 0 2 3

For the second integral, one can use the similar method and obtain
𝑥−1 if 𝑥 ≥ 1
|𝑥 − 1| = { , so we have
−(𝑥 − 1) = 1 − 𝑥 if 𝑥 < 1
2 1 2
∫ 𝑒 1+|𝑥−1| 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑒 1+|𝑥−1| 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑒 1+|𝑥−1| 𝑑𝑥
0 0 1
1 2 1 2
= ∫ 𝑒 1+(1−𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑒 1+(𝑥−1) 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑒 2−𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑒 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 1 0 1

= (−𝑒 2−𝑥 )|10 + 𝑒 𝑥 |12 = 2𝑒 2 − 2𝑒.

 Page 45 of 60

Example 21
Using definite integral, find the area of the region bounded by the curve
𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 1 − 𝑥 2 , 𝑥-axis, 𝑥 = 0 and 𝑥 = 2.

𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥2

0 1 2
 Page 46 of 60

Solution:
The area of the shaded region is given by
2| 1 − 𝑥2 if 1 − 𝑥 2 ≥ 0
|1 − 𝑥 ={
2 −(1 − 𝑥 2 ) if 1 − 𝑥 2 < 0
Area = ∫ |1 − 𝑥 2 |𝑑𝑥 1 − 𝑥 2 if 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 1
0 ={ 2 .
𝑥 − 1 if 1 < 𝑥 ≤ 2
1 2
= ∫ (1 − 𝑥 2 )𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (𝑥 2 − 1)𝑑𝑥
0 1
1 2
𝑥3 𝑥3
= [𝑥 − ] + [ − 𝑥]
3 0 3 1

1 23 13
= 1 − + ( − 2 − + 1)
3 3 3
= 2.
 Page 47 of 60

Example 22 (Harder Example)

Compute the derivative
2𝑥
𝑑 2
(∫ 𝑒 3𝑦 −1 𝑑𝑦)
𝑑𝑥 1
Solution
2 −1
Let 𝐹 (𝑦) = ∫ 𝑒 3𝑦 𝑑𝑦, then by fundamental theorem of calculus, we have
2𝑥
2 −1
∫ 𝑒 3𝑦 𝑑𝑦 = 𝐹 (𝑦)|12𝑥 = 𝐹 (2𝑥 ) − 𝐹 (1).
1
𝑑 𝑑 2 −1
Using the properties of differentiation and the fact that 𝐹 (𝑦) = ∫ 𝑒 3𝑦 𝑑𝑦 =
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2 −1
𝑒 3𝑦 , we finally get
2𝑥
𝑑 3𝑦 2 −1
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑𝐹 (2𝑥 ) 𝑑 (2𝑥 ) 2
(∫ 𝑒 𝑑𝑦) = 𝐹 (2𝑥 ) − 𝐹 (1) = − 0 = 𝑒 3(2𝑥) −1 (2)
𝑑𝑥 1 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑 (2𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
2 −1
= 2𝑒 12𝑥 .
 Page 48 of 60

Review Example 1
Compute the integrals
1 𝑒 5𝑥+3 − 𝑒 𝑥−1
∫ 𝑑𝑥 , ∫ 𝑑𝑥 .
(3𝑥 − 5)5 𝑒 𝑥+1

Solution:
( ) −5+1 ( )−4
1 −5
1 3𝑥 − 5 3𝑥 − 5
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(3𝑥 − 5) 𝑑𝑥 = +𝐶 =− +𝐶
(3𝑥 − 5)5 3 −5 + 1 12
𝑒 5𝑥+3 − 𝑒 𝑥−1 𝑒 5𝑥+3 𝑒 𝑥−1
∫ 𝑥+1
𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑥+1 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑥+1 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑒 4𝑥+2 𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑒 −2 𝑑𝑥
𝑒 𝑒 𝑒
4𝑥+2 −2
1 4𝑥+2
= ∫𝑒 𝑑𝑥 − 𝑒 ∫ 1𝑑𝑥 = 𝑒 − 𝑒 −2 𝑥 + 𝐶
4
 Page 49 of 60

Review Example 2
Compute the integral

∫ sin3 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥.

Solution:
Using the product-to-sum formula, we have
sin3 2𝑥 = (sin 2𝑥)(sin 2𝑥)(sin 2𝑥)
sin 𝐴 sin 𝐵
1
=− [cos(𝐴+𝐵)−cos(𝐴−𝐵)] cos 0=1
2 1
=
⏞ − [cos(2𝑥 + 2𝑥 ) − ⏞
cos(2𝑥 − 2𝑥 )] (sin 2𝑥 )
2

1 1 1
= − (cos 4𝑥 − 1)(sin 2𝑥 ) = − cos 4𝑥 sin 2𝑥 + sin 2𝑥
2 2 2
sin 𝐴 cos 𝐵
1
= [sin(𝐴+𝐵)+sin(𝐴−𝐵)]
2 1 1
=
⏞ − [sin(2𝑥 + 4𝑥 ) + sin(2𝑥 − 4𝑥 )] + sin 2𝑥
4 2
 Page 50 of 60

sin(−𝜃 )=− sin 𝜃

1 1 1 1 3
= − sin 6𝑥 − sin(−2𝑥 ) + sin(2𝑥 ) =
⏞ − sin 6𝑥 + sin 2𝑥.
4 4 2 4 4
Thus we have

3
1 3
∫ sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ sin 6𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ sin 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥
4 4
1 − cos 6𝑥 3 − cos 2𝑥
=− ( )+ ( )+𝐶
4 6 4 2
cos 6𝑥 3 cos 2𝑥
= − + 𝐶.
24 8
 Page 51 of 60

Review Example 3
Compute the integrals
3 1
2𝑥+1
4𝑥 + 5
∫ 𝑒 𝑑𝑥, ∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 0 √2𝑥 + 1
Solution
For the first integral, we have
∫ 𝑒 2𝑥+1 𝑑𝑥
1
= 𝑒 2𝑥+1
3 2 1 2𝑥+1 3 1 2(3)+1 1 2(0)+1 1 7
∫ 𝑒 2𝑥+1 𝑑𝑥 =
⏞ [ 𝑒 ] = 𝑒 − 𝑒 = (𝑒 − 𝑒).
0 2 0 2 2 2
For the second integral, we need to split the integral as
1 1 1
4𝑥 + 5 4𝑥 + 2 3
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 √2𝑥 + 1 0 √2𝑥 + 1 0 √2𝑥 + 1
1 1
1
= 2 ∫ √2𝑥 + 1𝑑𝑥 + 3 ∫ 𝑑𝑥
0 0 √2𝑥 + 1
 Page 52 of 60

1 1 1 1
−
= 2 ∫ (2𝑥 + 1)2 𝑑𝑥 + 3 ∫ (2𝑥 + 1) 2 𝑑𝑥
0 0

1 1 1 1
1 (2𝑥 + 1)2+1 1 (2𝑥 + 1)−2+1
= 2[ ] + 3[ ]
2 1 2 −1 + 1
+1
2 0 2 0

11
= 5√3 − .
3
 Page 53 of 60

Review Example 4
Compute the integral
2𝜋
∫ |sin 𝑥 |𝑑𝑥
0

Solution:
Using the graph of 𝑦 = sin 𝑥 for 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 2𝜋, we get

|sin 𝑥 | = { sin 𝑥 if sin 𝑥 ≥ 0

={
sin 𝑥 if 0 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝜋
.
− sin 𝑥 if sin 𝑥 < 0 − sin 𝑥 if 𝜋 < 𝑥 < 2𝜋
Hence, we calculate the integral as
2𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
∫ |sin 𝑥 |𝑑𝑥 = ∫ sin 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (− sin 𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
0 ⏟0 ⏟𝜋
|sin 𝑥|=sin 𝑥 |sin 𝑥|=− sin 𝑥
∫ sin 𝑥𝑑𝑥=− cos 𝑥
=
⏞ [− cos 𝑥 ]𝜋0 − [− cos 𝑥 ]2𝜋
𝜋 = 4.
 Page 54 of 60

Review Example 5 (A bit harder problem)

Let 𝑓(𝑥) be a continuous function
(a) Compute the derivative
2 +1
𝑑 𝑥
∫ 𝑓 (𝑦)𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥 2𝑥
(b) Show that
1 𝑏
(𝑏 − 𝑎) ∫ 𝑓[𝑎 + (𝑏 − 𝑎)𝑥 ]𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
0 𝑎

Solution of (a)
Let 𝐹 (𝑦) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑦)𝑑𝑦, then by fundamental theorem of calculus we get
𝑥 2 +1
∫ 𝑓(𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 𝐹 (𝑥 2 + 1) − 𝐹 (2𝑥 ).
2𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
Using the chain rule and the fact that 𝐹 (𝑦) = ∫ 𝑓(𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑦), we have
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
 Page 55 of 60

2 +1
𝑑 𝑥 𝑑 2
𝑑
∫ 𝑓(𝑦)𝑑𝑦 = 𝐹 (𝑥 + 1) − 𝐹(2𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 2𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝐹(𝑥 2 + 1) 𝑑 (𝑥 2 + 1) 𝑑𝐹 (2𝑥 ) 𝑑(2𝑥)
= −
𝑑 (𝑥 2 + 1) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑 (2𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥
Take 𝑦=𝑥 2 +1 or 𝑦=2𝑥
=
⏞ 𝑓 (𝑥 2 + 1) (2𝑥 ) − 𝑓(2𝑥)(2)
= 2𝑥𝑓(𝑥 2 + 1) − 2𝑓 (2𝑥 ).
Solution of (b)
𝑏
Note that ∫𝑎 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹 (𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎), so we just need to show
1
(𝑏 − 𝑎) ∫ 𝑓[𝑎 + (𝑏 − 𝑎)𝑥 ]𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹 (𝑏) − 𝐹 (𝑎).
0
1
To see this, we use the fact that ∫ 𝑓 (𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 )𝑑𝑥 = 𝐹 (𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑 ) for any constant 𝑐
𝑐
and 𝑑, we have
 Page 56 of 60

1
(𝑏 − 𝑎) ∫ 𝑓 [𝑎 + (⏟𝑏 − 𝑎) 𝑥] 𝑑𝑥
0 =𝑐
𝑐=𝑏−𝑎
𝑑=𝑎 1
1
⏞ (𝑏 − 𝑎) [
= 𝐹 (𝑎 + (𝑏 − 𝑎)𝑥 )]
𝑏−𝑎 0

1 1
= (𝑏 − 𝑎) [ 𝐹 (𝑎 + (𝑏 − 𝑎)(1)) − 𝐹(𝑎 + (𝑏 − 𝑎)(0))]
𝑏−𝑎 𝑏−𝑎
= 𝐹 (𝑏) − 𝐹(𝑎)
𝑏
= ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 .
𝑎
 Page 57 of 60

Appendix A – Properties of derivatives

Let 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑔(𝑥) be two differentiable functions, then we have
𝑑 𝑑
1. ( )
𝑘𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑘 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
2. [𝑓 (𝑥 ) ± 𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) ± 𝑔(𝑥 ).
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 𝑑
3. [𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑔(𝑥)] = 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑓 (𝑥 ) + 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥 ).
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
𝑑 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥 ) 𝑓 (𝑥 ) − 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑔(𝑥 )
4. [ ]= 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 .
𝑑𝑥 𝑔(𝑥) [𝑔(𝑥 )]2
5. If 𝑓(𝑥) and 𝑢(𝑥) be two differentiable functions, then
𝑑 𝑑𝑓(𝑢(𝑥)) 𝑑𝑢(𝑥) 𝑑𝑓 𝑑𝑢
𝑓(𝑢(𝑥 )) = (or )
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
 Page 58 of 60

Appendix B – Proof of Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

To start with, we define the function 𝐴: [𝑎, 𝑏] → [0, ∞) as
𝐴(𝑥 ) = Area under the curve 𝑦 = 𝑓 (𝑥 ) between 𝑎 and 𝑥

𝑨(𝒙)

 𝐴(𝑏) is the area of the entire shaded region.

 Page 59 of 60

Next, we consider the area difference 𝐴(𝑥 + Δ𝑥 ) − 𝐴(𝑥). Using the following graph
we observed that

𝑓max
𝑓min

Area = 𝐴(𝑥 + Δ𝑥 ) − 𝐴(𝑥)

𝑥 𝑥 + Δ𝑥

𝑓min Δ𝑥 ≤ 𝐴(𝑥 + Δ𝑥 ) − 𝐴(𝑥 ) ≤ 𝑓max Δ𝑥

𝐴(𝑥 + Δ𝑥 ) − 𝐴(𝑥 )
⇒ 𝑓min ≤ ≤ 𝑓max .
Δ𝑥
where 𝑓min and 𝑓max are the minimum and maximum values of the function within
𝑥 and 𝑥 + Δ𝑥 respectively.
Taking Δ𝑥 → 0, we get
 Page 60 of 60

𝐴(𝑥 + Δ𝑥 ) − 𝐴(𝑥 )
𝑓(𝑥 ) = lim 𝑓min ≤ lim ≤ lim 𝑓max = 𝑓(𝑥)
Δ𝑥→0 ⏟
Δ𝑥→0 Δ𝑥 Δ𝑥→0
𝑑𝐴
=
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝐴
By sandwich theorem, we get = 𝑓(𝑥 ).
𝑑𝑥

Next, we integrate both side with respect to 𝑥, we have

𝑑𝐴
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 ⇒ 𝐴(𝑥 ) + 𝐶 = 𝐹 (𝑥 ) ⇒ 𝐴(𝑥 ) = 𝐹 (𝑥 ) − 𝐶.
𝑑𝑥 ⏟
call this 𝐹(𝑥)

To find the value of 𝐶, note that 𝐴(𝑎) = 0, we then get 𝐴(𝑎) = 𝐹 (𝑎) − 𝐶 ⇒ 𝐶 =
𝐹 (𝑎). Therefore, we have 𝐴(𝑥 ) = 𝐹 (𝑥 ) − 𝐹 (𝑎) and
𝑏 by definition
∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 =
⏞ 𝐴(𝑏) = 𝐹 (𝑏) − 𝐹 (𝑎) where 𝐹 (𝑥 ) = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥.
𝑎