Revised Edition 2016 - 2017

POWER SYSTEM OPERATION

AND CONTROL
As per the Anna University Syllabus
FOR VI SEMESTER EEE STUDENTS

REGULATION 2013

Dr. C.R. BALAMURUGAN

Professor
Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering,
Arunai Engineering College
Tiruvannamalai

Dr. R. SELVARASU
Professor
Dept. of Electronics and Instrumentation Engineering,
Arunai Engineering College
Tiruvannamalai

D. PERIYAAZHAGAR
Assistant Professor
Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering,
Arunai Engineering College
Tiruvannamalai
with U
s t S o lved A
Late s
t i o n Paper
Que s 16
t o J u ne 20
up
 All rights reserved by the publisher.

First Edition: 2015

Second Revised Edition: December 2016

This book or part thereof should not be reproduced in any form without the written permission of the
authors.

ISBN: 978-93-85364-32-7

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The authors take great immense pleasure in introducing the text book
“Power System Operation and Control”. The book has been prepared
with the intention to help the VI - Semester EEE students of Anna University
(Regulation 2013) and to enable them to understand the fundamental concepts
of power system operation and control, Real power frequency control,
Reactive power voltage control, unit commitment, economic dispatch and
computer control of power system. The book has been presented in a simple
style to enable them to grasp the subject. This book is student friendly.

At the end of each unit, numerous solved problems, Part-B questions

and Part-A questions along with the answers (extracted from various
university question papers) have been supplemented.

The authors invite constructive criticism and fruitful suggestions from

Faculty as well as student community for the future betterment of the text
book.

The authors would like to record their immense gratitude to the

Management, Principal, Registrar, Secretary and HOD/EEE of Arunai
Engineering College, Tiruvannamalai.

The authors also express their heartful thanks to their department

colleagues for their timely help and kind co-operation.

The authors extend their gratefulness to their family members for their
whole hearted encouragement.

Last but not least the authors shows their special thanks to the
publishers “Sri Krishna Hitech Publishing Company Pvt. Ltd.,” and their
team members for their efforts to bring out this book successfully at the
right time for the benefit of the students.

Authors
 6<//$%86

32:(5 6<67(0 23(5$7,21 $1' &21752/

UNIT I INTRODUCTION
An overview of power system operation and control - system load variation
- load characteristics - load curves and load-duration curve - load factor - diversity
factor - Importance of load forecasting and quadratic and exponential curve fitting
techniques of forecasting - plant level and system level controls.

UNIT II REAL POWER - FREQUENCY CONTROL

Basics of speed governing mechanism and modeling - speed-load
characteristics - load sharing between two synchronous machines in parallel -
control area concept - LFC control of a single-area system - static and dynamic
analysis of uncontrolled and controlled cases - two-area system - modeling - static
analysis of uncontrolled case - tie line with frequency bias control - state variable
model - integration of economic dispatch control with LFC.

UNIT III REACTIVE POWER-VOLTAGE CONTROL

Generation and absorption of reactive power - basics of reactive power
control - excitation systems - modeling - static and dynamic analysis - stability
compensation - methods of voltage control: tap - changing transformer, SVC (TCR
 TSC) and STATCOM - secondary voltage control.

UNIT IV UNIT COMMITMENT AND ECONOMIC DISPATCH

Formulation of economic dispatch problem - I/O cost characterization -
incremental cost curve - co-ordination equations without and with loss (No
derivation of loss coefficients) - solution by direct method and  - iteration method
- statement of unit commitment problem - priority-list method - forward dynamic
programming.

UNIT V COMPUTER CONTROL OF POWER SYSTEMS

Need for computer control of power systems - concept of energy control
centre - functions - system monitoring - data acquisition and control - system
hardware configuration - SCADA and EMS functions - network topology - state
estimation - WLSE - Contingency Analysis - state transition diagram showing
various state transitions and control strategies.
 &217(176

UNIT I: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Overview of Power System Operation and Control.............................. 1.1
1.1.1 Overview of power system operation ........................................ 1.1
1.1.2 Overview of plant level and system level control ................... 1.4
1.2 System Load Variation ............................................................................. 1.7
1.2.1 Domestic (or) Residential load ................................................... 1.7
1.2.2 Industrial load ............................................................................... 1.8
1.2.3 Commercial load........................................................................... 1.8
1.2.4 Urban traction load ...................................................................... 1.8
1.2.5 Municipal load .............................................................................. 1.8
1.2.6 Irrigation load ............................................................................... 1.9
1.3 Load Characteristics .................................................................................. 1.9
1.3.1 Static characteristics ..................................................................... 1.9
1.4 Load Curves............................................................................................... 1.15
1.4.1 Daily Load curve ......................................................................... 1.15
1.4.2 Monthly Load curve .................................................................... 1.16
1.4.3 Annual load curve........................................................................ 1.16
1.4.4 Importance of Load curve........................................................... 1.16
1.5 Load Duration Curve ................................................................................ 1.17
1.6 Important Terms for Deciding the type and Ratings of Generating 1.17
Plant............................................................................................................
1.7 Load Factor (or) Demand Factor ............................................................ 1.19
1.8 Diversity Factor ......................................................................................... 1.20
1.9 Reserve Capacity And Requirements ...................................................... 1.20
1.10 Importance of Load Forecasting and Quadratic and Exponential Curve 1.22
Fitting Techniques Of Forecasting...........................................................
1.10.1 Load forecasting ........................................................................... 1.22
1.11 Basic P-f and Q-V Control Loops.......................................................... 1.25
1.11.1 AVR loop (or) Q-V control loop............................................... 1.25
 1.11.2 ALFC loop (or) P-f control loop .............................................. 1.25
Worked Examples..................................................................................... 1.28
PART - A: Questions and Answers ...................................................... 1.50
PART - B: Questions .............................................................................. 1.54
UNIT II: REAL POWER – FREQUENCY CONTROL
2.1 Philosophy of Real And Reactive Power Control................................ 2.1
2.2 Basics of Speed Governing Mechanism and Modeling ....................... 2.2
2.3 Static Power Generation .......................................................................... 2.9
2.4 Speed Load Characteristics (Load Sharing Between Two Synchronous 2.11
Machines in Parallel) ...............................................................................
2.5 Control Area Concept .............................................................................. 2.14
2.6 Load Frequency Control of Single Area System (without Integral 2.14
Control) .....................................................................................................
2.6.1 Static Analysis (or) steady state response of uncontrolled case 2.15
2.6.2 Static Analysis of Controlled Case ........................................... 2.18
2.6.3 Static analysis when  Pc  PD ............................................. 2.19
2.6.4 Dynamic analysis of uncontrolled case (Single Area) ............ 2.20
2.6.5 Dynamic Analysis of Controlled Case...................................... 2.23
2.7 Load Frequency Control of Single Area System with Integral 2.23
Controller...................................................................................................
2.7.1 Static analysis (or) steady state response (Uncontrolled case) 2.24
2.7.2 Dynamic response of uncontrolled case.................................... 2.25
2.8 Two Area Load Frequency Control ....................................................... 2.29
2.8.1 Two Area Load Frequency Control System Modelling .......... 2.30
2.8.2 Static Analysis of Uncontrolled Case (Two Area System) .... 2.35
2.8.3 Dynamic response of uncontrolled case (Two area system) .. 2.37
2.9 Tie Line with Frequency Bias Control of Two Area System ............ 2.41
2.9.1 Determination of tie line with frequency bias control of two 2.42
area system...................................................................................
2.9.2 The line bias control of multi area systems ............................ 2.44
2.10 Types of Automatic Load Frequency Controls for Interconnected 2.45
Power System ...........................................................................................
2.10.1 Flat frequency control................................................................. 2.45
2.10.2 Flat tie line load control ............................................................ 2.45
2.10.3 Tie line load bias control........................................................... 2.46
2.11 Economic Dispatch Control With LFC.................................................. 2.49
Worked Example ...................................................................................... 2.50
PART - A: Questions And Answers ..................................................... 2.81
PART - B: Questions .............................................................................. 2.86
UNIT III: REACTIVE POWER – VOLTAGE CONTROL
3.1 Generation And Absorption of Reactive Power.................................... 3.1
3.2 Basics of Reactive Power Control ......................................................... 3.5
3.2.1 Definition of Reactive power..................................................... 3.5
3.2.2 Positive and Negative Reactive power...................................... 3.6
3.2.3 System losses due to reactive power flow............................... 3.7
3.2.4 Causes of Low power factor ..................................................... 3.8
3.2.5 Effects of Low power factor ..................................................... 3.8
3.2.6 Advantages of power factor Improvement................................ 3.8
3.3 Excitation System ..................................................................................... 3.9
3.3.1 Requirements ................................................................................ 3.9
3.3.2 Classification ................................................................................ 3.9
3.4 Modeling of Typical Excitation System (or) Modeling of Automatic 3.15
Voltage Regulator.....................................................................................
3.5 Static And Dynamic Analysis of AVR ................................................. 3.21
3.5.1 Static analysis of AVR............................................................... 3.21
3.5.2 Steady state response for a closed loop transfer function...... 3.23
3.5.3 Dynamic Analysis of AVR loop ............................................... 3.24
3.6 Stability Compensation............................................................................. 3.25
3.7 Methods of Voltage Control and Secondary Voltage Control ............ 3.27
3.8 Tap Changing Transformer...................................................................... 3.27
3.9 SVC (TCR + TSC).................................................................................. 3.29
3.10 Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM)..................................... 3.30
Worked Examples..................................................................................... 3.32
PART - A: Questions and Answers....................................................... 3.55
PART - B: Questions .............................................................................. 3.61
UNIT IV: UNIT COMMITMENT AND ECONOMIC DISPATCH
4.1 Economic Dispatch ................................................................................... 4.1
4.1.1 Optimal operation of Generators on a busbar.......................... 4.1
4.1.2 Economic Dispatch Problem....................................................... 4.4
4.2 Input - Output Cost Characteristics ........................................................ 4.5
4.3 Incremental Cost Curve ........................................................................... 4.6
4.3.1 Cost Function ............................................................................... 4.6
4.3.2 Incremental cost curve of Received Power (or) System 4.7
Incremental Cost (or) Incremental fuel cost (IC).....................
4.4 Co-ordination Equations ........................................................................... 4.10
4.5 Coordination Equation Without Loss...................................................... 4.12
4.6 Coordination Equation With Loss (or) Exact Coordination Equation. 4.15
4.7 Solution By Direct Method ..................................................................... 4.17
4.8 Solution By   Iteration Method Without Loss (Computer Approach) 4.17
4.8.1 Computational Approach for optimum Allocation of 4.21
Generation (Including losses) .....................................................
4.9 Statement of Unit Commitment Problem............................................... 4.24
4.9.1 Need for unit commitment ......................................................... 4.24
4.9.2 Difficulties to find unit commitment solution .......................... 4.25
4.9.3 Constraints on unit commitment problem ................................. 4.25
4.10 Methods Available for Unit Commitment.............................................. 4.26
4.10.1 Priority List Method.................................................................... 4.26
4.10.2 Solution of unit commitment problem by Forward Dynamic 4.31
Programming ................................................................................
Worked Examples..................................................................................... 4.33
PART - A: Questions and Answers....................................................... 4.62
PART - B: Questions .............................................................................. 4.68
 UNIT V: COMPUTER CONTROL OF POWER SYSTEMS
5.1 Need for Computer Control of Power Systems.................................... 5.1
5.2 Concept of Energy Control Centre ........................................................ 5.1
5.3 SCADA (Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition System) ........... 5.6
5.3.1 Functions of SCADA.................................................................. 5.6
5.3.2 Need for SCADA........................................................................ 5.7
5.3.3 Components of SCADA ............................................................. 5.7
5.3.4 Configurations .............................................................................. 5.7
5.3.5 Master unit ................................................................................... 5.9
5.3.6 Remote Terminal Units (RTU) .................................................. 5.10
5.3.7 Communication channels in SCADA system ........................... 5.10
5.4 Energy Management System (EMS) ...................................................... 5.11
5.4.1 Energy management system for utilities ................................... 5.11
5.4.2 Energy management system for users....................................... 5.12
5.5 Network Topology.................................................................................... 5.13
5.6 State Estimation........................................................................................ 5.14
5.6.1 Maximum Likelihood Weighted Least Squares Estimation..... 5.14
5.6.2 Power system state estimation ................................................... 5.19
5.7 Contingency Analysis............................................................................... 5.20
5.8 System States Transition Diagram.......................................................... 5.22
5.9 Hardware Requirements for Computer Control of Power System...... 5.23
5.10 Software for Computer Control of Power System ............................... 5.24
PART - A: Questions and Answers ...................................................... 5.25
PART - B: Questions .............................................................................. 5.29
Anna University Solved Question Papers.............................................. 1-34
 UNIT - I

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The power system comprises generation, transmission and distribution networks.

1.1.1 Overview of power system operation

Electrical energy cannot be stored in large amount ofcourse small amount of
storage is possible in rechargeable batteries. But no method of large scale storage of
electrical energy has been devised so far. Therefore electrical energy has to be
generated and supplied instantaneously.
The operation of power system becomes very complex due to the following
factors:
1. At every instant the total real power generated must equal to the total real
power demand plus losses.
2. The total real power demand varies from instant to instant.
3. Load also requires lagging reactive power, it must also be produced and
supplied.
4. The voltage and frequency of the system must be maintained within the
limits as per the regulations.
5. Energy must be generated in such a way that the overall cost is minimum.
6. Any part of the power system may suffer a forced outage at any time.
7. Because of many reasons the load may increase unexpectedly and this
additional load must also be supplied.
(i) Unit commitment
The load demand in a power system varies from instant to instant. Since the
overall cost has to be kept to a minimum, it is not advisable to run all the generating
units all the time. Therefore it is essential to predict the maximum demand and commit
enough number of generating units to meet the predicted demand. The problem of
unit commitment means the decision as to how many and which units should be kept
1.2 Power System Operation and Control

running at different times of the day. To run a generating unit means to start the
auxiliaries, bring the unit to full speed, synchronise it with the system and load it.
Different types of generating units have different start up time and characteristics.

(ii) Power system reliability

Reliability of any device or system means the probability that the device will
continue to give satisfactory performance for a specified period of time under specified
operating conditions. Thus reliability of a power system means the probability that
the system will be able to deliver the real and reactive power within the specified
voltage and frequency limits for all times in future. Many mathematical techniques
have been devised to predict the reliability of power system. For generating units the
most commonly used technique is the loss of load probability method. Composite
system reliability and frequency and duration techniques are also used to predict the
power system reliability.

(iii) Power system security

Power system security means the practices and methodologies to be used to
keep the system operating in the event of forced outages and unforeseen increase in
demand. Any generating unit may suffer a forced outage at any time. A transmission
line may be damaged due to heavy rain, snow, wind, etc., and may have to be taken
out by the protective relaying. Moreover the generating units and transmission lines
have to taken out of service for maintenance. Through reliability can be given a
definite and precise definition and can be calculated for a system. It is very difficult
to attach a numerical index to security. However system security can be decomposed
into three functions.
(a) System monitoring
(b) Contingency analysis
(c) Optimum power flow

(a) System monitoring

System monitoring means providing all pertinent upto date information about
the conditions to the operators. System security point of view, it is essential that all
critical quantities are measured and these values sent to load dispatch centre through
telemetry.

(b) Contingency analysis

Contingency analysis means to analyse and predict secure operation. Contingency
analysis allows the modelling of possible troubles which could arise in the system.
Introduction 1.3

(c) Optimal power flow

The optimal power flow is also called as optimal generation dispatch. The results
of contingency analysis are used to obtain security constrained optimal dispatch. For
this purpose the optimal dispatch can be sub divided into pre-contingency and post
contingency conditions.

(iv) Power system stability

The term power system stability denotes a condition in which the different
synchronous machines remain in synchronism after being subjected to disturbance. It
is concerned with the conditions necessary for the successful operation of a power
system when changing from one stable condition to another due to variations in its
operating conditions which may be slow or sudden. The stability problem can be
subdivided into steady stability, transient stability and dynamic stability. Another term
used in power systems is voltage stability which refers to the ability of the system
to maintain proper voltage level in the event of small (or) large disturbances.

(v) Load dispatching

The operation of a modern power system has become very complex. The main
considerations are

1. Voltage at different buses must be within limits.

2. Frequency must be within limits.

3. Reliability of power supply must be ensured.

The reliability of power supply is represented by many indices. Some of these

are number of outages per customer per year, average duration of each outage and
the total time in a year for which outages occur. The additional constraint of ensuring
that operating costs must be kept to minimum, which makes the task of power
engineers really difficult. In order to maintain frequency and voltage within limits the
balance between real and reactive power generated and supplied must be maintained.
Whenever forced outage of generating units occurs, additional generating capacity must
be put into operation to ensure reliability. For this purpose sufficient spinning reserve
capacity must be maintained whenever a transmission line suffers an outage, power
must be sent to load centre through an alternate route. Since the power systems are
operated as interconnected systems, it is necessary to control all the operations from
an energy control centre. In earlier days this was done from a manual load dispatch
centre. Nowadays it is done from an automatic load dispatch centre. It is equipped
with closed loop on line computers for power system operation and control.
1.4 Power System Operation and Control

1.1.2 Overview of plant level and system level control

The plant level and system level controls of power systems is shown in Fig.
1.1. Their functions are as follows

(i) Governor control

The load on the system changes from instant to instant. If the load on a generator
is increased, its speed will decrease. If the load decreases, speed will increase. Change
in speed results in corresponding change in frequency. The change in frequency is
not acceptable. Therefore it is necessary to use a governor to sense the speed and
adjust input to the generator to compensate for changes in load. In earlier days flyball
governor was used. Nowadays electronic governors are used. The electronic governor
is fast and accurate. The governor control ensures a match between input and output
to keep frequency of output voltage constant.

(ii) Load frequency control (LFC)

This control is also called megawatt-frequency (or) power factor control. The
aim of this control is to maintain real power balance in the system through control
of system frequency. Whenever the real power demand changes, a frequency change
occur. This frequency error is amplified, mixed and changed to a command signal
which is sent to the turbine governor. The governor adjusts the turbine input to restore
the balance.

(iii) Economic dispatch control (EDC)

The total load of the system must be shared by the different generators such
that the generators operate on equal increment cost. In modern power systems this
additional constraint has also to be incorporated in system control. In addition to
maintaining frequency and voltage within limit the overall cost of generation must be
minimum. This is achieved through economic dispatch control. This is possible only
through the use of a digital computer. This computer is located in energy control
centre (or) load dispatch centre. All power plants are inter linked to this computer
in energy control center through modern communication channels. The megawatt
setting of different generators are fed to the computer every five minutes or so.
Moreover the optimal settings are also fed to the computer. The computer senses the
difference between actual settings and optimal settings and sends to the regulator to
adjust megawatt outputs.

(iv) Automatic voltage regulator (AVR)

Every generator is fitted with automatic voltage regulator. The functions of AVR
are as follows
Introduction 1.5

1. Control of generator output voltage between prescribed limits.

2. Proper division of reactive power between the units operating in parallel.
3. Increase of excitation under system faulty conditions. So that maximum
synchronising power is available when the fault is cleared to prevent loss
of synchronism.
4. Prevention of dangerous overvoltages on the occurrence of sudden loss of
load on the system. The AVR works on the principle of error detection. It
controls the exciter output to adjust the voltage of synchronous generator.

(v) System voltage control

It is also called megavar voltage (or) QV control. The aim of this control is to
maintain the system voltage within limits by adjusting the excitation of machines.
AVR senses the difference between the rectified voltage derived from the stator voltage
and the reference voltage. The error signal is amplified and fed to excitation circuit
of synchronous generator. The change of excitation maintains the voltage at proper
value and the VAR balance in the system.
Many other devices are used for system voltage control. They are
1. Fixed and switched capacitors.
2. Thyristor switched capacitor, thyristor controlled reactor (TSC - TCR).
3. Tap changing transformer and on load tap changing transformer.
4. Regulating transformer.
5. Series capacitor.
6. Synchronous condensers.
7. Flexible AC Transmission System controllers (FACTS devices)

(vi) Security control

Power system operates under steady state condition in most of the time. However
some emergency situations occur from time to time. These are forced outage of
generating units, fault on transmission line, sudden increase or) loss of load etc. Some
mal operation of a relay may also cause an emergency condition. Moreover the failures
may have a cascading effect. It is the job of power system engineers to operate the
system such that reliability level is maintained and ensure economic operation taking
all constraints into account. Security control aims to ensure reliability and economy.
1.6 Power System Operation and Control

Fig. 1.1 Plant and system level controls

Introduction 1.7

! BHBC4< ;>03 E0A80C8>=

The main types of load on a system are domestic, industrial, commercial,

municipal, traction, agriculture, etc. A graph showing the hourly variation in demand
during the 24 hours of the day is called a chronological load curve. The chronological
load curves follow a typical pattern for each of the above loads. Fig. 1.2 shows some
typical chronological load curves for different types of loads.

Fig. 1.2 Chronological load curves for different types of loads

1.2.1 Domestic (or) Residential load

Residential load consists of lights, fans and appliances like radios, televisions,
heaters, electric irons, refrigerators, coolers, electric water heaters, washing machines,
etc. The small consumers may generally use all the lighting loads simultaneously giving
a demand factor of unity.
1.8 Power System Operation and Control

In big houses, the demand factor may be only around 0.5. During summer the
major part of domestic load may consists of refrigerator load, fan load during day
and light and fan load during evenings. During winter, the major load is light load
during evenings and early mornings and some heater load and refrigerator load. Fig.
2 (a) shows the curve for domestic load.

1.2.2 Industrial load

The Industrial load may be further sub-divided into small, medium and heavy.
The chronological load curve for industrial load will depend on the number of shifts
per day in the industry, the curve in Fig. 2.(b) referring to single shift industry. During
night the load is mostly lighting plus some loads like refrigeration load which require
continuous supply. Around 6 am some machines starts working and the load starts
increasing.

1.2.3 Commercial load

This load mainly consists of lighting, fans and small electric appliances. The
load is fairly constant from around 9 am to 8 pm. During night the load may be
some lighting load. The demand factor is fairly high.

1.2.4 Urban traction load

This load consists of Tram cars, Suburban trains and associated railway stations
etc. From mid night to around 4 am, the load is small and limited to mostly lighting
load. Around 4 am the trains starts running and the load starts increasing. Around 8
am the peak travel and the maximum load condition is reaches. After 10 am the
service frequency reduces and the load also shows a downward trend. The load again
rises towards evenings, around 5 pm, as workers start causing back to their homes.
After 9 pm the load falls rapidly.

1.2.5 Municipal load

This includes load for street lighting, water supply etc.
Street lighting load is practically constant during night thus giving a demand
factor and diversity factor of unity. The switching on of the lights and their switching
off is synchronised with dusk and drawn respectively. Hence the street lights function
for a slightly shorter duration during summer than during winter. It is necessary to
run separate distributors for street lighting to enable their switching simultaneously.
Introduction 1.9

The load for water supply is for pumping water to the overhead tanks. It is
generally possible to fit this load during system off peak hours, usually occurring
during night.

1.2.6 Irrigation load

The load of the tube-wells used for irrigation may constitute a substantial portion
of the system load. For same areas it may be more than ever the industrial load. It
is a general practice to energise tube-well feeders for about 12 hours a day during
night. The demand factor and diversity factor are both almost unity.

" ;>03 270A02C4A8BC82B

Load is a device that taps energy from the network.

The load devices may vary from a few watt night lamps to multi - megawatt
induction motors. The following categories of loads are in a system

1. Motor devices – 70%

2. Heating and lighting equipment – 25%
3. Electronic devices – 5%

The heating load maintains constant resistance with voltage change and hence
the power varies with (voltage)2, where as, lighting load is independent of frequency
and power consumed varies as V1.6 rather than V2. From the electrical point of view
the magnitude of devices are characterized by vast differences with regard to

 Size

 Symmetry (single (or) three phase)

 Load constancy (with respect to time, frequency and voltage)

 Use cycle (Regular (or) random use)

1.3.1 Static characteristics

The static characteristics is a relation between power, torque or current and the
voltage determined at such slow variations of the operating conditions that each of
its points may be considered as corresponding to a steady state.
1.10 Power System Operation and Control

P  P |V| ...(1.1)

Q  Q |V| ...(1.2)

(a) Lighting and heating loads

The real power consumed by a heating load varies with (voltage)2 and the heating
load maintains constant resistance with voltage change. Such a load consumes no
reactive power. The static characteristics of light loads are shown in Fig. 1.3.

|V|2
P with R  constant
R

|V|2
P with R   V
R

Fig. 1.3 Static characteristics of lighting loads

For an impedance load i.e., lumped load,

V (1.3)
S  VI  V2 Y  V 
R  j XL

V2 R  j XL
 
R  j XL R  j XL

V2
 2 [R  j XL]
R  X2L

V2
P  jQ  2 R  j XL
R  X2L

Equating real and imaginary parts,

Introduction 1.11

V2 V2 ...(1.4)
P 2  R  R
R  X2L R2  2 fL2

V2 V2 ...(1.5)
Q 2  XL   2 fL
R  X2L R2  2 fL2

It is clear that both P and Q increase as the square of voltage magnitude. As

frequency increases, real power P decreases and reactive power Q increases.

(b) Composite Loads

For composite load, the relation between the load, voltage, frequency are
concerned with incremental change in P and Q as a function of incremental change
in |V| and f.
P P ...(1.6)
P  | V|  f
 |V| f
Q Q ...(1.7)
Q  | V|  f
 |V| f
As frequency increases, real power increases. This is because a composite load
mostly consists of induction motors which always will experience increased load, as
frequency (or) speed increases.

(c) Induction motors

The static characteristics P  P |V| and Q  Q |V| of an induction motor may
be readily determined by the use of simplified equivalent circuit as shown in the Fig.
1.4.
It is assumed that mechanical load on the shaft remain constant.

Fig. 1.4. Simplified equivalent circuit of an induction motor

1.12 Power System Operation and Control

Real power
From the equivalent circuit, the real power P per phase consumed by the motor
is given by

 R2   |V|2   R2  ...(1.8)
P  |I|2    s 
 s   2   
R  
  2 
  X2  
 s  

Where,
R2 = Rotor resistance
X1 = Stator leakage reactance
X2 = Rotor leakage reactance referred to stator
Xm = Phase voltage
s = Slip
X  X1  X2

Reactive power
The reactive power consumed by the motor consists of two components, namely,
the magnetizing component Q associated with magnetizing current I and the
component Qs depending upon stator and rotor leakage. Thus the reactive power Q
per phase as

Q  Q  Qs ...(1.9)

Where,
 |V|2  ...(1.10)
Q     I |V|
 Xm 

Qs  |I|2 Xs (1.11)

Variation of I and Xm with voltage and variation of reactive power as a function

of voltage as shown in Fig. 1.5 (a) & 1.5 (b).
Introduction 1.13

Fig. 1.5 (a) Variation of I and Xm with Fig. 1.5 (b) Reactive power Q as a
applied voltage function of voltage

The static characteristics P  P |V|, Q  Q |V| of an induction motor are as

shown in Fig. 1.6 (a) and the power slip characteristics are shown in Fig. 1.6 (b).
These curves show that, for any given mechanical load Pmech, each motor has
a certain critical condition. i.e., there is a critical voltage and a corresponding critical
slip. If the voltage is reduced below the critical voltage, the motor becomes unstable
and stalls, since the electrical torque will be less than the required mechanical torque.
We know,

|V|2 R2 ...(1.12)
P 
2 s
R  
 2 X2
 s  

Fig. 1.6 (a) Static characteristics of an IM

Fig. 1.6 (b) Power slip characteristics
shaft torque constant
1.14 Power System Operation and Control

dp 
The critical point occurs when   is equal to zero.
 ds 
Differentiating P with respect to s, we get
dp 1
 |V|2  R2  

ds
  2  
   R2  2 
s s  X 
  
2
2 
 R    2R2   R2  R  
s 2  X2   0  1   s   2   2 2 
X 
  s   s  s  
2
 |V| R2    s 
2 2
 
2  R2  2
s   X 
 s  
2
 2R2  R  
2 2
    X2 
s  s 
 
 |V|2 R2 2 2
 
2   R2  2
s   X
 s  
2
R  
2
|V|2 R2     X2 
 s   2
 R22  sX2 
 2 2
 |V|  R2  
 R    R22  sx2 
2
s2     X2
 s  
dp
Equating  0, we get
ds

R22  sX2  0

R22  s2 X2, R2  sX

R2 ...(1.13)
s  scr 
X
Introduction 1.15

where,
scr= critical slip

For this critical slip, the maximum power is

|V|2 sX
Pmax  2

s
 sX   X2
 s 
 
|V|2 ...(1.14)
Pmax  per phase
2X

# ;>03 2DAE4B

The curve showing the variation of load on the power station with reference to
time is known as a load curve.

1.4.1 Daily Load curve

The load variations during the whole day (24 hours) are recorded half hourly
(or) hourly and are plotted against time on the graph the curve thus obtained is known
as daily load curve as it shows the variation of load with respect to time during the
day.

Fig. 1.7 Typical daily load curve of a power station

1.16 Power System Operation and Control

It is clear that load on the power station is varying and being maximum at 6
pm in this case.

1.4.2 Monthly Load curve

The monthly load curve can be obtained from the daily load curves of that
month. For this purpose average values of power over a month at different times of
the day are calculated and then plotted on the graph. The monthly load curve is
generally used to fix the rates of energy.

1.4.3 Annual load curve

The yearly load curve is obtained by considering the monthly load curve of
that particular year. The yearly load curve is generally used to determine the annual
load factor.

1.4.4 Importance of Load curve

The daily load curves have attained a great importance in generation as they
supply the following information readily.
(i) The load curve shows the variations of load on the power station during
different hours of the day.
(ii) The area under the load curve gives the number of units generated in the day.
Units generated/day = Area under daily load curve (kWh)
(iii) The highest point on the load curve represents the maximum demand on
the station on that day.
(iv) The area under the load curve divided by the total number of hours gives
the average load on the station.
Area under daily load curve kWh
Average load 
24 hours
(v) The ratio of the area under the load curve to the total area of rectangle in
which it is contained gives the load factor.
Average load Average load  24
Load factor  
Maximum demand Maximum demand  24

Area under daily load curve in kWh


Total area of rectangle in which the load curve is obtained
(vi) The load curve helps in selecting the size and number of generating units.
Introduction 1.17

$ ;>03 3DA0C8>= 2DAE4

When the load elements of a load curve are arranged in the order of descending
magnitudes, the curve thus obtained is called a load duration curve.
The load duration curve is obtained from the same data as the load curve but
the ordinates are arranged in the order of descending magnitudes. In otherwords, the
maximum load is represented to the left and decreasing loads are represented to the
right in the descending order. Hence the area under the load duration curve and the
area under the load curve are equal. Fig 1.8 (a) shows the daily load curve. The
daily load duration curve can be readily obtained from it. It is clear from daily load
curve that load elements in order of descending magnitude are: 20 MW for 8 hours,
15 MW for 4 hours and 5 MW for 12 hours. Plotting these loads in the order of
descending magnitudes the daily load duration curve can be obtained as shown in
Fig. 1.8 (b).

Fig. 1.8 (a) Load curve Fig. 1.8 (b) Load duration curve

% 8<?>AC0=C C4A<B 5>A 342838=6 C74 CH?4 0=3 A0C8=6B >5

64=4A0C8=6 ?;0=C

(a) Connected load

It is the sum of continuous rating of all the equipments connected to supply
system.
(b) Maximum demand
It is the greatest demand of load on the power station during a given period.
1.18 Power System Operation and Control

(c) Demand factor

It is the ratio of maximum demand on the power station to its connected load.

Maximum demand
Demand factor 
Connected load

(d) Average load

The average of loads occurring on the power station in a given period (day (or)
month (or) year) is known as average load or average demand.

No. of units generated in a day

Daily average load 
24 hours
No. of units generated in a day
Annual average load 
8700 hours

No. of units generated in a day

Monthly average load 
No. of hours in a month

(e) Capacity factor

It is the ratio of actual energy produced to the maximum possible energy that
could have been produced during a given period.

Actual energy produced

Capacity factor 
Maximum energy that could have been produced

(f) Coincidence factor

The reciprocal of the diversity factor is called the coincidence factor.
Maximum demand of power station
Coincidence factor 
Sum of individual maximum demand

It is always less than the unity.

(g) Utilisation factor

It is a measure of the utility of the power plant capacity and is the ratio of
maximum demand on the power station to the rated capacity of the power plant. It
is less than the unity.
Maximum demand on the power station
Utilisation factor 
Rated capacity of the power station
Introduction 1.19

(h) Plant operating factor (or) Plant use factor

It is defined as the ratio of the actual energy generated during a given period
to the product of capacity of the plant and the number of hours the plant has been
actually operated during the period.
Total kWhr generated
Plant use factor   Number of 
 Rated capacity of   
    operating 
the plant  

 hours 

(i) Reserve capacity

It is the difference between plant capacity and maximum demand.

Reserve capacity = Plant capacity  maximum demand.

& ;>03 502C>A >A 34<0=3 502C>A

Load factor is defined as the ratio of average load to the maximum demand
during a certain period of time such as a day (or) a month (or) a year.
Average load
Load factor 
Maximum demand
If the plant is operated for T hours.

Average load  T
Load factor 
Maximum demand  T

T  24 for daily load curve

T  24  7 for weekly load curve

T  24  365 for annual load curve

Significance of load factor

1. Load factor is always greater than unity, because average load is smaller
than maximum demand.
2. It is used to determine the overall cost per unit generated.
3. If the load factor is high, cost per unit generated is low.
1.20 Power System Operation and Control

' 38E4AB8CH 502C>A

The ratio of sum of the individual maximum demands of all the consumers
supplied by the power station to the maximum demand of the power station is called
the diversity factor.
Sum of individual maximum demands
Diversity factor 
Maximum demand of power station
It is always greater than the unity.
Because maximum demand of different consumers do not occur at same time. Therefore
 Maximum demand on   Sum of individual 
  
 the power station   maximum demands 
If diversity factor is more, the cost of generation of power is low.

Factors to Improve the Diversity factor

1. Giving incentives to some consumers to use electricity during night (or) light
load periods.
2. Using day light.
3. Staggering the office timings.
4. Having two part tariff in which consumer has to pay an amount dependent
on the maximum demand of consumer uses.

( A4B4AE4 20?028CH 0=3 A4@D8A4<4=CB

Every system must have a certain amount of reserve generating capacity to

provide for forced outage and overhaul of generating equipment. The following terms
are commonly used in connection with this aspect.
(a) Spinning reserve
It is the operating reserve which is connected to the bus and ready to take load.
Many times spinning reserve is obtained by overloading the generators (or) by fully
loading the generating units which are under loaded.
(b) Non spinning reserve
It is the operating reserve which is capable of being connected to the bus and
loaded within a specified time. This reserve is obtained from fast start generating
systems. Gas turbine units and hydroelectric generators can be started and loaded
quickly and therefore fall in this category.
Introduction 1.21

(c) Operating reserve

It is the reserve above firm system load requirement to provide for regulation
within the hour to cover minute to minute variations, load forecasting errors, loss of
equipment and equipment maintenance. It consists of spinning and non-spinning
reserve.

Spinning reserve is more reliable than non-spinning reserve because spinning

reserve can respond very quickly.

Some other terms used in connection with reserve capacity are:

(i) Installed reserve

It is the difference between installed generating capacity and peak system load.

(ii) Cold reserve

Generating units available for service but not maintained at operating temperature
are called cold units and their combined capacity is called cold reserve.

(iii) Hot reserve

Generating units ready and available for service (and maintained at operating
temperature) but not in actual operation are formed as hot units and their combined
capacity is called hot reserve.

(iv) Ready reserve

Gas turbine units and hydroelectric units have the capability to be started and
loaded quickly. They are referred to as ready reserve.

(v) Purchased reserve

Reserve capacity which can be purchased from another system or source. It may
be spinning (i.e., available immediately) or made available after some time as per the
agreement with the other party.

(vi) Delayed reserve

Reserve which can be made available after a certain time, may be a few minutes
(or even hours) is called delayed reserve.
1.22 Power System Operation and Control

  8<?>AC0=24 >5 ;>03 5>A420BC8=6 0=3 @D03A0C82 0=3

4G?>=4=C80; 2DAE4 58CC8=6 C427=8@D4B >5 5>A420BC8=6

1.10.1 Load forecasting

The load on the systems should be estimated in advance. This estimation in
advance is known as load forecasting. Load forecasting is based on the previous
experience without any historical data.
Need for load forecasting
1. To meet out the future demand.
2. Long-term forecasting is required for preparing maintenance schedule of the
generating units, planning for future expansion of the system.
3. For day-to-day operation, short term load forecasting is needed in order to
commit enough generating capacity for the forecasting demand and for
maintaining the required spinning reserve.
4. Very short term load forecasting are used for generation and distribution.
5. Medium term load forecasting is needed for predicted monsoon acting and
hydro availability and allocating spinning reserves.
Load forecasting can be divided into two categories.
(a) Long term forecasting
(b) Short term forecasting
(a) Long term forecasting
It takes a pretty long time to plan, install and commission of additional generating
capacity. Generation system expansion planning starts with a forecast of anticipated
future load requirements. Proper long term load forecasting is necessary for optimal
generation capacity expansion.
In preparing a forecast, the system planner is confronted with the following questions:
1. Should the maximum demand be forecast using forecasted of energy and
load factors (or) should it be forecast separately.
2. Should the total forecast be obtained by combining the forecast of appropriate
load components (or) should be total forecast be directly obtained from the
historical load data.
3. Should simple forecasting method be used or should more formal
mathematical procedures be employed.
Introduction 1.23

Each of the above methodologies have its own advantages and limitations. No
one approach is used by all the utilities consistently. Choosing the best method for
a given system requires good judgement of the planner.
One method, used by many utilities, for long range load forecasting is
extrapolation. Extrapolation technique involves filling trend curves to basic historical
data adjusted to reflect the growth trend itself. Once the trend curve is known, the
forecast is found by evaluation the trend curve function at the desired future point.
Some of the functions used in Trend curve filling are:

Straight line Y  A  Bx
Parabola Y  A  Bx  Cx2
S curve Y  A  Bx  Cx2  Dx3
Exponential Y  CDx
e
Gompertz Y  ln 1 A  CDx
e 
Combination Y  A  Bx  CDx
e

Where Y is the load in year x (with base year zero) and A, B, C, D are constants
computed, generally, by the method of least squares.
If the uncertainty of extrapolated results is to be quantified using statistical
entities like mean and variance, the basic technique become probabilities extrapolation.
The use of stochastic models to generate a forecast from random inputs derived from
historical data has also been suggested but is not used in actual practice.
Another technique for load forecasting is correlation. This technique relates
system loads to various demographic and economic factors. Typically factors like
population, employment, industrial licenses, appliance saturation, weather data etc are
used in correlation techniques. However the forecasting of the demographic and
economic factors is rather difficult.

(b) Short term load forecasting

A precise short term load forecast is essentially for monitoring and controlling
power system operation. The hourly load forecast with lead time upto one weak in
advance is necessary for online solution of scheduling problems. A 24 hour load
forecast is needed for successive operation of the power system. One hour forecast
is important for online real time control and security evaluation of a large power
system.
1.24 Power System Operation and Control

Short term forecasting techniques generally involve physical decomposition of

load into components. The load is decomposed into a daily pattern reflecting the
difference in activity level during the day, a weekly pattern representing the day of
the week effect on load, a trend component concerning the seasonal growth in load
and a weather sensitive component reflecting the deviations in load due to weather
fluctuations. The random error can be statistically analyses to obtain a stochastic model
for error estimation.
Thus the expected hourly load forecast is divided into five components and
written as
Y i, j  ADP j  A W Pk, j  W SC i, j  TR i  SEC i, j ...(1.15)
Where
Y i, j = Load forecast for jth hour of ith day
ADP j = Average daily load pattern at jth hour.
AWP k, j = Average weekly load increment pattern at jth hour and
kth day of the week k  1, 2  7
WSC i, j = Weather sensitive component at jth hour of ith day.
TR i = Trend component of load of ith day
SEC i, j = Stochastic error component which is assumed to be
normally distributed.
The average daily pattern represents the hour of the day effect. It is an average
of the daily load pattern over an optimal number of past days.
The average weekly pattern reflects the day of the week effect. It is calculated
as the average of the weekly cycles over a certain number of past weeks.
The weather sensitive component represents the changes in customer requirements
according to variations in weather conditions. Generally temperature is considered as
the only weather variable since data banks for other weather variables like wind,
humidity, etc. are usually not available.
The trend component includes three components. They are
1. A long term growth trend.
2. A short term trend dependent on the economic cycle.
3. A time of the year pattern.
The statistical error component represents the error in the estimate. The standard
deviation and variance are usually taken as error parameters.
Introduction 1.25

Many digital computer programs for load decomposition and forecasting have
been developed by many utilities.

 10B82 ?U 0=3 @E 2>=CA>; ;>>?B

1. Static changes in  Pi in the real power affect the bus phase angle and not
the bus voltage magnitude. This change affects the real power line flows
and not the reactive power line flows.
2. Static changes  Qi in the reactive power affect the bus voltage magnitudes
and the phase angle. This change affects the reactive power line flows and
not the real power line flows.
3. Static changes in the reactive power affects the bus voltage at the particular
bus and has little effect on the magnitude of voltage.
In order to perform voltage and frequency control a basic generator will have
two control loops namely,
(i) Automatic voltage control loops (or) Q-V control loop
(ii) Automatic load frequency control (ALFC) loop (or) P-f control loop.

1.11.1 AVR loop (or) Q-V control loop

The automatic voltage regulator circuit (or) Q-V control loop as shown in Fig. 1.9.
This loop is used for voltage control. This bus bar voltage (say, 11 kV) is
stepped down using a potential transformer to a small value of voltage. This is send
to the rectifier circuit which converts the AC voltage into DC voltage and a filter
circuit used in this removes the harmonics. The voltage Vi thus rectified is compared
with a reference voltage Vref in the comparator and a voltage error signal is generated.
The amplified form of this voltage gives a condition for the exciter to increase (or)
decrease the field current based on its polarity. The output of the generator is stepped
up using a transformer and fed to the bus bar. Thus the voltage is regulated and
controlled in this control loop circuit.

1.11.2 ALFC loop (or) P-f control loop

Te ALFC loop regulates the real power output of the generator and its frequency
(speed).
This control loop circuit is divided into primary and secondary Automatic load
frequency control (ALFC) loop structures as shown in Fig. 1.9.
1.26 Power System Operation and Control

Fig. 1.9 Automatic load frequency and Voltage regulator control loops
Introduction 1.27

(a) Primary ALFC

The circuit primarily controls the steam valve leading to the turbine. A speed
sensor senses the speed of the turbine. This is compared with a reference speed,
governor whose main activity is to control the speed of the steam by closing and
opening of the control value i.e., if the differential speed is low then the control
valve is opened to let out the steam at high speed there by increasing turbine’s speed
and vice versa. The control of speed in turn controls the frequency.

(b) Secondary ALFC

This circuit involves a frequency sensor that senses the frequency of the bus
bar and compares it with tie line power frequencies in the signal mixer. The output
of this is an Area control Error (ACE) which is sent to the speed changer through
integrator. The speed changer gives the reference speed to the governor. Integral
controller is used to reduce the steady state frequency change to zero.

ALFC  Automatic Load Frequency Control

AVR  Automatic Voltage Regulator

ACE  Area Control Error

After this part of the circuit is the introduction of the primary ALFC loop whose
functions has already been described.

Thus, the two loops together help in controlling speed which in turns controls
the frequency, since N  f.

120f
Using the speed relation, N 
P

Where
f = Frequency in Hz
p = Number of poles
1.28 Power System Operation and Control

WORKED EXAMPLES

4G0<?;4 1.1

A generating station has a maximum demand of 400 MW. The annual load factor
is 60% and capacity factor is 50%. Find the reserve capacity of the plant.

(April/May 2010)

Given data
Load factor  0.6

Capacity factor  0.5

Maximum demand  400 MW

 Solution
Energy generated per annum

 Maximum demand  Load factor  Hours in a year

 400  106  0.6  8760

 2102.4  103 MWhr

Units generated per annum

Plant capacity 
Capacity factor  Hours in a year

2102.4  103

0.5  8760

 480 MW

Reserve capacity = Plant capacity  Maximum demand

 480  400

 80 MW
Introduction 1.29

4G0<?;4 1.2

A generating station has a maximum demand of 25 MW. Load factor is 60%, plant
capacity factor is 50% and plant use factor is 72%. Find the reserve capacity and
daily energy produced.
 Solution
60
Load factor   0.6
100
50
Plant capacity factor   0.5
100
Maximum demand  25 MW

Aver age load  Maximum demand  Load factor

 25  0.6  15 kW
Average load
Plant capacity factor 
Installed capacity
Average load
Installed capacity (or) Plant capacity 
Plant capacity factor
15
  30 MW
0.5
Fr om aver age load,
Ener gy pr oduced per day  15  24

 360 kW/day
72
Plant use factor   0.72
100
Energy produced per day
Maximum energy produced 
Plant use factor
360
  500 kW
0.72
Reserve capacity  Plant capacity  Maximum demand

 30  25  5 kW
1.30 Power System Operation and Control

4G0<?;4 1.3

A power supply is having the following loads

Maximum Diversity factor

Type of load Demand factor
demand (kW) of group
Domestic 10,000 1.2 0.8
Commercial 30,000 1.3 0.9
Industrial 50,000 1.35 0.95

If the overall system diversity factor is 1.5 determine

(a) The maximum demand (b) Connected load of each type (May 2014)

 Solution
(a) Total maximum demand of loads
 10000  30000  50000

 90000 kW
System Diversity factor = 1.5
Total maximum demand
Maximum demand 
System diversity factor
90000
  60000 kW
1.5

(b) Connected load of each type

Domestic load
Maximum domestic demand
Diversity factor of domestic load 
Maximum domestic load demand
 Maximum domestic   Diversity factor of 
Maximum domestic load demand    
 demand   domestic load 
 10000  1.2  12,000 kW

Maximum demand Domestic

Connected domestic load 
Demand factor of domestic load
12000
  15000 kW
0.8
Introduction 1.31

Commercial load
 Maximum   Diversity 
Maximum commercial     
   commercial    factor of 
load demand   demand   commercial load 
   

 30000  1.3  39000 kW

Maximum demand commercial
Connected commercial load 
Demand factor of commercial load
39000
  43,333.33 kW
0.9

Industrial load
 Maximum   Diversity 
Maximum Industrial     
   Industrial    factor of 
load demand   demand   Industrial load 
   

 50000  1.35
 67500 kW
Maximum demand Industrial
Connected Industr ial load 
Demand factor of industrial load
67500

0.95
 71052.63 kW

4G0<?;4 1.4

A power station has to meet the following demand

Group A : 200 kW between 8 A.M and 6 P.M
Group B : 100 kW between 6 A.M and 10 A.M
Group C : 50 kW between 6 A.M and 10 A.M
Group D : 100 kW between 10 A.M and 6 P.M and then between 6 P.M and
6 A.M
Plot the daily load curve and determine
(a) Diversity factor (b) Units generated per day (c) Load factor
(May 2008, Dec. 2014)
1.32 Power System Operation and Control

 Solution
Time (hrs)/Group 0-6 6-8 8-10 10-18 18-24
A – – 200 kW 200 kW –
B – 100 kW 100 kW – –
C – 50 kW 50 kW – –
D 100 kW – – 100 kW 100 kW
Total load on power 100 kW 150 kW 350 kW 300 kW 100 kW
station

Fig. 1.10

(a) Maximum demand = 350 kW

Sum of all individual maximum demand
Diversity factor 
Maximum demand on station

200  100  50  100


350
 1.286
(b) Units generated per day = Area under the load curve
 100  6  150  2  350  2  300  8  100  6  4600 kWhr
Introduction 1.33

Average load
(c) Load factor 
Maximum demand
Units generated per day
Average load 
Hour’s in a day
4600
  191.666 kW
24
191.666
Load factor   0.5476  54.7%
350

4G0<?;4 1.5

A generating station has the following daily loads. (Dec 2012, 2013)
0 - 6 hrs  4500 kW
6 - 8 hrs  3500 kW
8 - 12 hrs  7500 kW
12 - 14 hrs  2000 kW
14 - 18 hrs  8000 kW
18 - 20 hrs  2500 kW
20 - 24 hrs  5000 kW
Sketch the load duration curve and determine the load factor and plant capacity
factor if the capacity of the plant is 12 MW.
 Solution

Fig. 1.11
1.34 Power System Operation and Control

Load in kW Duration (hrs)

8000 4
7,500 & above 8
5,000 & above 12
4500 & above 18
3500 & above 20
2500 & above 22
2000 & above 24

Fig. 1.12

Capacity of the plant  12 MW  12,000 kW

Maximum demand of the generating station  8000 kW

Units generated in 24 hrs

 8000  4  7500  4  5000  4  4500  6  3500  2  2500  2  2000  2

 1,25,000 kWhr
Introduction 1.35

Units generated 1,25,000

Average load  
Time in hrs 24
 5208 kW
Average load
Load factor   100
Maximum demand
5208
  100  65.1%
8000
Plant capacity factor
Average demand
  100
Rated capacity of power plant
5208
  100
12000
 43.4%

4G0<?;4 1.6

A generating station has a maximum demand of 40 MW and a connected load of

75 MW. If the number of units generated in a year are 250  106 kWhr. Calculate
(i) Load factor (ii) Demand factor.
 Solution
Units generated/annum
Average load 
Hours in a year

250  106
  28.54 kW
365  24
Average load
Annual load factor   100
Maximum demand
28.54
  100
40  103
 0.071%
Maximum demand
Demand factor 
Connected load
40
  0.533 or 53.33%
75
1.36 Power System Operation and Control

4G0<?;4 1.7

A diesel station supplies the following loads to various consumers

Industrial load  1000 kW
Commercial load  750 kW
Domestic load  500 kW
Domestic light  500 kW
If the maximum demand on the station is 2500 kW and the number of kWhr
generated per year is 45  105. Determine the diversity factor and annual load factor.

(Dec 2008)

 Solution
Maximum demand = 2500 kW

Sum of all individual maximum demands

(a) Diversity factor 
Maximum demand on power station

1000  750  500  500


2500

 1.1

Average load
(b) Average load factor 
Maximum demand

kWhr generated per annum

Average load 
Hours in a year

45  105 45  105
 
24  365 8760

Aver age load = 513.69 kW

513.69
Load factor 
2500

 20.54%
Introduction 1.37

4G0<?;4 1.8

The annual load duration curve of a certain power station can be considered as a
straight line from 20 MW to 4 MW. To meet this load, three turbine generator
units, two rated at 10 MW each and one rated at 5 MW are installed. Determine
(i) Installed capacity
(ii) Plant factor
(iii) Units generated per annum
(iv) Load factor and
(v) Utilization factor
 Solution

Fig. 1.13

(i) Installed capacity  10  10  5  25 MW

20  4
(ii) Aver age demand   12 MW
2
Average demand
Plant factor 
Plant capacity
12
  0.48
25
(iii) Units gener ated/annum  Area kWh under the curve
1
 [4000  8760]  [1  8760]
2

 105.12  106 kWh

1.38 Power System Operation and Control

Average demand
(iv) Load factor 
Maximum demand

12000
  60%
20000

Maximum demand
(v) Utilization factor 
Plant capacity

20
  0.8
25

4G0<?;4 1.9

A generating station supplies the following loads connected to it

Industries  95 MW
Domestic lighting load  5 MW
Domestic power load  8 MW
Commercial load  12 MW
The maximum demand on the station is 92 MW calculate the load factor and
diversity factor. If the total number of units generated in a year is 3  108.

(May 2011)

 Solution
Sum of all individual maximum demands
Diversity factor 
Maximum demand on power station

95  5  8  12

92

 1.3043

kWhr generated per annum

Average load 
Hours in a year

3  108
  34246 kW
24  365
Introduction 1.39

Average load
Load factor 
Maximum demand
34246
  0.372
92  103

 37.2%

4G0<?;4 1.10

A generating station supplied the following loads 15000 kW, 12000 kW, 8500 kW,
6000 kW and 450 kW. The station has a maximum demand of 22000 kW. The
annual load factor of the station is 48% calculate
(i) the number of units supplied
(ii) the diversity factor
(iii) the demand factor (Dec 2009)

 Solution
M.D = 22000 kW
Average load
Annual load factor 
Maximum demand
Average load
0.48 
22000
Average load  22000  0.48  10,560 kW
kWhr generated per annum
Average load 
Hours in a year
kWhr generated per annum  10560  8760

 92  106

The number of units supplied  92  106

Sum of all individual maximum demands
Diversity factor 
Maximum demand
15000  12000  8500  6000  450

22000
 1.907
1.40 Power System Operation and Control

Average load
Demand factor 
Maximum demand
10,560
  0.48
22,000

4G0<?;4 1.11

A generating station has a maximum demand of 20 MW, a load factor of 60%, a

plant capacity of 48% and a plant use factor of 80%. Find the
(i) Daily energy produced
(ii) Reserve capacity of the plant
(iii) Maximum energy that could be produced daily if the plant were running all
the time and
(iv) Maximum energy that could be produced if the plant when running (acc to
operating schedule) were fully loaded. (Dec 2011)

Given data
Maximum demand  20 MW

Load factor  0.6

Plant capacity factor 0.48

Plant use factor  0.8

 Solution
Average demand
Load factor 
Maximum demand
Average demand  Load factor  Maximum demand

 0.6  20,000

 12,000 kW
Average demand
Plant capacity factor 
Installed capacity
Average demand
Installed capacity 
Plant capacity factor
12000
  25000 kW
0.48
Introduction 1.41

Reserve capacity of the plant  Installed capacity  Maximum demand

 25,000  20,000
 5,000 kW
Daily energy produced  Average demand  24
 12,000  24
 2,88,000 kWhr
Energy/day corresponding to installed capacity
 25,000  24
 6,00,000 kWhr
Maximum energy that could be produced (operating according to schedule)
Actual energy produced

Plant use factor
2,88,000

0.8
 3,60,000 kWhr

4G0<?;4 1.12

A generating station has a maximum demand of 50,000 kW. Calculate the cost per
unit generated from the following data.
Capital cost  Rs.95  106
Annual load factor  40%
Annual cost of fuel and oil  Rs. 9  106
Taxes, wages and salaries, etc.  Rs. 7.5  106
Interest and depreciation  12% (Dec 2011, 2013)

 Solution
Annual   Hours 


  
Units generated/annum  { Maximum demand }  Load    in a 


factor   year 


 50,000  0.4  8760

 17.52  107 kWhr

1.42 Power System Operation and Control

Annual fixed charges  12% of capital cost

 0.12  95  106

 Rs. 11.4  106

Total annual running charges

 Annual cost of   Cost for taxes, 
  
 fuel and oil   wages, etc. 

 Rs. [9  106  7.5  106]

 Rs. 16.5  106

 Annual fixed   Annual running 
Total annual charges    
 charges   charges 

 Rs. [11.4  106  16.5  106]

 Rs. 27.9  106

Total annual charges

Cost/unit 
Unit generated/annum

27.9  106
  Rs. 0.16
17.52  107

 16 paise

4G0<?;4 1.13

The maximum demand of a power plant is 40 MW. The capacity factor is 0.5 and
the utilisation factor is 0.8. Find
(a) Load factor
(b) Plant capacity
(c) Reserve capacity
(d) Annual energy production

 Solution
Capacity factor 0.5
(a) Load factor    0.625
Utilisation factor 0.8
Introduction 1.43

Maximum demand 40
(b) Plant capacity  
Utilisation factor 0.8
 50 MW
(c) Reserve capacity  50  40  10 MW
(d) Annual energy production  40  0.625  8760
 219000 MWhr

4G0<?;4 1.14

The load curve of an electrical system is linear with the following values at different
times of the day:

Time 0 5 AM 9 6 8 PM 10 12
Load (MW) 50 50 100 100 150 80 50
Plot chronological load curve. Find the energy required by the system in one day
and the system daily load factor.
 Solution

Fig. 1.14

Energy required by the system in 24 hours

100  50 100  150 150  80 80  50
 50  5   4  100  9  2 2 2
2 2 2 2
= 2060 MWhr
1.44 Power System Operation and Control

2060
Daily load factor   0.5722
150  24
 57.22%

4G0<?;4 1.15

Consider an inductive load of type Z  R  jX. By how many percent will be the
real power load drop if the voltage is reduced by 5%. (Nov, 2004)

 Solution
1
P  j Q  |V|2 Y  |V|2
R  jX
1 1
Multiplying by complex Y  
Z R  jX
Conjugate of denominator and numerator, we get

|V|2 R  jX R  jX
  |V|2  2
R  jX R  jX R  X2
Equating real and imaginary parts, we get
R
P  |V|2 2
R  X2
X
Q  |V|2 2
R  X2

For a small voltage perturbation  V, for real power

Differentiating P with respect to |V|.
P P R 2 |V|2 R
  2 |V|  2 
 V  |V| R  X2 |V| R2  X2
2P

|V|
 P 2  |V|

P |V|
A small change in voltage results in twice the relative change in MW. In this
case 5% drop in voltage causes a 10% drop in load.
Introduction 1.45

4G0<?;4 1.16

The maximum demand on a power station is 100 MW. If the annual load factor
is 40%. Calculate the total energy generated in a year. (Dec 2008)

 Solution
 Maximum   Annual   Hours in a 
Units generated/annum     
 demand   load factor   year 

 100  0.4  8760

 350400 MWhr

4G0<?;4 1.17

A consumer has a connected load of 12 lamps each of 100 W at his/her premises.

His/Her load demand is as follows:

From midnight to 5 A.M : 200 W

5 A.M to 6 P.M : No load
6 P.M to 7 P.M : 700 W
7 P.M to 9 P.M : 1000 W
9 P.M to midnight : 500 W
Draw the load curve and calculate the
(i) Energy consumption during 24 hours
(ii) Demand factor
(iii) Average load
(iv) Maximum demand and
(v) Load factor
 Solution
From Fig. 1.15
(i) Electrical energy consumption during the day = area of load curve
 200  5  700  1  1000  2  500  3

 5200 MW

 5.2 kWhr
1.46 Power System Operation and Control

Fig. 1.15

Energy consumed during a day

(ii) Average load 
24
5200
  216.7 W
24
1000
(iii) Demand factor   0.83
12  100

(iv) Maximum demand = 1000 W

Average load 216.7
(v) Load factor    0.2167
Maximum demand 1000

 21.7%

4G0<?;4 1.18

The yearly load - duration curve of a power plant is a straight line (Fig. 1.16)
The maximum demand (load) is 30 MW and the minimum load is 20 MW. The
capacity of the plant is 35 MW. Calculate the plant capacity factor, the load factor,
and the utilization factor.

 Solution
No. of units generated per year = Area OACD  Area OBCD  Area BAC
Introduction 1.47

1
 20  8760  30  20  8760
2
1
 8760  20   10 
 2 
 8760  25  2,19,000 MWhr
No. of units generated per year
 Average annual load 
8760
2,19,000
  25 MW
8760
Average annual load 25
 Load factor    0.833
Maximum load 30
Average annual load
Plant capacity factor 
Rated plant capacity
25
  0.714
35
Maximum demand 30
Utilization    0.857
Rated capacity 35
Alternatively
Capacity factor
Utilization factor 
Load factor
0.714
  0.857
0.833

Fig. 1.16 Load duration curve

1.48 Power System Operation and Control

4G0<?;4 1.19

A generating station supplies four feeders with the maximum demands (in MW) of
16, 10, 12 and 7 MW. The overall maximum demand on the station is 20 MW
and the annual load factor is 45%. Calculate the diversity factor and the number
of units generated annually.

 Solution
Sum of maximum demands  16  10  12  7

 45 MW

Simultaneous maximum demand  20 MW

Sum of maximum demands

 Diversity factor 
Simultaneous maximum demand

45
  2.25
20

Average demand  Maximum demand  Load factor

 20  0.45  9 MW

 No. of units generated annually  9  8760

 78840 MWhr

Alternatively
No. of units generated annually
Annual load factor 
Maximum demand  8760

No. of units generated annually

0.45 
20  8760

No. of units generated annually  0.45  20  8760

 78,840 MWhr
Introduction 1.49

4G0<?;4 1.20

Calculate the annual load factor of 120 MW power station which delivers 110 MW
for 4 hrs, 60 MW for 10 hrs and is shut down for the rest of each day. For
general maintenance, it is shut down for 60 days per annum.

 Solution
Capacity of power station = 120 MW

Power delivered  110 MW for 4 hrs

 60 MW for 10 hrs

 0 for the rest of each day

And for general maintenance, it is shut down for 60 days per annum.

Energy supplied in 1 day  110  4  60  10

 1,040 MWhr

No. of working days in a year  365  60

 305

Energy supplied per year  1040  305

 3,17,200 MWhr

MWhr supplied/annum
Annual load factor 
Maximum demand in MW  Working hours

3,17,200
  100
120  305  24

 36.11%
1.50 Power System Operation and Control

PART - A - QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. What is the objective of power system control?

To maintain a continuous balance between electrical generation and varying load
demand while system frequency and voltage levels are maintaining constant.

2. What are the advantages of computer control in power system? What are
the types of computer control? (May 2015)

Advantages
1. Maintaining frequency within limits.
2. Maintaining bus voltage within limits.
3. Maintaining current flows within limits.
4. Transformers and generators operating within their ratings.

Types of computer control

1. SCADA
2. EMS

3. Define Load?
Load is a device that taps energy from the network.

4. How are system loads classified? (May 2007, 2010)

1. Motor loads – 70%

2. Heating and lighting loads – 25%
3. Electronic devices – 5%

5. What are the various types of loads connected to the system? (Dec 2008)
1. Residential load
2. Commercial load
3. Industrial load
4. Agricultural load
5. Municipal load
Introduction 1.51

6. What is load curve?

(Nov/Dec 2012) (Nov/Dec 2011) (April/May 2010) (Nov/Dec 2009)
The curve drawn between the variations of load on the power station with
reference to time is known as load curve. There are three types, Daily load curve,
Monthly load curve and yearly load curve.

7. What is load duration curve? (Nov/Dec 2009)

When the load elements of a load curve are arranged in the order of descending
magnitudes the curve then obtained is called load duration curve.

8. What is the difference between load curve and load duration curve?
(Dec. 2009, Dec 2014)

Load curve
The curve drawn between the variations of load on the power station with
reference to time is known as load curve. There are three types, Daily load curve,
Monthly load curve and Yearly load curve.

Load duration curve

When the load element of a load curve are arranged in the order of descending
magnitudes the curve obtained is called load duration curve.

9. What is Load factor? (April/May 2011) (Nov/Dec 2008)

The ratio of average load to the maximum demand during a given period is
known as load factor.
Average load
Load factor =
Maximum demand
10. What is Diversity factor? (April/May 2011) (Nov/Dec 2010) (Dec 2014)
The ratio of the sum of individual maximum demand to maximum demand on
power station is known as diversity factor.
Sum of individual maximum demand
Diversity factor  .
Maximum demand

11. Define Plant capacity factor? (April/May 2009)

Plant capacity factor is defined as the ratio of the average load to the rated
capacity of the power plant.
Average load
Plant capacity factor 
Rated capacity of power plant
1.52 Power System Operation and Control

12. Define plant use factor. (May 2014)

Total kWhr generated
Plant use factor  Number of 
 Rated capacity of   
    operating 
 the plant   hours 
 

13. What is the need for load forecasting? (Nov/Dec 2008), (Dec 2015)
1. To meet out the future demand.
2. Planning for future expansion of the system.
3. Maintaining the required spinning reserve.
4. Allocating spinning reserve.
14. What is meant by load frequency control? (Dec 2007, 2008)
In interconnected systems with two or more independently controlled areas, in
addition to control of frequency, generation within each area has to be controlled to
maintain scheduled power interchange.
15. What are the advantages of pool operation with respect to LFC?
(May 2008)
1. 50% of the added load in area 2 will be supplied by area 1 through the
tie line.
2. Frequency drop will be only half compared with that of single area.
16. What are plant level controls?
1. Prime mover control
2. Excitation control
17. What is meant by system voltage control? (Nov/Dec 2009) (June 2007)
System voltage control is the process of controlling the system voltage within
tolerable limits. The task of voltage control is closely associated with fluctuating load
and corresponding requirement of reactive power compensation under steady state and
transient state.
18. Define utilization factor?
Maximum demand on the power station
Utilization factor 
Rated capacity of the power station
19. What happens to frequency if the load on the generator increases?
When the load on the generator increases, the speed of the generator decreases.
Introduction 1.53

120f
N
P

Nf

 Frequency also decreases

20. What is pool level?

This handles the largest blocks of power. It interconnects all the generator stations
of all the major loading points in the system.

21. Give the two major control loop for large generators. (May 2005)
1. P - f control loops

2. Q - V control loops

22. Define spinning reserve constraint in unit commitment problem.

(Nov/Dec 2011), (April/May 2011) (Nov/Dec 2007)
Spinning reserve is the total amount of generation available from all unit
synchronized on the system minus the present load and losses being supplied.

Spinning reserve = (Total amount of generation)  [Present load  Losses]

23. What are the various need for frequency and voltage to be regulated in
power system?
(Nov/Dec 2013) (April/May 2009) (April/May 2008) (Dec 2007) (June 2007)
(May 2005)
1. In any power system, if the frequency changes there won’t be required
voltage at the receiving end. If we connected two systems in parallel, it
will spoil the system.

2. The generator turbines are designed to operate at a very precise speed that
can be maintained by regulating frequency.

3. Constant turbine speed is an important requirement.

4. Unusual deviation in the frequency can be detected earlier.

24. What is Maximum demand? (Nov/Dec 2012) (May 2014)

It is the greatest demand of load on the power station during a given period.
The greatest of all “short time interval averaged” during a given period on the power
station.
1.54 Power System Operation and Control

25. What is base load? (April/May 2008)

It is the load that has been drawn constantly throughout the time.

Fig. 1.17

26. What is connected load? (Nov/Dec 2011)

It is the sum of continuous ratings of all the equipments connected to supply
systems.

PART - B QUESTIONS

1. Explain an overview of power system operation and control and the role of
computer in the implementation with the help of block diagram. (Dec/AU/14)
2. (i) Explain the need for voltage and frequency regulation in power system.
(8) (April/May 2010)
(ii) A generating station has a maximum demand of 400 MW. The annual load
factor is 65% and capacity factor is 50%. Find the reserve capacity of the plant.
(8) (April/May 2010)
3. Why is the load on a power station variable? What are the effects of variable
load on the operation of the power station? (8) (April/May 2008)
4. Explain the important objectives of power system and various control strategies
during its operation. (16) (Nov/Dec 2012)
5. Highlight briefly the importance of regulating frequency and voltage of the power
system. (8) (April/May 2011)
Introduction 1.55

6. Consider an inductive load of type Z  R  jX. By how many percent will the
real load drop if the voltage is reduced by 1%?
(8) (April/May 2010)
7. (i) Draw the load curve and load duration curve. Explain the Importance of
these curves in connection with economic operation of power system.

(ii) Explain the following terms. (AU/May/14)

1. Connected load
2. Load factor
3. Diversity factor
4. Average demand

8. A generator station supplies the following loads connected to it

Industries 92 MW
Domestic lighting load 8 MW
Domestic power load 9 MW
Commercial load 11 MW
The maximum demand on the station is 90 MW. Calculate the load factor and
diversity factor if the total numbers of units generated in a year are 3  108

(16) (April/May 2011)

9. A generating station supplies the following loads: (Nov/Dec 2009)
15000 kW, 12000 kW, 8500 kW, 6000 kW and 450 kW. The station has a
maximum demand of 22000 kW. The annual load factor of the station is 48%.

(16)
10. A generating station has the following daily load cycle: (10) (Nov/Dec 2012)

Time (Hours) 0-6 6-10 10-12 12-16 16-20 20-24

Load (MW) 20 25 30 25 35 20
Draw the load curve and calculate

1. Maximum demand
2. Units generated per day
3. Average load
4. Load factor
1.56 Power System Operation and Control

11. A power station has to meet the following demand

(8) (April/May 2008) (Dec 2014)
Group A: 200 kW between 8 A.M and 6 P.M
Group B: 100 kW between 6 A.M and 10 A.M
Group C: 50 kW between 6 A.M and 10 A.M
Group D: 100 kW between 10 A.M and 6 P.M and then between 6 P.M and 6 A.M
Plot the daily Load curve and determine diversity factor, units generated per
day and load factor.
12. A generating station has a maximum demand of 20 MW, a load factor of 60%
a plant capacity factor of 48% and a plant use factor of 80%. Find the
1. Daily energy produced.
2. Reserve capacity of the plant.
3. Maximum energy that could be produced daily if the plant were running all
the time.
4. Maximum energy that could be produced if the plant when running were
fully loaded. (16) (Nov/Dec 2011)
13. (i) A generating station has a maximum demand of 50,000 kW. Calculate the
cost per unit generated from the following data.
Capital cost = Rs. 95  106
Annual load factor = 40%
Annual cost of fuel and oil = Rs. 9  106
Taxes, wages and salaries, etc. = Rs. 7.5  106
Interest and depreciation = 12% (12) (Nov/Dec 2011)
(ii) Define Diversity and plant use factor.
(4) (Nov/Dec 2011)
14. A generating station has the following daily load cycle:
(16) (Nov/Dec 2010)
Time (Hours) 0-6 6-8 8-12 12-14 14-18 18-20 20-24
Load (MW) 45 35 75 20 80 25 50
1. Draw the daily load curve
2. Draw the load duration curve
3. Calculate Load factor
4. Calculate plant capacity factor if the capacity of the plant is 120 MW.
Introduction 1.57

15. A generating station has a maximum demand of 50,000 kW. Calculate the cost
per unit generated from the following data:
Capital cost = Rs. 95  106.
Annual load factor 40%.
Annual, cost of fuel and oil = Rs. 9  106
Taxes, wages and salaries, etc. Rs. 7.5  106
Interest and depreciation = 12% (12) (Nov/Dec 2013)
(ii) 1. Define Diversity factor 2. Define Plant use factor.

(4)
16. A generating station has the following daily load cycle:

Time (Hours) 0-6 6-10 10-12 12-16 16-20 20-24

Load (MW) 40 50 60 50 70 40

Draw the load curve and calculate

1. Maximum demand

2. Units generated per day

3. Average load

4. Load factor

(10)
17. A diesel station supplies the following loads to various consumers:

(Nov/Dec 2008)
Industries 1500 kW
Domestic lighting load 450 kW
Domestic power load 100 kW
Commercial load 750 kW
The maximum demand on the station is 2500 kW and the number of kWhr generated
per year is 45  106, determine (i) the annual load factor (ii) diversity factor.
1.58 Power System Operation and Control

18. A power supply is having the following loads. (May 2014)

Maximum
Type of load Diversity factor Demand factor
demand (kW)
Domestic 10,000 1.2 0.8
Commercial 30,000 1.3 0.9
Industrial 50,000 1.35 0.95

If the overall system diversity factor is 1.5 determine

(i) Maximum demand
(ii) Connected load of each type

19. Define load factor and diversity factor. Explain the importance of these factor in
connection with economic operation of a power system. (8) (April/May 2008)
20. Explain the following 1. Load forecasting 2. Economic dispatch control
(8) (April/May 2008)
21. (i) Write short notes on load forecasting?
(4) (Nov/Dec 2008) (May 2015)
(ii) Define diversity factor. Discuss the practical ways to improve the diversity
factor. (4) (Nov/Dec 2008)
22. Explain the types of load forecasting.
(6) (April/May 2011)
23. What is load forecasting? Also state its classification and importance.
(8) (April/May 2011)
24. Explain the following:
(i) Hot reserve and cold reserve
(ii) Load curve and duration curve
(iii) Governor control
(iv) Security control (16) (Nov/Dec 2010)
25. (i) Define the following:
1. Hot reserve
2. Cold reserve
3. Spinning reserve (6) (Nov/Dec 2013)
Introduction 1.59

26. (i) Explain the following:

1. Installed reserve
2. Spinning reserve
3. Cold reserve
4. Hot reserve (8) (April/May 2008)
27. Explain the following:
(i) Load forecasting
(ii) Economic dispatch control (16) (Nov/Dec 2007)
28. Write short notes on Load forecasting.

(April/May 2008)
29. (i) Discuss the various reserve requirements in power system operation.

(6) (Nov/Dec 2008)

(ii) The maximum demand on a power station is 100 MW. If the annual load
factor is 40%, Calculate the total energy generated in a year.

(4) (Nov/Dec 2008)

30. What are system level and plant level controls?

(8) (Nov/Dec 2008)

31. Draw and explain the basic P-f and Q-V control loops.

(16) (April/May 2011)

32. (i) Discuss the main functions of security control.

(8) (Nov/Dec 2009)

(ii) Differentiate cold and hot reserve.

(4) (Nov/Dec 2009) (Nov/Dec 2007)

33. What is spinning reserve and does this reserve help in operating a power system
efficiently? How is cold reserve differ from hot reserve? (8) (April/May 2008)

34. Explain the system voltage control and security control.

(8) (April/May 2010)

35. Discuss about recent trends in real time control of power system.

(8) (April/May 2008)

36. Give a detailed account of online techniques for non-stationary load prediction.

(May 2015)
 UNIT - II

A40; ?>F4A ¯ 5A4@D4=2H 2>=CA>;

! ?78;>B>?7H >5 A40; 0=3 A402C8E4 ?>F4A 2>=CA>;

Power system load flow studies bring out the following properties of power
system networks.
1. The changes in real power at buses mainly affect the bus voltage phase
angles (and therefore real power line flows) and have negligible effect on
bus voltage magnitudes and reactive power line flows.
2. The changes in reactive powers at buses mainly affect the bus voltage
magnitudes (and reactive power line flows) and have negligible effect on
bus voltage phase angles and real power line flows.
3. The changes in reactive powers at a bus have a very strong effect on the
voltage magnitude at that bus. But have a mild effect on voltage magnitudes
at distant buses.
The above system properties lead us to the following two methods of real and
reactive power control in power system.

1. Load frequency (or) Real Power Control

This is also referred to as megawatt frequency or power factor control. The aim
of this control is to maintain real power balance in the system through control of
system frequency. Whenever the real power demand changes, a frequency change
occurs. This frequency error is amplified, mixed and changed to a command signal
which is send to the turbine governor. The governor operates to restore the balance
between the input and output by changing the turbine input.

2. Reactive Power Control (or) Automatic Voltage Control

The aim of this control is to maintain the system voltage within limits by
adjusting the excitation of machines. The automatic voltage regulator senses the
difference between a rectified voltage derived from stator voltage and a reference
voltage. This error signal is amplified and fed to the excitation circuit. The change
of excitation maintains the reactive power balance in the network.
2.2 Power System Operation and Control

The above two control channels operate more (or) less independent of each other.
Moreover the power factor loop is rather flow in action due to inertia of mechanical
parts whereas the Q-V loop is very fast. Fig 2.1 shows the two controls channels for
maintaining the real and reactive power balance in the system.

Fig. 2.1 Load frequency and Automatic voltage control channels of a turbo alternator

!! 10B82B >5 B?443 6>E4A=8=6 <4270=8B< 0=3 <>34;8=6

The real power in a power system is being controlled by controlling the driving
torque of the individual turbines of the system. The speed governor is the main primary
tool for the load frequency control. Whether the machine is used alone to feed a
smaller system or it is a part of the most elaborate arrangement. Fig. 2.2 shows
schematically the speed governing system of the steam turbine. By controlling the
position of the control valve or gate, we can exert control over the flow of high
pressure steam (or water) through the turbine.

The components of speed governing systems are as follows:

Real Power - Frequency Control 2.3

Fig. 2.2 Schematic diagram of speed governing mechanism

Fly ball speed governor

It is purely mechanical speed sensitive device coupled directly to the hydraulic
amplifier which adjusts the control valve opening via the linkage mechanism. As the
load increases speed of the turbine decreases and the speed changer gives raise
command, so the fly balls move outwards and the point B moves downwards and
the reverse happens with the increased speed.
2.4 Power System Operation and Control

Speed changer
It is a sort of bias applied to the governing system and usually takes the form
of an adjustment of spring tension. It enables the adjustment of speed governing system
to change the speed load characteristics of the machine. As shown in Fig. 2.2 an
adjustment of speed changer shifts the speed load characteristics parallel to itself up
or down.

Hydraulic amplifier
It consists of Pilot valve and main piston. With this arrangement a low Power
Pilot valve movement is converted into high power level movement of the oil
servomotor piston. The input to this amplifier is the position XD of the pilot valve.
The output is the position XE of the main piston. Hydraulic amplification is necessary,
so that the steam valve or gate could be operated against high pressure steam.

Linkage mechanism
ABC is a rigid link pivoted at B and CDE is another rigid link pivoted at D.
The function of the link mechanism is to control the steam valve or gate. Feedback
can be obtained from the movement of the steam valve Via link CD.

Working
As load increases the speed of the turbine decreasing, the speed changer gives
raise command and the fly balls move outwards and the point B moves downwards
and D moves upwards and high pressure oil enters into the upper pilot valves and
presses the main piston downwards and opens the valve (or) gate increases the flow
of steam to the turbine. Thereby speed of the turbine increases while maintaing
constant frequency.

Model of speed governor

Let us assume that raise command  Pc to the speed changer, the point A being
moved downwards by a small amount  XA, which causes the turbine power output
to change.

  XA  Kc  Pc

 ve direction  downward movement

 ve direction  upward movement

Real Power - Frequency Control 2.5

Movement of C
  l2 
 XA Contributes    XA   K1  XA   K1 Kc  Pc
 l1 
  Xc   K1 Kc  Pc  K2 f ...(2.1)

Movement of D
Contributed by  Xc and  XE

 l4   l3 
 XD     Xc     XE
 l3  l4   l3  l4 
 K3  Xc  K4  XE ...(2.2)

Movement of  XD opens pilot valve, there by moving the main piston and
opening the steam valve by  XE

Movement of  XE
 XE is proportional to the line integral of  XD.
t ...(2.3)
 XE  K5    XD dt
0

Taking Laplace transform of equations (2.1, 2.2 and 2.3)

 Xc s   k1 kc  Pc s  k2  F s ...(2.4)

 XD s  k3  Xc s  k4  XE s ...(2.5)

 k5 ...(2.6)
 XE s   XD s
s
Substitute equ. (2.5) in (2.6), we get
 k5
 XE s  [k3  Xc s  k4  XE s]
s

 k4 k5   k5 k3 ...(2.7)
 XE s  1    Xc s
 s  s
Substitute equ. (2.4) in equ. (2.7), we get
2.6 Power System Operation and Control

 k4 k5   k5 k3
 XE s  1   [ k1kc  Pc s  k2  F s]
 s  s

 s  k4k5   k5k3k1kc  Pc s  k2k5k3  F s 

 XE s   
 s   s 
 k2 
k5k3k1kc   Pc s   Fs 
k1 kc
 XE s   
 s 
k4 k5  1 
k4 k5 
 
 k2 
  Pc s   Fs 
k3k1kc k1kc
  
k4 s
1
k4 k5

KG
 XE s    Pc s   Fs  
1 ...(2.8)
 R  1  sTG
Where,
K1 Kc
R = = Speed regulation of the governor in Hz/MW
K2
K3 K1 Kc
KG = = Gain of speed governor
K4
1
TG = = Time constant of speed governor.
K4 K5
Value of TG  100 msec

Fig. 2.3 Model of speed governor

Real Power - Frequency Control 2.7

Turbine model

Fig. 2.4 Model of turbine

Where,
Tt = Time constant of turbin
Kt = Gain constant
PV = Per unit change in valve position from nominal valve.

Generator load model

d
By increasing the kinetic energy in the rotor at the rate WK.E
dt
WK  E0  H  Pr kW sec

H  Inertia constant

J2w ...(2.9)
 WK  E  f20
0
WK  E 0 0
2

WK  E  f0  f2 ...(2.10)

Dividing equation (2.10) by (2.9) we get

2
 f0  f 
WK  E  WK  E0  
 f0 
2
 f 
 WK  E0  1  
 f0 

 2  f  f2 
 WK  E  1 
0  2 
f0 f0 

 2f [Neglecting Second order term]
 WK  E0  1 
f0 
 
2.8 Power System Operation and Control

Rate of change of kinetic energy

dWK  E 2WK  E0 d ...(2.11)
  f
dt f0 dt

Substituting WK  E0

dWK  E 2HPr d ...(2.22)

  f
dt f0 dt
As the frequency changes, the motor load changes being sensitive to speed.
 PD
Rate of change of load with respect to frequency B
f
Where,
B = Damping coefficient in MW/Hz
Value of damping coefficient is positive for motor load
 PG   PD  B f

Writing power balance equation,

2HPr d ...(2.13)
 PG   PD   f  B  f
f0 dt

Dividing by Pr, we get,

2H d
 PGp.u   PDp.u   f  Bp.u f
f0 dt
Taking Laplace transform on both sides, we get
2Hs
 PG s   PD s   F s  B  F s
f0

 2Hs 
 PG s   PD s   F s  B
f
 0 
 PG s   PD s
 F s 
 2Hs 
B1
Bf0 
 
 Kp  ...(2.14)
 F s   PG s   PD s  
 1  sTP 
Real Power - Frequency Control 2.9

Where,
1
KP =  Power system gain
B
2H
TP =  Power system time constant
Bf0

Fig. 2.5 Generator load model

Combining Fig. 2.3, 2.4 and 2.5 we get block diagram for load frequency control.

Fig. 2.6 Model of single area LFC

!" BC0C82 ?>F4A 64=4A0C8>=

Apply block diagram reduction technique for the Fig. 2.6, we get

KG Kt 1
 PG s  [ PC s   F s]
1  sTG 1  sTt R

 F s  0

KG Kt ...(2.15)
  PG s   Pc s
1  sTG 1  sTt
2.10 Power System Operation and Control

Steady state response

(i) Controlled case

 Pc
 Pc s 
s
Substitute in equation (2.15)
KG Kt  Pc ...(2.16)
  PG s 
1  sTG 1  sTt s

KG Kt
s   PG s    Pc
1  sTG 1  sTt

Apply final valve theorem

 PG stat  Lt s  PG s
s0

 KG Kt  Pc
If we take KG Kt  1
 PG stat   Pc ...(2.17)

(ii) Un controlled case

 Pc  0, KG Kt  1

1    F s 
 PG s   
1  sTG 1  sTt  R 
f
For a step change,  F s 
S
1   f   1 f
  PG s   , S  PG s    R 
1  sTG 1  sTt  sR  1  sTG 1  sTt 
 
 f
 PG stat  Lt s  PG s 
s0
R

f ...(2.18)
  R Hz/MW
 PG stat

R  Speed regulation.
Real Power - Frequency Control 2.11

!# B?443 ;>03 270A02C4A8BC82B ;>03 B70A8=6 14CF44= CF>

BH=27A>=>DB <0278=4B 8= ?0A0;;4;

During parallel peration of units the speed VS power output governing

characteristics of each unit has dropped as shown in Fig. 2.7.

Fig. 2.7 Power output per MW VS speed characteristics.

The per unit drop (or) speed regulation ‘R’ of the generating unit is defined as
the magnitude of the change in steady state speed, expressed in per unit of rated
speed when the output of the unit is gradually reduced from 1.0 p.u rated power to
zero.

f2  f1/fr ...(2.19)

The per unit regulation Rp.u 
PGr/Pr

Where,
f2 = Frequency at no load in Hz
f1 = Frequency at rated megawatt output PGr
fr = Rated frequency (Base)
Pr = Megawatt base
fr
Multiplying by in equation (2.19)
Pr
fr
Regulation (slope)  Rp.u 
pr
2.12 Power System Operation and Control

Fig. 2.8 Speed - Load Characteristics

f2  f1 ...(2.20)
R Hz/MW
PGr

Suppose the unit is supplying output power PG0 at frequency f0 when the load
is increased to PG  PG0   PG as shown in Fig.2.8.

From Fig. 2.8.

F
Slope  R
 PG

 fr 
  f   R   PG    Rp.u   PG Hz
pr
 
Due to supplementary control action of the speed changer, speed control
mechanism can parallel shift the regulation characteristics to the final position.
When two generating units are operating in parallel the changes in the outputs
of the units are given by.
 Pr1 f ...(2.21)
Unit 1,  PG1   MW
Rp.u fr

 Pr2 f ...(2.22)
Unit 2,  PG2   MW
Rp.u fr

Adding equation (2.21) and (2.22)

Real Power - Frequency Control 2.13

Total change in output, P   PG1   PG2

f  Pr1 Pr2  ...(2.23)

P   
fr  Rp.u Rp.u 
 
f  P ...(2.24)
The system fr equency change,  p.u
fr  Pr1 Pr2 
R R 
 p.u p.u 
 P  fr  P
f  
Pr1 Pr2 1 1
 
Rp.u Rp.u R1 R2
Pri
P
0 Rp.u
The additional output  PGr  MW
 Pr1 Pr2 
R R 
 p.u p.u 

Fig. 2.9 Parallel operation of two attenators

Two different controls are carried out on the governor characteristics. The
parameters ‘R’ is adjusted during off-line condition of the unit to ensure its proper
co-ordination with the other units. The second control shifts the straight line
characteristics parallel to itself to change the load distribution among the generators
connected in parallel as well as to maintain the system frequency. The second control
also known as supplementary control is explained in Fig.2.9.
2.14 Power System Operation and Control

Suppose initially the total load is P and it is to be shared by the two units
P  P1  P2 and the frequency is f0. Now if the load is increased to P, the frequency
falls to fn as the units can increase their output by giving away some of its kinetic
energy i.e., by reducing the speed in order to restore the system frequency,
characteristics of both the units (Fig. 2.8) (or) one of two units can be raised as
shown by the dotted line, so that the total load ‘P’ is shared by both the units keeping
the system frequency to fn. The power supplied here is P  P1  P2. The raising
or lowering of governor characteristics is carried out with a device known as speed
changer which is operated either manually (or) by a speeder motor.

!$ 2>=CA>; 0A40 2>=24?C

A control area is defined as a system in which a common generation control

scheme is applied. The electrical interconnection within each control area is very strong
as compared to the ties with the neighbouring areas. All the generators in a control
area swing in coherently (or) it is characterised by a single frequency. It is necessary
to be considered as many control area as number of coherent group.
Automatic generation control problems of a large interconnected power system
has been studied by dividing a work system into a number of control areas.

!% ;>03 5A4@D4=2H 2>=CA>; >5 B8=6;4 0A40 BHBC4<

F8C7>DC 8=C46A0; 2>=CA>;

Load Frequency Control (LFC) deals with the control mechanism needed to
maintain the system frequency. The topic of maintaining the system frequency constant
is commonly known as Automatic Load Frequency Control (ALFC).

Let,
 PC  Incremental control input
 PD  Incremental disturbance input

The incremental control input is due to the change in the speed changer settings,
while the incremental disturbance input is due to the change in load demand.
There are two responses:
(i) Steady state (or) Static response
(ii) Dynamic state response.
Real Power - Frequency Control 2.15

2.6.1 Static Analysis (or) steady state response of uncontrolled case

 Pc  0 is speed changer has a fixed setting and load demand changes. This
is known as free governor operation.

Fig. 2.10 Load Frequency control

Let  Pc s  0

Fig. 2.11

Using block diagr am r eduction method the Fig.2.11 is r educed as below.

Fig. 2.12
2.16 Power System Operation and Control

Kp
1  sTp
F s  [  PD s]
Kp KG Kt
1 
1  sTp R 1  sTG 1  sTt

Kp
 F s  [  PD s]
Kp KG Kt
1 sTp 
R 1  sTG 1  sTt

 PD
For a step load change  PD s 
s

 Kp  PD
 F s  
Kp KG Kt s
1  sTp 
R 1  sTG 1  sTt

Applying final value theorem,

f stat  Lt s   F s
s0

 Kp ...(2.25)
   PD
Kp KG Kt
1
R

Let KG KG  1

 Kp
f stat   PD
Kp
1
R
1
Kp  ,  PD  M
B

B  Load damping constant

 PD  Increase in load

1
  PD
B M M
f stat   
1
1
B
1 
BR R
Real Power - Frequency Control 2.17

1
Where B  B 
R
  Area frequency response coefficient (AFRC) in p.u MW/Hz
1
In Practice B  , neglecting B
R
f stat  R  PD Hz

f stat ...(2.26)
  R Hz/MW
 PD

Where,
R = Speed regulation
f stat = Change in steady state frequency
f stat   R   PD Hz
If several generators with governor speed regulations R1, R2  Rn are connected
to the system, the steady state deviation in frequency is given by
  PD
f stat 
B 1  1  1 
 R1 R2 Rn 
 

Fig. 2.13 Speed load characteristics

2.18 Power System Operation and Control

2.6.2 Static Analysis of Controlled Case

Let
 PC  Step change force for speed changer setting and the load demand
remains fixed i.e.  PD  0

Fig. 2.14

Fig. 2.15

KG Kt Kp
 F s   Pc s
KG Kt Kp
1  sTG 1  sTt  1  sTP 
R

KG Kt  1, Tt  TG  0

For a step change  Pc

 Pc
 Pc s 
s
Real Power - Frequency Control 2.19

Kp  Pc
 F s  
Kp s
1  sTG 1  sTt 1  sTp 
R

Applying final valve theorem

f stat  Lt s   F s
s0

Kp
f stat   Pc
Kp
1
R

1
B
f stat   Pc
1
1
BR

1
  Pc
1
B
R

f stat 1 ...(2.27)
 Hz/MW
 Pc 1
B
R

2.6.3 Static analysis when  Pc  PD

If the controlling force  Pc is applied to the speed changer and the load demand
changes by  Pc, the static frequency change is obtained by superposition theorem.

Kp ...(2.28)
f stat   Pc   PD
Kp
1
R

f stat  0, we get  Pc   PD

1. The system can be made faster by reducing ‘R’ i.e., by increasing the static
loop gain.
2.20 Power System Operation and Control

  PD M
2. f stat  
1 
B
R
By reducing R, f stat can be reduced.
3. If Tt and TG are neglected, the transient frequency dip is more.

2.6.4 Dynamic analysis of uncontrolled case (Single Area)

A static response of ALFC loop will inform about frequency accuracy, where
as the dynamic response of ALFC loop will inform about the stability of the loop.
 Pc s  0

Fig. 2.16

Kp ...(2.29)
1  sTP
 F s  [  PD s]
Kp KG Kt
1
R 1  sTG 1  sTt 1  sTP
Where,
TP = 20 sec
TG = 0.4 sec
Tt = 0.5 sec
Real Power - Frequency Control 2.21

Approximate Analysis
Let Tt  TG  0

KG Kt  1

Fig. 2.17

Kp
 F s  [  PD s]
Kp
1  sTP 
R

 PD
For a step change  PD s 
s

Kp   PD
  F s  
 1 Kp  s
TP  s  
TP RTP 
 
  PD Kp
 F s 
 R  Kp 
TP  s  s 
 RTP 

Taking partial fraction method,

  PD Kp  A B 
 F s   s  
TP  R  K 
 s
p 

 RTP  
 
 R  Kp 
As  A    Bs  1
 RTP 
2.22 Power System Operation and Control

Comparing the coefficients

AB0

RTP  RTP
A ,B
R  Kp R  Kp

  PD Kp  RTP 1 1 
 F s      
TP  R  Kp  s  R  Kp   
s
 
 RTP   
  
 f t  Inverse Laplace transform [ F s]

 R  Kp 
 PD Kp R
 f t    1  e RTP
t
 
R  Kp  
 
 R  Kp 
RKp  t ...(2.30)
 f t   M 1 e  RTP  
R  Kp  


Fig. 2.18 Frequency response

Real Power - Frequency Control 2.23

2.6.5 Dynamic Analysis of Controlled Case

 PD s  0

Let KG Kt  1, TG  Tt  0

Fig. 2.19

Kp
 F s   Pc s
Kp
1  sTP 
R
 Pc
For a step change  Pc s 
s
Kp  Pc
 F s 
 R  Kp 
TPs  s 
 RTP 
 R  Kp  ...(2.31)
 Pc KpR  t
 F t  1 e  RTp  
R  Kp  


!& ;>03 5A4@D4=2H 2>=CA>; >5 B8=6;4 0A40 BHBC4< F8C7

8=C46A0; 2>=CA>;;4A

The single area control technique discussed above can result in considerable
steady state frequency drop from no load to full load. The steady state frequency can
be adjusted to the desired value by adjusting the speed changer setting of the governor.
A better control technique has been developed to improve the dynamic response of
the system. In this control known as integral control, the speed changer setting is
adjusted automatically by a signal obtained by amplifying and integrating the
frequency error. In load frequency control application the frequency change in an area
2.24 Power System Operation and Control

is known as Area Control Error (ACE). Thus in integral control the speed changer
setting is adjusted automatically by a signal of the type  ACE dt. The integral
control gives zero steady state error.
If the frequency decreases, the integrator calls for an increase in power. The
gain kI control the response. The polarity of the integral controller must be chosen
so that a positive frequency error gives a negative or decrease generation command
and a negative frequency error gives a positive or increase generation command.
Generally electronic integrators of the type used in analog computers are used.
...(2.32)
 Pc   kI  f dt

Taking Laplace transform

  kI 
 Pc s     F s
 s 
The negative polarity means positive frequency error to give rise to a negative
or decrease command.

2.7.1 Static analysis (or) steady state response (Uncontrolled case)

 Pc  0

Fig. 2.20 Block diagram of Single area load frequency control

Area control error  f

Real Power - Frequency Control 2.25

Fig. 2.21

 PD
For a step change  PD s 
s
Kp   PD
 F s  
 KI 1  Kp s
1  sTp    
 s R  1  sTG 1  sTt
f stat  Lt s  F s  0
s0

By addition of the integral controller, we find the frequency error has been
reduced to zero. But we cannot eliminate the transient frequency error. Hence we
have to minimize  ACE dt.

 ...(2.33)
Time error  A CE dt
0

2.7.2 Dynamic response of uncontrolled case

The static response of the ALFC loop yielded important information about
frequency accuracy. The dynamic response of the loop will inform about tracking
ability and stability of the loop.
Assumptions
1. Neglect the turbine dynamics
2. The speed changer action is instantaneous
2.26 Power System Operation and Control

Put  Pc s  0, The block diagram reduces as shown in Fig. 2.22.

Fig. 2.22

Assume TG  Tt  0

KG  Kt  1

Fig. 2.23

The response is not correct since the device is electromechanical and will
therefore have a non-zero response time. The error in our analysis affect only the
transient, not the static response.

Kp
1 sTp
 F s   [  PD s]
 Kp  KI 1  
1  
1  sT  s R  
 p 

 PD
For step change,  PD s 
s
Real Power - Frequency Control 2.27

 Kp  PD
 F s  
 KI 1  s
1  sTp  Kp   
 s R
 Kp Rs  PD
 
sR  s2 TpR  Kp KI R  Kps s

 Kp R  PD

Tp Rs2  s [R  Kp]  Kp KIR

 Kp  PD ...(2.34)

  R  Kp  Kp KI 
TP  s2  s   T 
  RTp  p 

Let us find the poles of the characteristic equation

 R  Kp  Kp KI
s2  s   T 0
 RTp  p



2
 R  Kp  R  Kp  Kp KI
  RT   4 T
RTp  p  p
s
2
For the critical case, the two roots are equal and we find K1 critical
2
 R  Kp  4Kp KI
 T R   T 0
 p  p

2
4 Kp KI critical  R  Kp 
 
Tp  TpR 
Tp R  Kp2
KI critical 
4Kp T2p R2

R Kp2 ...(2.35)

KI critical 
4Kp TpR2
2.28 Power System Operation and Control

R2  2KpR  K2p
KI critical 
4Kp TpR2

2
 2Kp  Kp  
1  
 1  
4Kp Tp  R  R  
2
1  Kp 

4Kp Tp 1 R 
 
2

1 Kp 
KI critical   1
4Tp Kp  R 

1 2H
Substitute Kp  and Tp  in equ. (2.35)
B Bf0

2
1 1 1 
KI critical  
2H 1  BR 
4 
Bf0 B

1  B2R2  2BR  1 
 
2H 1  B2 R2
4   
Bf0 B

R2  B2  2B  1 

2H  R R2 
4  BR2  
Bf0

2

1B 1 
2H  R 
B4
Bf0

f0  2 ...(2.36)
1
KI critical  B 
8H  R

Clearly, the nature of poles depends upon the magnitude of kI. If KI  KI critical

 R  Kp  Kp KI
Roots of s2  s   T 0
 RTp  p
Real Power - Frequency Control 2.29

RKps  1 1  Kp KI
s2    0
RTp  R Kp  Tp
 



2
1  Kp 1  KI KP 1  Kp 1 
s   j   
2 RTp Tp  Tp 4 RTp Tp 
 
 

j
Thus we can write the denominator polynomial in the form.
s  2  2
When ,  are positive and real, this is the Super Critical Case.
The time response f t contains damped oscillatory terms of the type.
e  t sin t and e  t cos t
If KI  KI critical (subcritical case), we can write the polynomial in the form.
s  1 s  2 where 1 and 2 are both positive.
  f t will contain terms of the type
e 1 t and e 2 t
In either of the above case,  f t will approach zero and the system will be stable.

!' CF> 0A40 ;>03 5A4@D4=2H 2>=CA>;

Fig. 2.24 shows two large power systems A and B interconnected through a tie
line. The tie line transfers power from system A to B and Vice-Versa. The aim of
the control is to regulate the frequency in both the areas as also to regulate the power
flow over the tie line as per the agreement between the utilities of system A and
B.

Fig. 2.24 Interconnection of two systems.

2.30 Power System Operation and Control

The control areas intertied by transmission lines can take advantage of the
spinning mass of large number of generators and differences in incremental costs
between units. Power flow over the tie lines can be on short term basis (if a control
area suffers a decrease in generation due to forced outage of equipment) or on long
term basis if there is a mutually beneficial sale of energy between the utilities of the
two area.
A small system can suffer extensive transient power swings due to load changes.
If the system capacity is 1000 MW and a 200 MW load change occurs, this 20%
change in load may make the system unstable and a complete blackout may result.
However if this system were a part of a bigger system, say 50000 MW, a 200 MW
change in load means only a 0.4% change. The drop in frequency would be very
small and the flow of power over the tie line would save the system from collapse.

2.8.1 Two Area Load Frequency Control System Modelling

An extended power system can be divided into a number of load frequency
control areas interconnected by means of tie lines. Without loss of generating, we
shall consider a two-area system connected by a single tie line as shown in Fig. 2.25.

Fig. 2.25

Power transported out of area 1 is given by

|V1| |V2|
Ptie, 1  sin 01  02
X12

 Pmax sin 01  02

Where ,
01, 02  Power angles of equivalent machines of the two areas.
For incremental changes in 1 and 2, the incremental tie line power can be
expressed as,
Real Power - Frequency Control 2.31

Apply partial differentiation with respect to 

 Ptie  1 |V1| |V2|

 cos 01  02  1   2
 12 X12

|V1| |V2|
 P tie.1 p.u  cos 01  02  1   2
X12 Pr1

 T12  1   2

 P tie  1 p.u  T12  1   2 ...(2.37)

|V1| |V2| cos 01  02

Where, T12 
Pr1 X12
T12  Synchronising power coefficient (or) electric stiffness.

Synchrononising power coefficient (or) electric stiffness is defined as the

differential power increase obtained per differential power angle increase.

Since incremental frequency  f is related to the phase angle deviation.

 1 d
2ff  
2  2  dt

1 d
f  
2  dt

2   f  dt

we can write equation (2.37) as

 P tie.1  2  T12    f1 dt    f2 dt  ...(2.38)

 
Where  f1 and  f2 are incremental frequency changes of area 1 and 2
respectively.

Similarly,

 P tie.2  2  T21    f2 dt    f1 dt 
 
2.32 Power System Operation and Control

Where,
|V2| |V1| Pr1
T21  cos 02  01 
Pr2X12 Pr1

 Pr1 
T21   T  a12 T12
Pr2  12
 
T21  a12 T12

 Pr1  ...(2.39)
Where, a12  
Pr2 
 
The incremental power balance equation for area 1 can be written as
2H1 d ...(2.40)
 PG1   PD1   f1  B1  f1   P tie.1
f0 dt

Taking Laplace transform of equation (2.40) and rearranging, we get

 2H1s 
 PG1 s   PD1 s   P tie.1 s   f1 s  B1 
f0 
 
 PG1 s   PD1 s   P tie.1 s
 f1 s 
2H1s
B1  0
f
1
B1
 [ PG1 s   PD1 s   P tie.1 s]
2H1s
1 0
f B1

Kps1 ...(2.41)
 f1 s  [ PG1 s   PD1 s   P tie.1 s] 
1  sTps1

Where,
1
Kps1 =
B1
2H1
Tps1 =
f 0B1
Real Power - Frequency Control 2.33

Kps1 = Power system gain of area 1.

Tps1 = Power system time constant of area 1
Block diagram for equation (2.41) is shown in Fig. 2.26

Fig. 2.26

Taking laplace transform of equation (2.38)

2  T12 ...(2.42)
Ptie.1 s  [ f1 s   f2 s]
s
For the control area 2
2  T21
Ptie.2 s  [ f2 s   f1 s]
s
 2  a12 T12 ...(2.43)
 [ f1 s   f2 s]
s
Block diagram for equation (2.42) and (2.43) are shown in Fig. 2.27.

Fig. 2.27
2.34 Power System Operation and Control

Fig. 2.28 Block diagram of two area LFC

Real Power - Frequency Control 2.35

2.8.2 Static Analysis of Uncontrolled Case (Two Area System)

 Pc1   Pc2  0
No need to change the position of speed changer. Suppose there is a sudden
increase in load demand in the two areas by incremental steps  PD1 and  PD2.
Frequency drops in the steady state and these drops will be equal.
 f1 stat   f2 stat   fstat
At steady state condition, the incremental tie line power as follows,
1
 PG1  stat   f
R1 stat

1 ...(2.44)
 PG2  stat   f
R2 stat
From block diagram shown in Fig. 2.18
Kp1
[ PG1  stat   PD1   Ptie  1  stat]   fstat
1  sTp1

 1 
 B 
[ PG1  stat   PD1   Ptie  1  stat]    fstat
2Hs 
1 0 
 f B 
2Hs
 PG1  stat   PD1   Ptie  1  stat   B  0   fstat
 f 
2H d
 B  fstat  0  fstat
f dt
d
Put  f  0 for area 1, we get,
dt stat
 PG1  stat   PD1   P tie  1  stat  B1  fstat
 Ptie  1  stat   PG1  stat   PD1  B  fstat ...(2.45)
Similarly for area 2
 PG2  stat   PD2  B2  fstat   Ptie  2  stat

 B2  fstat  a12  Ptie  1  stat

 B2  fstat  a12 [ PG1 . stat   PD1  B  fstat] ...(2.46)

2.36 Power System Operation and Control

Substitute equation (2.44) in equation (2.46), we get

1 a12
  fstat   PD2  B2  fstat   fstat  a12  PD1  a12 B1  fstat
R1 R1

 1 a12 
 fstat    B2   a12 B1    a12  PD1   PD2
R2 R1
 
 [ PD2  a12  PD1] ...(2.47)
 fstat 
B  1 a B  1 
 2 R2  12  1 R 
   1

 Ptie  1  stat   PG1  stat   PD1  B1  fstat

1
  f   PD1  B1  fstat
R1 stat

1 
   fstat  B1    PD1 ...(2.48)
R1 
 
Substitute equation (2.47) in equation (2.48)

1 
 PD2  a12  PD1  B1 
R1 
 
 Ptie  1  stat    PD1
B  1 a B  1 
 2 R2  12  1 R 
1
  
1  1  1 
 PD2  a12  PD1  B1    PD1  B2   a12  PD1  B1 
R1  R2  R1 
     

B  1 a B  1 
 2 R2  12  1 R1 
   
1  1 
 PD2  B1    PD1  B2 
R1  R2 
   

B  1 a B  1 
 2 R2  12  1 R 
1
  
1 1
Let 1  B1  and 2  B2 
R1 R2
Real Power - Frequency Control 2.37

1  PD2  2  PD1
  Ptie  1  stat 
2  a12 1

  PD2  a12  PD1 

 fstat    
 2  a12 1 
For two identical areas,
1  2  

R1  R2  R

B1  B2  B

Pr1 Pr1  Pr2

a12  1
Pr2

  PD1   PD2 
 fstat    
 2 
 PD2   PD1
 Ptie  1  stat    Ptie  2  stat 
2
Suppose a step load change occurs at area (1)
 PD2  0

  PD1
 fstat  Hz
2
  PD1
 Ptie  1  stat 
2
For inter connected power system, the steady state fr equency er r or is r educed by
50% and the change in tie line power is also r educed by 50%

2.8.3 Dynamic response of uncontrolled case (Two area system)

Let us now turn our attention during the transient period for the sake of
simplicity. We shall assume the two areas to be identical. Further, we shall be
neglecting the time constants of generators and turbines as they are negligible as
compared to the time constants of power systems.
TP1 > Tt1, TG1 ; TP2 > Tt2, TG2
2.38 Power System Operation and Control

 Pc1   Pc2  0

From Fig. 2.17, we get

 KP1   f1 s  ...(2.49)
 f1 s   R   PD1 s   Ptie  1 s 
1  sTp  1 
 KP2   f2 s  ...(2.50)
 f2 s   R   PD2 s   Ptie1  s 
1  sTp  2 
2  T12 ...(2.51)
 Ptie  1 s  [ f1 s   f2 s]
s
For identical areas,
 Ptie  2    Ptie  1

a12  1

R1  R2  R

KP1  KP2  KP

From equation (2.49)

 Kp   Kp
 f1 s  1    [ PD1 s   Ptie  1 s]
 R 1  sTp  1  sTp

 R  sRTp  Kp   Kp
 f1 s   [ PD1 s   Ptie  1 s]
 R 1  sTp  1  sTp
 KpR
 f1 s  [ PD1 s   Ptie  1 s]
sRTp  R  Kp

Similarly from equation (2.50)

 KpR
 f2 s  [ PD2 s   Ptie  1 s]
sRTp  R  Kp

 KpR
 [ PD2 s   Ptie  1 s]
sRTp  R  Kp

Substitute  f1 s and  f2 s in equation (2.51), we get

Real Power - Frequency Control 2.39

2  T12   KpR 
 Ptie  1 s    [ PD1 s   PD2 s  2  Ptie  1 s] 
s
 sRTp R  Kp 
 4  T12 KpR   2  T12 KpR
 Ptie  1 s  1   [ PD1 s   PD2 s]
 sTpR  R  Kp  s sTpR  R  Kp

[Tp Rs2  s R  Kp  4  T12 KpR]

 Ptie  1 s
s [TpRs  R  Kp]

2  T12   KpR 

s   [ PD1 s   PD2 s]
 TpRs  R  Kp 
 2  T12 Kp
 Ptie  1 s  [ PD1 s   PD2 s]
 2  R  Kp  4  T12 Kp
Tp  s   s
  TpR  Tp

1
We know Kp  Hz/p.u MW
B
 2  T12 [ PD1 s   PD2 s]
 Ptie  1 s 
  1 
 2 RB  4  T12
TPB  s   s
  TPR  BTp
  
2H
Power system time constant TP  sec
Bf0

2  T12 [ PD2 s   PD1 s]

 Ptie  1 s 
2H  2 RB  1 4  T12 
s  s 
f0  2HR 2H 
 f0 f0 
 
2  T12 f0 [ PD2 s   PD1 s]

 f0  1 2  T12 f0 
2H  s2   B   s  
 2H  R H 
The denominator is of the form

s2  2  s  2  s  2  2  2
2.40 Power System Operation and Control

Where,
f0
B 1 
 = 
4H R 
2  T12 f0
2 =
H
2
Since  and  are positive the system is stable and damped. The roots of the
characteristics equation are


2 2   4
2

2
s1, 2 
2
2


2
 

We have three conditions:

(i) If   , the system is critically damped, the roots becomes s1, 2   

(ii) If   , the system becomes under damped, the roots becomes

s1, 2     

2
 
2

(iii) If   , the system becomes overdamped, the roots becomes

s1, 2     j 

2
 
2

jd
  Damping factor
d  Damping angular frequency
2
d  

 
2



2  f0 T12  f0  1 
  BR
H  4H  
f0
Let, B  0,  
4R
Damping mainly depends on  Parameter f0 and H are constant.
1. Low valve of R will give strong damping.
2. High valve of R will give weak damping.
3. If R  , d  . Where d  Natural angular frequency.
Real Power - Frequency Control 2.41

Fig. 2.29 Dynamic response of two identical area system

The system will perform undamped oscillations.

From response curve shown in Fig. 2.29 the following conclusions may be drawn
1. Static change in tie line flow corresponding to load changen in area 2 is
 PD
positive and is equal to for identical two area system.
2
2. Static change in frequency for the same case is  Ve and equal to
  PD
2
3. Changes in frequency in two area under transient state is not identical.
4. Maximum deviation of frequency occurs in the area in which disturbance
has taken place.

!( C84 ;8=4 F8C7 5A4@D4=2H 180B 2>=CA>; >5 CF> 0A40 BHBC4<

The persistent static frequency error is intolerable in the single control area case.
A persistent static error in tie-line power flow called “inadvertent exchange” would
mean that one area would have to support the other as a steady state basis.
The basic principle is good operations of pool must be that each area absorbs
its own load in normal steady state. In two area system, we could conceive of the
2.42 Power System Operation and Control

arrangement that are ‘1’ be responsible for frequency reset and area ‘2’ take care of
the tie line power.

ACE1   f1

ACE2   Ptie2

The ACE’s would be fed via slow integrators or to the respective speed changers.
But this arrangement is not so good. The block diagram of two area LFC with tie
line bias control is shown in Fig. 2.20.
The control strategy is termed as tie line bias control and is based upon the
principle that all operating.

2.9.1 Determination of tie line with frequency bias control of two

area system
All operating pool members must contribute their share to frequency control, in
addition to taking care of their own net interchange.
From the block diagram of two area system shown in Fig. 2.30. ACE is the
change in area frequency which, when used in integral control loop forced the steady
state frequency error to zero.
In order to make steady state tie line power error to zero, another integral control
loop (one for each area) must be introduced to integrate the incremental tie line power
signal and feed it back to the speed changer.
ACE1   Ptie, 1  b1  f1 ...(2.52)
ACE2   Ptie, 2  b2  f2 ...(2.53)
b1, b2  Area frequency bias
Taking Laplace transform of equation (2.52) and (2.53) we get
ACE1 s   Ptie  1 s  b1  F1 s

ACE2 s   Ptie  2 s  b2  F2 s

Speed changer commands are

 PC1   K11   Ptie1  b1  f1 dt ...(2.54)

 PC2   K12   Ptie2  b2  f2 dt ...(2.55)

Real Power - Frequency Control 2.43

Fig. 2.30 Block diagram of two area load frequency control with tie line bias control
2.44 Power System Operation and Control

K11 and K12  Integrator gains

The minus sign must be included; since each area should increase its generation
if either its frequency error or its tie line power increment is negative.

Steady State Response

 PD1 and  PD2 step changes in loads applied in areas 1 and 2.

When steady state condition are reached, the output signals of all integrating
blocks become constant and their input signals must become zero.
 Ptie  1  b1  f1  0

 Ptie  2  b2  f2  0 ...(2.56)

 f1   f2  0 ...(2.57)

 Ptie  1 ...(2.58)
  a12  constant
 Ptie  2

Equation (2.56) and (2.57) are satisfied only, for

 Ptie  1   Ptie  2  0

and  f1   f2  0

2.9.2 The line bias control of multi area systems

A control area is interconnected not only with one tie line to one neighbouring
area, but with several tie lines to neighbouring areas in the power pool.
m ...(2.59)
Area control error, ACEi    Pij  bi  fi
j1
m
The net change    Pij
j1

The reset control is implemented by sample data techniques. At sample intervals

of one second all tie line power data are fed into the central energy control area,
where they are added and error is added with biased frequency error, to give ACE
results. If optimum dispatch is employed, a teritary slower loop is added.
Real Power - Frequency Control 2.45

!  CH?4B >5 0DC><0C82 ;>03 5A4@D4=2H 2>=CA>;B 5>A

8=C4A2>==42C43 ?>F4A BHBC4<

Depending on whether one (or) all the system has been assigned the job of
maintaining the frequency constant and extent of tie line load required, three methods
are available for LFC of interconnected systems. The equipment used is the same as
in the case of single area systems. In addition a tie line load recorder controller is
also necessary. The load on tie line is measured by a thermal converter which operates
the tie line load recorder controller. A knob on this controller sets the scheduled
amount of power transfer. Whenever the interchange is above or below the set valve,
a set of contacts in the load controller come in to service. These contacts are in
series with load frequency controller circuit. These contacts open and block all those
impulses which would make the tie line lead to further deviate from the set valve.
However all impulses which aid in keeping scheduled interchange are allowed to go
to the governor motor. Generally the same equipment can be used for all the following
types of control by putting the selector switch in the proper position.

2.10.1 Flat frequency control

The job of maintaining the frequency constant is assigned to one machine or
one station. This machine or station absorbs all changes in the system load while all
other machines carry constant loads. There is no control on tie line power. This tie
line load recorder controller is out of circuit and frequency controllers are used on
only the master machine. On master machines the frequency controller can usually
detect is small as 0.005 Hz change in frequency and initiate control action. Flat
frequency control has the advantages that new and more efficient machines can be
made to carry the base load and the less efficient machines can act of the master
machines for taking upload changes. The main disadvantages of this type of control
is that it result in random variations in tie line powers.

2.10.2 Flat tie line load control

The aim of this control is to keep the tie line power constant irrespective of
load demands. The increase in demands of an area is met by increase in generation
in that area. This control is used when a small system and a large system are inter
connected through a tie line. The large system maintains the system frequency and
the small system is controlled to keep the tie line power constant. It is not suitable
when two (or) more large systems are interconnected because in such cases the tie
line power and frequency deviation have a tendency to swing back and for the
following a load change. Needless to and that in this type of control, the control
2.46 Power System Operation and Control

equipment consists of the frequency controller only at the larger system and tie line
power controller recorder at the smaller system.

2.10.3 Tie line load bias control

This is the most widely used method on large inter connections. All power
systems assist in regulating frequency and the tie line power flow irrespective of where
the disturbance originates. Each power system has control units of almost identical
operating characteristics.

Fig. 2.31 Model of LFC of single area system

The design of ALFC has to fulfill many objectives like fast response, stability
etc. The optimum linear regulator (OLR) design meets those objectives satisfactorily.
The design of OLR requires the ALFC equations to be expressed in state variable
form. Fig. 2.31 shows the model of LFC for single area system.
Assume KG KT  1
Laplace transform equations are
1   P s  1  F s  ...(2.60)
 Pv s 
1  sTG  c R 

1 ...(2.61)
 PT s    Pv s
1  sTT

Kp ...(2.62)
 F s  [ PT s   PD s]
1  sTp

We can write equations (2.60), (2.61) and (2.62) as

1
 Pv s  sTG  Pv s    Pc s   F s  ...(2.63)
 R 
Real Power - Frequency Control 2.47

 PT s  sTT  PT s   Pv s ...(2.64)

 F s  sTp  F s  Kp  PT s  Kp  PD s ...(2.65)

We can rewrite equations (2.63), (2.64) and (2.65) as

d  Pv F
 Pv  TG   Pc 
dt R
d  PT
 PT  TT   Pv
dt
d  F
F  TP  Kp  PT  Kp  PD
dt
Let us define control input  Pc  u and disturbance factor  PD  P

d  Pv   Pv  F u
In the domain form,   
dt TG RTG TG

d  PT  Pv  PT
 
dt TT TT

d  F Kp F Kp
  PT  P
dt Tp TP Tp

Let  PV,  PT and  F be the state variables

 X1    Pv 
   
 State vector X   X2     PT 
 X3    
   F 
Write the equations in state variable form as
1 1   1   
 T 0      0 
RTG TG
 X 1  
G   X1     
   1 1      
 X 2    T  0   X2    0 G 0 
X   T TT 
  X3    
 3  Kp 1      Kp
 0 
0 Tp Tp    T 
     p

In compact form, X  AX  BU   P
2.48 Power System Operation and Control

Fig. 2.32 Block diagram of linear state model.

Fig. 2.33 Optimum feedback controller

Consider two area system, we have two control and disturbance forces.
Let u be the control force.
Let P be the disturbances force vector.

 u     PC1   P1    PD1 
u 1  ; P  
P  P 
u
 2    PC2   2  D2 
Real Power - Frequency Control 2.49

! 42>=><82 38B?0C27 2>=CA>; F8C7 ;52

By using internal controller to the governor mechanism, the control loop must
be characterised by a sufficient degree of stability.

Frequency error  0 for a step load change.

Integr al of the fr equency er r or should be minimized.

The individual gener ator s of the contr ol ar ea should divide the total load for
optimum economy can be met only by optimal dispatch equation.

IC1  IC2   ICN

dF1 dF2  dFN 

 
dPG1 dPG2 dP 
 GN 
The primary ALFC opp makes the initial coarse readjustment of frequency. By
using this the various generators in the control area can be should the load depends
on their capacity.

Time taken for the primary loop to respond  2 to 20 sec.

The secondary ALFC loop takes over the fine adjustment of the frequency by
using internal control action. The frequency error should be zero. This loop operates
after the primary loop has done its job.

Response time  order of 1 minute

The optimal dispatch of generation may be treated within the framework of

ALFC. We consider economic dispatch control as the tertial control loop.

Digital computer is located in an energy control centre which collects information

like real power every five minutes through communication channels, telephone,
microwave etc. The digital computer is included in the control loop which scans the
power generation of units and the line flows. These settings are compared with the
optimal settings derived from the solution of the economic dispatch program.

The output of the comparator is given to the computer which generates the raise
/ lower pulses which are sent to the individual speed governing mechanism, to read
just the megawatt generation accordingly.
2.50 Power System Operation and Control

WORKED EXAMPLE

4G0<?;4 2.1

Two synchronous generators operating in parallel. Their capacities are 300 MW and
400 MW. The droop characteristics of their governor are 4% and 5% from no load to
full load. Assuming that the generators are operating at 50 Hz at no load. How would
be a load of 600 MW shared between them. What will be the system frequency at this
load. Assume free governor action. (Dec 2007, May 2008, Dec. 2013)

Fig. 2.34

 Solution
No load speed is indicated by OA. For alternator 1, OD is the full load speed
and for alternator  2, OF is the full load speed.

No load speed  Full load Speed

Speed regulation 
Full load Speed
For alternator 1, of 300 MW
50  OD
 0.04
OD
50  OD  0.04 OD

1.04  OD  50

OD  48.076 Hz
Real Power - Frequency Control 2.51

Similarly for alternator 2, of 400 MW

50  OF
 0.05
OF
50  OF  0.05 OF

1.05  OF  50

OF  47.619 Hz

 ABC and  ADE are similar

CB A B

ED AD

x 50  f 50  f
 
300 50  48.076 1.924

300
x 50  f
1.924
x  7796.258  155.925 f ...(1)

 ABH and  AFG are similar

BH AB

FG AF
600  x 50  f 50  f
 
400 50  OF 50  47.619
400
600  x  50  f
2.381
 8399.832  167.995 f ...(2)
Adding equation (1) and (2),
600  16196.09  323.922 f

323.922 f  15596.09

f  48.148 Hz ...(3)

Substitute equation (3) in (1)

2.52 Power System Operation and Control

Load shared by alternator 1 x  7796.258  155.925  48.148

 288.781 MW

Load shared by alternator 2  600  288.781

 311.219 MW

4G0<?;4 2.2

Two synchronous machines with the following data are operating in parallel to feed
a common load of 300 MW.

Machine 1: Governor speed droop: 4% speed changer set to give 75% rated
load at rated speed.
Machine 2: Governor speed droop: 3% speed changer set to give 50% rated
load at rated speed. The nominal frequency of operation of the set
is 50 Hz.

(i) Determine the load taken by each machine and the frequency of operation.
(ii) What adjustment should be made for the machine to share the loads as in
(i) but with a frequency of 50 Hz? (May 2008)

 Solution
Pr1  75% of rated load

75
  300
100

 225 MW

Pr2  50% of rated load

50
  300
100

 150 MW Fig. 2.35

In Fig. 2.35 no load speed is indicated by OA. For machine 1, OD is the full
load speed and for machine 2, OF is the full load speed.

No load Speed  Full load speed

Speed regulation 
Full load speed
Real Power - Frequency Control 2.53

50  OD
For Machine 1,  0.04
OD
50  OD  0.04  OD
1.04  OD  50
50
OD   48.077 Hz
1.04
50  OF
For Machine 2,  0.03
OF
1.03OF  50
OF  48.54 Hz
From Fig. 2.35  ABC and  ADE are similar
CB AB

ED A D
x 50  f 50  f
 
225 OA  OD 50  48.077

50  f

1.923
225
x 50  f
1.925
 5850.2  117f ...(1)
From Fig. 2.35  ABH and  AFG are similar
BH AR

FG AF
300  X 50  f 50  f
 
150 50  OF 50  48.544
50  f

1.456
150
300  x  50  f
1.456
 5151.1  103.02f ...(2)
2.54 Power System Operation and Control

Equation 1  2  300  11001.3  220.02f

220.02f  10701.3

f  48.64 Hz
Load shared by Machine 1, x  5850.2  117  48.64

 159.32 MW

Load shared by Machine 2, 300  x  140.68 MW

(ii) For machine 1, speed changer should be set to give
159.32
 100  53.1% rated load at rated speed,
300
For machine 2, speed changer should be set to give
140.68
 100  46.89% rated load at rated speed.
300

4G0<?;4 2.3

Two 50 Hz power stations are connected by means of an interconnected cable of

negligible impedance, so that the stations work in parallel. Station A has a full
load capacity of 15 MW and uniform speed regulation of 3%. Station B has a
capacity of 4 MW and uniform speed regulation of 4%. The load on the busbars
of station B is 4 MW and of station A is 10 MW. Calculate the generated output
of each station. Power transmitted by interconnected cable and operating frequency
assuming free governor action and that the speed changers of generators were set
to have a frequency of 50 Hz at no-load. (Dec 2008)
 Solution

Full load Speed

Station Station load Change in load
capacity regulation
A 15 MW 3% 10 MW 5 MW
B 4 MW 4% 4 MW 0

Full load capacity of station A is Pr1  15 MW

 Load on station A, PD1  10 MW

Real Power - Frequency Control 2.55

Fig. 2.36

 Change in load of station A  PD1  5 MW

 Per unit value of change in load demand

 PD1
 PD1, p.u 
Pr1

5
  PD1 p.u   0.33 p.u.
15

Full load capacity of station B is Pr2  4 MW

Load on station B, PD2  4 MW

 Change in load demand of station B,  PD2  0

We know that, for two area system, change in tie line power transferred from
area A to B.

1  PD2   PD1 2
 Ptie, 1 stat 
a12 1  2

Change in static frequency

 [ PD2   PD1 a12]

f stat 
a12 1  2

1
1  B1 
R1
2.56 Power System Operation and Control

3 50
R1    0.1 Hz/MW
100 15

 0.1  15 Hz/p.u MW  1.5 Hz/p.u MW

4 50
R2    0.5 Hz/MW
100 4

 0.5  4 Hz/p.u MW  2 Hz/p.u MW

B1  B2  0

1 1
1    0.667
R1 1.5

1 1
2    0.5
R2 2

Pr1 15
 a12    3.75
Pr2 4

  PD1 2  0.33  0.5

  Ptie, 1, stat  
a12 1  2 3.75  0.667  0.5

  0.055 p.u MW

  Ptie, 1, stat   0.055 p.u. MW

 a12  PD1  3.75  0.33

f stat  
a12 1  2 3.75  0.667  0.5

f stat   0.412 Hz

Operator frequency f0  f  50   0.412

 49.588 Hz
Real Power - Frequency Control 2.57

4G0<?;4 2.4

A single area consists of two generating units, rated at 400 MW and 800 MW,
with speed regulation of 4% and 5% on their ratings. The units are operating in
parallel sharing 700 MW. Unit 1 supplied 200 MW and Unit 2 supplies 500 MW
at 1 p.u (50 Hz) frequency. The load is increased by 130 MW.
(i) Assume there is no frequency dependent load. Find the steady state frequency
deviation and the new generation on each unit.
(ii) The load varies 0.84% for every 1% change in frequency. Find the steady state
frequency deviation and the new generation on each unit. (June 2009)

 Solution
Assume base MVA  1000

Power factor  1
1000
R1   0.4  0.1 p.u
400
1000
R2   0.05  0.0625 p.u
800
130
Per unit load change  PL   0.13 p.u
1000
(i) Per unit steady state frequency deviation
  PL
fp.u  p.u
1 1

R1 R2

 0.13

1 1

0.1 0.0625
  0.005 p.u
Steady state fr equency deviation in Hz is
 0.005  50   0.25 Hz

New frequency  old frequency  f

 50   0.25  49.75 Hz
2.58 Power System Operation and Control

Change in generation for each unit is

 f p.u  0.005
P1p.u   }
R1 0.1

  0.05 p.u

 P1 MW   0.05  1000 MW   50 MW

  fp.u  0.005
 P2 p.u  
R2 0.0625

  0.08 p.u

 P2 MW   0.08  1000 MW   80 MW

Unit I supplies 200  50  250 MW and Unit II supplies 500  80  580 MW at

the new operating frequency of 49.75 Hz.
(ii) The load varies 0.84% for every 1% change in frequency.
For D  0.84
P.u steady state frequency deviation is
  PL  0.13
f p.u  
1 1 1 1
 D   0.84
R1 R2 0.1 0.0625

  0.00484 p.u

f in Hz   0.00484  50   0.242

New frequency f  f0  f

 50   0.242

 49.758 Hz
Change in generation for each unit is
 f p.u  0.00484
P1 p.u  
R1 0.1

  0.0484 p.u
Real Power - Frequency Control 2.59

P1 MW   0.0484  1000

  48.4 MW
 f p.u  0.00484
P2 p.u  
R2 0.0625

  0.0774 p.u
P2 MW   0.0774  1000   77.4 MW

Unit I supplies 200  48.4  248.4 MW

Unit II supplies 500  77.4  577.4 MW
Total change in generation  48.4  77.4
 125.8 MW
Which is 4.2 MW less than 130 MW load change.
This change in load occurs due to frequency drop.
f  D   0.0048  0.84   0.00406 p.u

  4.06 MW

4G0<?;4 2.5

Two 1000 kW alternators operates in parallel.The speed regulation of first alternator

is 100% to 103% from full load to no load and that of other 100% to 105%. How
will the two alternators share a load of 1200 kW and at what load will one machine
cease to supply any portion of the load? (Dec 2009)

 Solution
Total load  1200 kW
Unit I  3% drop
Unit II  5% drop
Let x be the power generation of unit I.
From similar triangle  BCD and  BEF
CD BD

EF BF
2.60 Power System Operation and Control

Fig. 2.37

x 3h

1000 3
3000  1000h
x
3
 1000  333.33 h ...(1)
From similar triangle  ADH and  A FG
DH AD

FG A F

1200  x 5  h

1000 5
1200  x  1000  200 h
x  200  200 h ...(2)
Equating equations (1) and (2) we get
200  200 h  1000  333.33 h

533.33 h  800
h  1.5
Substitute ‘h’ in equ. (1)
Real Power - Frequency Control 2.61

x  1000  333.33  1.5

PG1  500 kW

PG2  1200  x  1200  500

 700 kW
Machine 1 cease to supply any load when the line DH is shifted to point B.
At this point.
Machine 2 will supply load equal to BK.
From  A BK and  A FG

Fig. 2.38

BK AB

FG AF
105  103
BK  1000 
5
2
 1000 
5
 400 kW
2.62 Power System Operation and Control

4G0<?;4 2.6

Two generators rated at 200 MW and 400 MW are operating in parallel. The
governor settings on the machine are such that they have 4% and 5% droops.
Determine the load taken by each machine for a total load of 600 MW and its
system frequency. assume free governor operation. Repeat the problem if both
governors have a droop of 4%. (May 2011, Dec 2014)

Fig. 2.39

 Solution
Let X be the load shared by unit - I.

Let 600  X be the load shared by unit-II.

Total load  600 MW

Let the full load frequency  50 Hz

% Droop of unit I from no load to full load  4%

Hence droop in frequency from NL to FL  50  0.04

 2 Hz

Hence frequency of Unit-I  50  2  48 Hz

Real Power - Frequency Control 2.63

% Droop of unit II from NL to FL  5%

Hence frequency droop from NL to FL  0.05  50
 2.5 Hz
 Frequency of unit II  50  2.5
 47.5 Hz
From Fig. 2.39
Triangular AFO and ABC are similar
FO AO

BC AC
X h ...(1)
 ; X  100 h
200 2
Triangular AOG and ADE are similar
OG AO

DE A D
600  x h

400 2.5
400 h  1500  2.5 x ...(2)
Solving equation (1) and (2), we get
X  230.76 MW
Load shared by unit I  230.76 MW
Load shared by unit II  600  X
 369.24 MW
If both governors have a droop of 4%.
 Solution
Let X be the load shred by Machine - I. Let 600  x be the load shared by
Machine II.
% Droop of unit I and II are 4%
 ABF and ADG are similar.
2.64 Power System Operation and Control

Fig. 2.40

BF AF h
 
DG AG AG
X h ...(1)
 ; 4x  200 h
200 4

 AFC and AGE are similar

FC AF

GE AG

600  x h

600 4

4 600  x  600 h ...(2)

Solving equation (1) and (2)

4x  200 h

x  50 h

4 600  50 h  600 h

2400  200 h  600 h

2400  800 h
Real Power - Frequency Control 2.65

h3

PG1  150 MW

PG2  600   600  1500  450 MW

4G0<?;4 2.7

Two identical 60 MW synchronous machine operate in parallel the governor setting

on the machines are such that they have 4% and 3% droops no load to full load
% speed droops. Determine (a) the load taken by each machine for a total load
of 100 MW (b) The % no load speed to be made by the speeder motor if the
machine are to share the load equally.
 Solution
(a)

Fig. 2.41

Similarly  A BCand  ADE

BC AC

DE A E

x 4h

60 4
2.66 Power System Operation and Control

x  60  15 h ...(1)
Similarly
 HCG and  HEF
CG HC

EF HE
100  x 3  h

60 3
100  x  60  20 h

x  40  20 h ...(2)
Equating (1) and (2)
60  15 h  40  20 h
4
h
7
substitute ‘h’ in equation (1)
x  60  15 h
4
 60  15   51.42 MW
7
Machine 1 delivers 51.42 MW
Machine 2 delivers 100  51.42  48.58 MW

(b) If both machine shares equally

PD
PG1  PG2   50 MW
2
 A BCand  ADE
BC AC

DE A E

50 y1

60 4
y1  3.33%
Real Power - Frequency Control 2.67

Fig. 2.42

 HCG and  HEF

CG HC 3  CE
 
EF HE HE

50 3  CE

60 HE

50
3  CE  3
60

50  3
CE  3   0.5
60

Speed of operation is 100.5%

y1  y2  3.33 100.5

 103.83%

% no load speed in the 4% dr oop machine is 103.83%

2.68 Power System Operation and Control

4G0<?;4 2.8

Two thermal generating units are operating in parallel at 60 Hz. To supply a total
load of 700 MW unit I with a rated output of 600 MW and 4% speed droop
characteristics and unit II. Which has a rated output of 500 MW and 5% speed
droop. If total load increases to 800 MW determine loading of each unit and the
common frequency change before any supplementary control action occurs. Neglect
losses.
 Solution
 BCD and  BEF
CD BD

EF BF
x 4h

600 4
x  600  150 h ...(1)

 ADH and  AFG

DH AD

FG A F
700  x 5  h Fig. 2.43

500 5
x  200  100 h ...(2)
Solving (1) and (2) h  1.6
PG1  360 MW
PG2  700  X  700  360  340 MW
Case 2: Total load increases to 800 MW
800  X 5  h

500 5
x  300  100 h ...(3)
x  600  150 h ...(4)
Solving equation (3) and (4)
h  1.2
Real Power - Frequency Control 2.69

Substitute h in equation (3), we get x value

x  PG1  420 MW

PG2  800  x  800  420  380 MW

PG1  420  360  60 MW

 PG2  380  340  40 MW

 P  800  700  100 MW

100
  0.125 p.u MW
800

 3.2 Hz/p.u.MW

4 60
R1    800  3.2 Hz/p.u. MW
100 600

5 60
R2    800
100 500

 4.8 Hz/p.u MW

  Pp.u
Change in frequency f  Hz
 1  1 
 R1 R2 
 
 0.125
   0.24 Hz
 1  1 
 3.2 4.8 
 

System frequency  f0  f

 60  0.24

f  59.76 Hz
2.70 Power System Operation and Control

4G0<?;4 2.9

A Isolated Power System has the following parameters.

Turbine rated output  300 MW
Nominal frequency  50 Hz
Governor speed regulation  2.5 Hz/p.uMW
Damping coefficient  0.016 p.u.MW/Hz
Inertia constant  5, Turbine time constant 0.5 sec
Governor time constant  0.2 sec
Load Change  60 MW. The system is equipped with the secondary integral control
loop and the integral controller gain KI  6. Obtain the frequency deviation for a
step response. (June 2014)

 Solution
60
 PD   0.2 p.u
300
1 1
KP    62.5
B 0.016
2H 25
TP  0
  12.5 sec
Bf 0.016  50

Kp
 F s    PD s
 KI 1  Kp
1  sTp    
 s R  1  sTG 1  sTt
 PD 0.2
For a step response  PD s  
s s
Real Power - Frequency Control 2.71

62.5   0.2 
 F s   
6 1  62.5  s 
1  12.5s      
 s 2.5  1  0.2s 1  0.5s
 
f stat  Lt s  F s
s0

  62.5  0.2 
 Lt  
s  0  1  12.5s   15  s   62.5 
  2.5s 1  0.5s   1  0.2s 
   
 12.5 2.5s 1  0.2s 1  0.5s

2.5s 1  12.5s 1  0.2s 1  0.5s  982.5 62.5s
0
Steady state frequency deviation = 0

4G0<?;4 2.10

For the p-f control of a single area system have the following data
Kp  120 Hz/P.u
Tp  10 sec
Tg  Tt  0
R  2.5 Hz/p.u MW
KI  0.1
 PD  0.1 p.u MW
Compute the time error and the steady state frequency caused by a step disturbance
of magnitude given in the data. Express the error in second and cycles if the system
frequency is 50 Hz.
 Solution
 Kp  PD
 F s 
  R  Kp  Kp KI 
Tp  s2  s   T 
  RTp  p 

 120  0.1

  2.5  120  120  0.1 
10  s2  s   
 2.5  10 
10
 
2.72 Power System Operation and Control

 1.2
 F s  2
s  4.9s  1.2

Roots of s2  4.9s  1.2  0

 4.9  

2

4.9  4  1.2
s
2

  0.258 or  4.641

 1.2
 F s 
s  0.258 s  4.641

Using partial fraction method

4 B
 F s  
s  0.258 s  4.641

A s  4.641  B s  0.258   1.2

equating the co-efficients

A  B  0 ; 4.641 A  0.25 B   1.2

A   0.274

B  0.274

 0.274 0.274
 F s  
s  0.258 s  4.641

Taking Inverse laplace transform

 f t  0.274  e 4.641 t  e 0.258 t 


Time error    f t dt
0


  0.274  e 4.641 t  e 0.258 t 
0
Real Power - Frequency Control 2.73


 e 4.641 t e 0.258 t 
 0.274   
  4.641  0.258 0
1 1
 0.274   
4.641  0.258 
 
Time error   1.002 cycles
 1.002
Time error    0.02 sec
50
We lose 0.02 sec
f stat  Lt s  F s
s0

  0.274 0.274 
 Lt s  
s0  s  0.258 s  4.64 
0

4G0<?;4 2.11

For a system of regulation  4 Hz/p.u MW, Kp  150, Tp  18 sec,  PD  0.01, find

the dynamic response for uncontrolled case. (May 2010)

 Solution

Fig. 2.44
2.74 Power System Operation and Control

 R  KP 
 PD Kp R  t
 f t   1e 
RTp
 
R  Kp  
 
 4  150 
 0.01  150  4  t
 1e  4  18  
4  150  

  0.0389 [1  e 2.138 t]

  0.0389  0.0389 e 2.138 t

4G0<?;4 2.12

Two generating stations 1 and 2 have full load capacities of 200 and 100 MW
respectively, at a frequency of 50 Hz. The two stations are interconnected by an
induction motor and synchronous generator set with a full load capacity of 25 MW
as shown in fig. The speed regulation of station 1, station 2 and induction motor
and synchronous generator set are 4%, 3.5% and 2.5% respectively. The loads on
respective busbar are 75 and 50 MW. Find the load taken by the motor generator
set.

 Solution
Let a power of A MW flow from station 1 to station 2.

 Total load on station-1  75  A MW

Total load on station-2  50  A

4
% drop in speed at station-1  75  A
200
3.5
% drop in speed at station - 2  50  A
100
The reduction in frequency will result due to the power flow from station - 1
through the interconnector of M-G set.
2.5 2.5A
 % drop is speed at M-G set  A 
25 25
(reduction in frequency at station-1  reduction in frequency at M-G set) 
reduction in frequency at station-2)
Real Power - Frequency Control 2.75

4 2.5A 3.5
 75  A   50  A
200 25 100
0.02 75  A  0.1A  0.035 50  A
1.5  0.02A  0.1A  1.75  0.03A
0.02A  0.1A  0.03A  175  1.5  0.25
0.15A  0.25
A  1.666 MW
i.e., a power of A  1.666 MW flow from station-1 to station-2.
 Total load at station  1  75  A
 75  1.666
 76.666 MW
Total load at station-2  50  A
 50  1.666
 48.334 MW

Fig. 2.45
2.76 Power System Operation and Control

4G0<?;4 2.13

A 125 MVA turbo - attemator operate on full load operates at 50 Hz. A load of
50 MW is suddenly reduced on the machine. The steam valves to the turbine
commence to close after 0.5s due to the time lag in the governor system. Assuming
the inertia to be constant, H  6 kW  s per kVA of generator capacity. Calculate
the change in frequency that occurs in this time.
 Solution
Stored energy
By definition, H 
Capacity of the machine
 Energy stored at no load  6  125  1000
 750 MJ
Excessive energy input to rotating parts in 0.5s  50  0.5  1000  25 MJ
As a result of this, there is a increase in the speed of the motor and hence an
increase in frequency.
2
 f0   f 
WKE  W0KE   0 
 f 


 
750  25
 fnew  750
 50 Hz

 50.83 Hz

4G0<?;4 2.14

Find the static frequency drop if the load is suddenly increased by 24 MW on a

system having the following data.
Rated capacity Pr  500 MW
Operating load PD  250 MW
Inertia constant H  5s
Governor regulation R  2 Hz p.u MW
Frequency f  50 Hz. Also find the additional generation.
 Solution
Assuming the frequency characteristic to be linear, we have
Real Power - Frequency Control 2.77

 PD 250
B  MW/Hz
f 50

 PD 250
expressed in p.u.,, B 
f 50  500

 0.01 p.u MW/Hz

25
 PD in p.u   0.05
500

Area frequency response characteristics (AFRC).

1 1
B  0.01   0.06
n 2

  PD
The static frequency drop  f 
AFRC

 0.05

0.06

 0.098 Hz

Hence the system frequency droops to 50  0.098  49.902 Hz

The amount of additional generation

  f 0.098
 PG    4.9  10 2 p.u. MW
R 2

 4.9  10 2  500

 24.5 MW

While the sudden increase in load is 25 MW, the increase in generation is 24.5
MW and 0.5 MW is the loss of load due to the droop in frequency.
2.78 Power System Operation and Control

4G0<?;4 2.15

Given a single area with three generating units as shown in Fig. 2.46.

Speed droop R
Unit Rating (MVA)
(Per unit on unit base)
1 100 0.010
2 500 0.015
3 500 0.015

The units are loaded as P1  80 MW, P2  300 MW, P3  400 MW. Assume B  0.
What is the new generation on each unit for a 50 MW load increase? Repeat with
B  1.0 p.u (i.e 1.0 p.u as load base)

 Solution
P P
(a) f  
3 1 1 1
1   B
 Ri
B R1 R2 R3
i1

with B  0 at a common base of 1,000 MVA.

1,000
R1  0.01   0.1 p.u
100

1000
R2  0.015   0.03 p.u
500

1000
R3  0.015   0.03 p.u
500

50
P   0.05 p.u
1000

 0.05
f 
1 1 1
 
0.1 0.03 0.03

  652.17  10 6 p.u

Real Power - Frequency Control 2.79

Fig. 2.46 A single area with three generating units

f  f0   f

 50  652.17  10 6 50

 49.96 Hz
Changes in unit generation

 f
P1   0.00652 p.u  6.52 MW
R1

 f
P2   21.739  10 3 p.u
R2

 21.74 MW

 f
P3   21.739  10 3 p.u
R3

 21.74 MW

Total New generation  50 MW

P1  P1   P1  80  6.52  86.52 MW

P2  P2   P2  300  21.74  321.7 MW

P3  P3   P3  400  21.74  421.74 MW

2.80 Power System Operation and Control

(b) With B  1 p.u (no load base)

 0.05
f   643.78  10 6
1 1 1
  1
0.1 0.03 0.03

 f  f0  f  50  643.78  10 6 50

 49.9614 Hz

Changes in unit generation

 f 643.78  10 6
P1    6.4 MW
R1 0.1

 f 643.78  10 6
P2    21.459 MW
R2 0.03

 f 643.78  10 6
P3    21.459 MW
R3 0.03

New generation

P1  P1   P1  80  6.44  86.44 MW

P2  P2  P2  300  21.49  321.45 MW

P3  P3  P3  400  21.459  421.459 MW

Fig. 2.47 single area with two generating units.

Real Power - Frequency Control 2.81

PART - A - QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. How is the real power in a power system controlled? (April/May 2011)
The real power in a power system is being controlled by controlling the driving
torque of the individual turbines of the system.
2. What is meant by free governor operation? (April/May 2011)
Only governor control is called as free governor action. It can be obtained by
deactivating the integral controller.
3. What is AGC? (Nov/Dec 2011)
Automatic generation control is a centralized generating unit that operates both
in real time and in closed loop with strong interface towards economy and security
of power system. AGC is an online computer control that maintains the overall system
frequency and the net tie-line load exchange between the power companies in the
interconnection.
4. Define per unit drop. (Nov/Dec 2010)
The per unit drop or speed regulation R of the generating unit is defined as
the magnitude of the change in steady state speed, expressed in p.u of rated speed,
when the output of the unit gradually reduced from 1.0 p.u rated power to zero.
f2  f1
fr
Rp  u 
PGr
pu
Pr

5. Compare the functions of speed governor and in a speed governing system

of a turbine generator set. (April/May 2008) (Nov/Dec 2008)
A speed governor is a speed limiting device which either acts on the fuel supply
line or the accelerator to control the speed at a specified speed.
Speed changer is a device by means of which the speed-governing system may
be adjusted to change the speed or power output of the turbine in operation.
6. A speed governor system cannot completely eliminate frequency error caused
by a step load change in a power system. Justify this statement.
(April/May 2009)
There is a considerable droop in speed on frequency of the turbine for a given
speed changer setting. Such a large deviation  or  0.5 Hz) cannot be tolerated
and we must develop some suitable control strategy to achieve much better frequency
constancy.
2.82 Power System Operation and Control

Even if the frequency is kept within tolerances, it does not provide for the
accuracy of synchronous clock. Since clocks measure the integral of the frequency.
Speed changer setting can be adjusted automatically by monitoring the dynamic
frequency changes with changes in load and the synchronous clocks run on time, but
not without error during transient period.
For this purpose a signal from  f is fed through an integrator to the speed
changer. The integral controller actuates the load reference point until the frequency
deviation becomes zero. Integral controller gives zero steady state error.
7. Compare the functions of speed governor and speed changer in a speed
governing system of a turbine generator set. (May 2008)

Speed Governor Speed Changer

1. It comprises of the elements which 1. It is a device by means of which the
are directly responsive to speed and speed governing system may be adjusted
whose positions influence the action of to change the speed or power output of
other elements of speed governing the turbine in operation.
system.
2. The speed governor output
command  Pv is measured by the
position change  Xc which has two
inputs,  Pc in the reference power
setting and  f in the speed frequency
of the governor.
8. What are the conditions necessary for sharing load operating in parallel
between the two synchronous machines?
(Nov/Dec 2011) (Nov/Dec 2013) (May 2014)
1. Terminal voltage
2. Speed
3. Phase voltage
4. Phase sequence
9. What do you understand by coherent group of generators?
(Nov/Dec 2008) (April/May 2009)
All the generators in a control area swing in coherently of it is characterized
by a single frequency. It is necessary to be considered as many control area as number
of coherent group.
Real Power - Frequency Control 2.83

10. Why the frequency and voltage to be regulated in a power system?

(AU/May 2008)
1. In any power system, if the frequency changes there won’t be required
voltage at the receiving end. If we connected two systems in parallel, it
will spoil the system.
2. The generator turbines are designed to operated at a very precise speed that
can be maintained by regulating frequency.
3. Constant turbine speed is an important requirement.
4. Unusual deviations in the frequency can be detected earlier.
Knowledge on voltage regulation helps in maintaining the voltage at the load
terminals within prescribed limits under fluctuating load conditions by employing
suitable voltage control equipment.
11. What is meant by control area? (Dec 2014)
It is possible to divide an extended power system (say, National grid) into
sub-areas in which the generators are tightly coupled together so as to form a coherent
group, i.e., all the generators respond is unison to changes in load or speed changer
settings. Such a coherent area is called a control area in which the frequency is
assumed to be the same throughout static as well as dynamic conditions.
12. Write down the equation for area control error of two area system.
(Nov/Dec 2010) (Nov/Dec 2007)
ACE   Ptie  b  f p.u. MW (Multi area system)

ACE   f (Single area system).

13. Define area control error? (Dec/AU 2007)
Area control error is the change in area frequency which when used in integral
controller forced the steady state frequency error to zero.
14. What is meant by LFC? (Nov/Dec 2007)
In interconnected systems with two or more independently controlled areas, in
addition to control of frequency, generation within each area has to be controlled to
maintain scheduled power interchange.
15. What are the functions of ALFC? (Nov/Dec 2013) (May 2015)
The basic role of ALFC is to maintain desired MW output of a generator unit
and assist in controlling the frequency of large interconnection. The ALFC also helps
to keep the net interchange of power between pool members at predetermined values.
Control should be applied in such a fashion that highly differing response
2.84 Power System Operation and Control

characteristics of units of various types are recognized. Also unnecessary power output
changes should be kept at a minimum in order to reduce wear of control valves.
16. What are the types of automatic load frequency control for interconnected
power system? (Nov/Dec 2012)
1. Flat frequency control
2. Flat tie-line control
3. Frequency bias tie-line control
17. State whether changes in AVR loop will be reflected in LFC loop.
(April/May 2011)
Control actions in the AVR loop affect the magnitude of the generator e.m.f.
‘E’. As the internal e.m.f determines the magnitude of the ideal power, changes in
the AVR loop must be felt in the ALFC loop.

|V| |E| |V2|  1 1 

PG  sin     sin 2 
Xd 2  Xq Xd 
 
18. Draw the dynamic response of change in frequency for a step load change.
(Nov/Dec 2009)

Fig. 2.48

19. What are the assumption made in dynamic response of uncontrolled case?
(AU/May 2004)
1. Neglect the turbine dynamics.
2. The speed changer action is instantaneous.
Real Power - Frequency Control 2.85

20. State the control objective of two area load frequency control?
(Dec/Nov 2004)
1. Under normal operating condition, each control area should have the capacity
to meet its own load from its own spinning generator, plus the scheduled
interchange between the neighbouring area.
2. Under emergency condition the energy can be drawn from the spinning
reserve of all the neighbouring areas immediately due to the sudden loss of
generating unit.

21. List the advantages of multi-area operation. (April/May 2009)

1. Under normal operating condition, each control area should have the capacity
to meet its own load from its own spinning generator, plus the scheduled
interchange between the neighbouring areas.
2. Under emergency condition, the energy can be drawn from the spinning
reserves of all the neighbouring areas immediately due to the sudden loss
of generating unit.

22. Define stiffness of the interconnected system. (Nov/Dec 2009)

The tie line power deviation of an interconnected two area system is given by

 P12  T0  1   2 MW/rad

wher e, To is the synchr onous coefficient of a tie lne (or ) stiffness.

|V01| |V02|
T0  cos 01  02 MW/rad
X

23. Mention any two advantages of state variable model.

(April/May 2011) (Nov/Dec 2007)
Optimum linear regulator design results in a controller that minimizes the both
transient variable oscillations and control effects.

24. What is the function of AVR? (April/May 2011) (April/May 2010)

The basic role of the AVR is to provide constancy of the generator terminal
voltage during normal, small and slow changes in the load.

25. What is automatic load dispatching? (Nov/Dec 2012)

Loading of units are allocated to serve the objective of minimum fuel cost is
know as automatic load scheduling.
2.86 Power System Operation and Control

26. Brief the application of secondary ALFC loop in power system network.
(May 2015)
The ALFC loop involves a frequency sensor that senses the frequency of the
busbar and compares it with tie line power frequencies in the signal mixer. The output
of this is an Area control error (ACE) which is sent to the speed changer through
integrator. The speed changer gives the reference speed to the governor. Integral
control is used to reduce the steady state frequency change to zero. The secondary
loop is biased to control the speed which intern controls the frequency. Since
NF

27. Find the open loop gain of an Automatic voltage regulator loop if the static
error does not exceed 1%. (May 2015)
If  e0 is less than 1%, K must exceed 99%.

PART - B - QUESTIONS

1. What are the components of speed governor system of an alternator? Derive its
transfer function with an aid of a block diagram.

(16) (Nov/Dec 2013) (Nov/Dec 2008) (May 2015)

2. Illustrate the block diagram model of uncontrolled two area LFC system and
explain the salient features under static conditions. (16) (Nov/Dec 2011)
3. Explain the speed load characteristics of speed governor system.

(16) (Dec 2014)

4. Two synchronous generator operating in parallel. Their capacities are 700 MW
and 600 MW. The droop characteristics of their governor area 4% and 5% from
no load to full load, how would be a load of 800 MW shared between them.
What will be the system frequency at this load?Assume free governor action.

(16) (Nov/Dec 2010)

5. Two synchronous generators operating in parallel. Their capacities are 300 MW
and 400 MW. The droop characteristics of their governor are 4% and 5% from
no load to full load. Assuming that the generators are operating at 50 Hz at no
load, how would be a load of 600 MW shares between them. What will be the
system frequency at this load? Assume free governor action.

(16) (Nov/Dec 2013) (Nov/Dec 2007)

6. Two synchronous machines with the following data are operating in parallel to
feed a common load of 300 MW
Real Power - Frequency Control 2.87

Machine 1: Governor speed droop: 4% Speed changer set to give 75% rated
load at rated speed.
Machine 2: Governor speed droop: 3% Speed changer set to give 50% rated
load at rated speed. Frequency of operation of the set is 50 Hz.
(i) Determine the load taken by each machine and the frequency of operation.

(ii) What adjustment should be made for the machine to share the loads as in
(i) but with a frequency of 50 Hz?
(16) (April/May 2008)
7. Two 1000 KW alternators operate in parallel. The speed regulation of first
alternator is 100% to 103% from full load to no load and that of other 100%
to 105%. How will the two alternators share a load of 1200 KW and at what
load will one machine cease to supply any portion of the load?

(16) (Nov/Dec 2009)

8. Two generators rated at 200 MW and 400 MW are operating in parallel. The
governor settings on the machines are such that they have 4% and 5% droops.
Determine the load taken by each machine for a total load of 600 MW and its
system frequency. Assume free governor operation. Repeat the problem if both
governors have a drop of 4%. (8) (April/May 2011)
9. A single area consists of two generating units, rated at 400 MW and 800 MW,
with speed regulation of 4% and 5% on their ratings. The units are operating
in parallel, sharing 700 M.W. Unit 1 supplied 200 MW and unit 2 supplies 500
MW at 1 p.u (50 Hz) frequency. The load is increased by 120 MW. (i) Assume
there is no frequency dependent load. Find the steady state frequency deviation
and the new generation on each unit. (16) (April/May 2008)
10. Develop the model of single control area and obtain block diagram representation.
Explain the salient features under static and dynamic conditions.
(16) (Nov/Dec 2010) (Dec 2014)
11. Derive the transfer function model and draw the block diagram or single control
area provided with governor system. From the transfer function derive the
expression for steady state frequency error for a step load change.
(16) (April/May 2008)
12. Briefly discuss the LFC control of single area system. (16) (Nov/Dec 2012)
13. Explain the dynamic response of single area LFC. (8) (April/May 2011)
14. Obtain the state variable model of a single area LFC. (8) (May 2014)
15. Explain the static and dynamic response of single area system.
(8) (April/May 2008)
2.88 Power System Operation and Control

16. For a system of regulation  4 Hz/p.u. MW, Kp  150, Tp  18 sec,

 Po  0.01 p.u. Find the dynamic response for uncontrolled case. Also derive
the equation used. (16) (April/May 2010)
17. Two 50 Hz power station are connected by means of an interconnected cable
of negligible impedance, so that the stations work in parallel. Station A has a
full load capacity of 15 MW and uniform speed regulation of 3%. Station B has
a capacity of 4 MW and uniform speed regulation of 4%. The load on the bus
bars of station B is 4 MW and of station A is 10 MW. Calculate the generated
output of each station, power transmitted by interconnected cable and operating
frequency assuming free governor action and that the speed changers of generators
were set to have a frequency of 50 Hz at no-load. (16) (Nov/Dec 2008)
18. A subgrid has total rated capacity 2500 MW. It encounters a load increase of
50 MW. If the normal operating load is 1000 MW. Assume inertia constant (M)
to be 5 sec and regulation of the generators in the system as 2 Hz/p.u M.W.
Find (i) ALFC loop Parameters (ii) Static frequency drop (iii) Transient
response of the ALFC loop. Assume load frequency dependency to be linear.
(May 2015)
19. An isolated power system has the following parameters Turbine rated output
 300 MW, Nominal frequency  50 Hz, Governor speed regulation  0.05 p.u.
Inertia constant  5, Turbine time constant  0.5 sec. Governor time constant
 0.25 sec. Load change 60 MW. The load varies by 0.8% for a 1% change in
frequency. Determine the steady state frequency deviation in Hz. (May 2014)
20. Illustrate the block diagram model of uncontrolled two area LFC system and
explain the salient features under static conditions. (Nov/Dec 2011)
21. Develop the block diagram model of a two area LFC system and obtain its
static response. (16) (April/May 2011)
22. Explain the tie-line bias control of two area system. (8) (April/May 2010)
23. Develop the mathematical model for tie line. (4) (April/May 2008)
24. Develop the state variable model of a two area system and state the advantages
of the model. (16) (Nov/Dec 2007)
25. (i) Discuss the integration of economic dispatch control with automatic
generation control. (8) (Nov/Dec 2012)
(ii) Derive an expression for load sharing between two alternators. What are
the effects of fuel supply and change of excitation? (8) (Nov/Dec 2012)
 UNIT - III

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The following are the reactive power supplier (or) absorber in power system.

Synchronous generator
Synchronous generators can generate (or) absorb reactive power. Reactive power
Q is supplied by synchronous generators depending upon the short circuit ratio
(SCR).
1
SCR  ; Xs  synchronous reactance
Xs
An over excited synchronous machine operating on no load condition
(synchronous condenser), generates reactive power. Under excited synchronous machine
absorbs reactive power. It is undesirable to transmit large amount of reactive power
over transmission lines as this produces excessive voltage drop.

Shunt capacitor
It offers the cheapest means of reactive power supply.

Shunt reactors
It offers the cheapest means of reactive power absorption and these are connected
in the transmission line during light load condition.

Transformers
Transformers always absorb reactive power regardless of their loading.
At no load – Shunt magnetizing reactance effect is predominant.
At full load – Series leakage inductance effect is predominant.
Actual reactance
Per unit reactance, XT 
Base value
Actual X

V
I
3.2 Power System Operation and Control

V kV
Actual reactance, X  XT   XT   1000
I I
kVA
Iph 
3 kV

XT
X 3 kV2  1000

kVA

Reactive power absorbed (or) loss

QT  3 |I2| X VAR

XT
 3 |I2| 3 kV2  1000

kVA

3 kVA2 XT
  3 kV2  1000

3 kV 2 kVA

3 kVA  XT kVAR

QT  

where, I  Current flowing through the transformer

X  Transformer reactance per phase

Cables
Cables generate more reactive power than transmission lines because the cables
have high capacitance.

Overhead lines
Transmission lines are considered as generating kVAR in their shunt capacitance
and consuming kVAR in their series inductance. The inductive kVAR vary with the
line current, whereas, the capacitive kVAR vary with the system potential.

Fig. 3.1 Overhead line

Reactive Power - Voltage Control 3.3

Consider transmission line be loaded such that load current be ‘I’ amperes and
load voltage ‘V’ volts as shown in Fig. 3.1.
If we assume the transmission line to be lossless, the reactive power absorbed
by the transmission line will be,

 QL  |I|2 XL

 |I|2 L
Due to capacitance of the transmission line, the reactive power generated at the
transmission line

|V|2
 QC   |V|2 C
XC

Suppose
 QL   QC

|I2| L  |V|2 C
2
 V   L  L
 I  C C
 

V

C
L
Zn  
I

where, Zn is called surge impedance of line.

A line is said to be operating at its surge impedance when transmission line

resistance is equal to its surge impedance. The power transmitted under this condition
is called natural (or) surge power.
|E| |V|
In general, P  sin 
X
At   90, maximum power can be transferred
|E| |V|
Pmax  MW
X
It is clear from the above formula, real power flow can be controlled by varying
X,  and |V|.
3.4 Power System Operation and Control

Case (i):  QL   QC

|I|2 L  |v|2 C
The voltage sags if the voltage at the two ends are maintained constant. The
variations of voltage along the line is as shown in Fig. 3.2

Fig. 3.2 Variation of voltage as a function of distance of line

Here the line is loaded below Zn i.e., light load condition. The net effect of
the line will be absorbed reactive power.

 QC   QL

|V|2 C  |I|2 L

The variation of along the line is as shown in Fig. 3.2 and it is observed that
the voltage rises and maintains constant voltage at the ends. Under light load
conditions, the effect of shunt capacitors is predominating and the line will generate
reactive power.

Loads
Loads absorb reactive power, Load change occurs depending on the day, season
and weather conditions. Both real and reactive power of the composite loads vary as
a function of voltage magnitudes. Loads operating at lagging power factor give voltage
drop in the line and is uneconomical. Industrial consumers improve the power factor
using shunt capacitors.
Reactive Power - Voltage Control 3.5

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3.2.1 Definition of Reactive power

Reactive power is an important quantity in Alternating Current (AC) transmission
networks. To define reactive power let us consider a series R  L circuit excited by
a single phase AC source. Let ‘i’ be the instantaneous current and ‘VL’ be the voltage
drop across inductance. The product of ‘i’ and ‘VL’ is q and is found as under.

v  Vm sin t ...(3.1)

i  Im sin t   ...(3.2)

X
where  is the power factor angle and equals tan 1  
R
 
q  iVL  i  L 
di
 dt 
 [Im sin t  ] [L Im cos t  ]

I2m L
q sin 2 t  
2

or q  I2 L sin 2 t   ...(3.3)

The average of  over one cycle is zero. During certain part of cycle energy
is supplied by the source to the inductance (an stored in the magnetic field). During
the remaining part of the cycle this energy returned to the source. The amplitude of
this double frequency sine wave of equ (3.3) is I2 L (or) I2 XL. It is known as
reactive power (symbol Q) and has the units of VAR (volt-ampere reactive). Bigger
units for Q are kVAR and MVAR. Thus.

Q  I2 XL  I2 Z sin   VI sin  ...(3.4)

The reactive power does not contribute anything as far as work done or energy
transferred from source to the device is concerned. Yet it contribute to the loading
of the equipment the loading of equipment is proportional to ‘I’ and hence proportional
to apparent power VI. The reactive power is a component of apparent power.

S  VI  V 0 I 

    V 0 I 


or S  P  jQ  VI 

3.6 Power System Operation and Control

S  VI cos   jVI sin  ...(3.5)

P  Re [S]  VI cos  ...(3.6)

Q  Im [S]  VI sin 
In a 3 phase circuit
Real power, P  3Vphase Iphase cos 


3 VL IL cos  ...(3.8)

Reactive power, Q  3Vphase Iphase sin 


3 VL IL sin  ...(3.9)

3.2.2 Positive and Negative Reactive power

The reactive power is associated with an inductor. An R – C circuit also behaves
in a similar way. But one fundamental difference exists between an R  L circuit and
an R  C circuit. The current in an R  L circuit lags the voltage but the current in
an R  C circuit leads the voltage. The reactive power associated with an inductor is
I2 XL and is assigned positive sign. Therefore power associated with a capacitor is
I2 XC and is assigned negative sign. Thus the complex power associated with an
R  L circuit is P  jQ while the complex power associated with an R  C circuit is
P  jQ. For both the positive and negative reactive power, the units are the same
Var, kVAR and MVAR.
Fig. 3.3 shows a three phase AC system feeding a network. The network may
also have active sources in addition to passive elements.
The significance of positive and negative P and Q is as under.
P Positive – AC system supplies real (active) power to network.
P Negative – AC network supplies real (active) power to 3 phase AC system.

Fig. 3.3 Three phase AC system feeding an AC Network.

Reactive Power - Voltage Control 3.7

Q Positive – AC system supplies lagging reactive power to AC network. The

network consists of elements which are predominantly inductive.
Q negative – AC system supplies leading power to AC network.
The network consists of elements which are predominantly capacitive. In
otherwords the AC networks is generating positive reactive power and supplying is
to the three phase AC system.

3.2.3 System losses due to reactive power flow

The real power in a three phase AC system is 
3 VL IL cos . Therefore, current
IL is
P
IL  ...(3.10)
3 VL cos 
From equ. (3.10) the circuit current IL is minimum if cos  is unity. As power
factor cos  becomes less than 1, the circuit current IL increases. The system losses
are 3I2L R. Where R is the resistance. At Unity Power Factor (UPF) the losses are
minimum. As power factor cos  becomes less than 1, the losses increase. If cos 
is 0.5 the current increases to twice the value of the current at UPF. Since losses
are proportional to square of current, the losses at 0.5 power factor are 4 times the
losses at UPF. Fig. 3.4 shows the increase in losses due to decrease in power factor.
When power factor is unity, the losses are minimum.

When power factor is 0.5, the current (for the same real power p) becomes
double and losses become 4 times. When power factor is 0.25 the current is four
times and losses are 16 times. In actual practice the power factor is around 0.8 and
losses are about 56% higher then the losses at UPF.

Fig. 3.4 Effect of power factor on losses

3.8 Power System Operation and Control

The system has to transmit reactive power due to the fact that most loads operate
at lagging power factor.

3.2.4 Causes of Low power factor

1. Induction motor is the most commonly used AC motor. It is used for a variety
of purposes At full load a three phase induction motor operates at a power
factor of around 0.8 lagging. At part loads the power factor is still poorer. The
power factor of single phase induction motor is about 0.6 lagging.
2. The transformers draw a magnetising current from the system. This current
is at a power factor of zero lagging.
3. Miscellaneous equipment like arc lamps, welding equipment etc. also
contributes low power factor in the system.

3.2.5 Effects of Low power factor

1. To meet the load requirement at a low power factor, the capacity of power
plant, transmission and distribution equipment has to be more than that which
would be necessary if the load were demanded at UPF.
2. For the same real power, operation of an existing power system at a lower
power factor means overloading the equipment at times of full load.
3. For the same real power, a low power factor means a greater current and
hence higher energy losses.
4. Low power factor causes the voltage regulation to be poor.

3.2.6 Advantages of power factor Improvement

Installation of power factor improvement device, to raise the power factor, results
in one (or) more of the following effects and advantages.
1. Reduction in circuit current.
2. Increase in voltage level at load.
3. Reduction in copper losses in the system due to reduction in current.
4. Reduction in investment in the system facilities per kW of the load supplied.
5. Improvement in power factor of the generators.
6. Reduction in kVA loading of the generators and circuits.
7. Reduction in kVA demand charges for large consumers.
Reactive Power - Voltage Control 3.9

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The voltage of the generator is proportional to the speed and excitation (flux)
of the generator. The speed being constant, the excitation is used to control generator
voltage. Therefore the voltage control system is also called as excitation control system
or automatic voltage regulator (AVR).
The excitation system provides the necessary filed current to the rotor winding
of the synchronous machine. The amount of excitation depends on the power factor,
speed of the machine and load current. For large currents, lower speeds and lagging
power factors, the excitation requirements is more.

3.3.1 Requirements
An excitation system may be a centralised excitation system or individual
excitation system. In centralised system two or more exciters feed a bus bar to which
the field systems of all alternators of the plant are connected. In individual excitation
system each alternator has its separate exciter. A centralised system is a cheaper
arrangement. However a fault in a centralised excitation system affects all alternators.
As such all modern alternators have individual exciters.
The main requirement of an excitation system are reliability under all conditions of
service, simplicity of control, ease of maintenance, stability and high transient response.
The initial cost of excitation equipment should only be a secondary consideration
in the selection of the system. An outage in the excitation system means the same
loss as the outage of the generator unit. In view of this an excitation system with
better reliability is preferable, even if the initial cost is more.
3.3.2 Classification
The excitation systems can be broadly classified into following types based on
the way DC supply given to the field winding of the alternator.
1. DC excitation system
2. AC excitation system
3. Static excitation system

1. DC excitation system
The DC excitation system consists of DC generators for supplying field current
to the synchronous machine. The system has two exciters – the main exciter and the
pilot exciter. The main exciter is a separately excited DC generator and provides the
field current to the alternator. The pilot exciter is generally a compound would self
3.10 Power System Operation and Control

Fig. 3.5 DC excitation system

excited DC generator and supplies the field current to the main exciter. Fig. 3.5 shows
a DC excitation system.
The main and pilot exciter can be either driven by the main shaft (or) separately
driven by a motor. Exciters drawn from the main shaft pressure the unit system of
operation and the excitation is not affected by external disturbances. In view of this
direct driven exciters are preferred.

Exciters for small size turbo alternators are usually directly coupled to the shaft.
For medium and large size turbo alternators, the exciters are coupled to the main
shaft through gears and are usually driven at 1000 rpm.

The voltage rating of the main exciter, for both hydrogenerators and turbo
alternators is around 400 V. The exciter capacity is around 0.5% of alternator capacity.

A sudden opening of the excitation circuit may cause a high voltage to be

induced in the inductive field winding due to sudden release of energy stored in it.
As such the excitation circuit must not be opened suddenly. As the field breaker
opens, it connects a field discharge resistor across the field winding and the energy
is dissipated in this resistor.

The main drawbacks of DC excitation system are large time constant and
commutation difficulties. In view of this DC excitation systems have been superseded
by AC excitation systems and static systems.
Reactive Power - Voltage Control 3.11

2. AC Excitation System
An AC excitation system consists of an AC generator and thyristor rectifier
bridge directly connected to the alternator shaft. This approach eliminates the
commutator, the main alternator field collector rings and some other connections. The
main exciter can either be self excited or separately excited. A rotating SCR excitatory
system uses a self excited main excitor. The brush less excitation system is a typical
example of AC excitation system using a separately excited main exciter.

Rotating thyristor excitation system

Fig. 3.6 shows a block diagram of a rotating thyristor excitation system. The
portion enclosed by dashed lines is the rotating portion of the system.

Fig. 3.6 Rotating thyristor excitation system

3.12 Power System Operation and Control

The system consists of AC exciter having a rotating armature and stationary

field winding. The output of the exciter is rectified by a full wave thyristor bridge
rectifier circuit and fed to the field winding of the main alternator. The field winding
of the exciter is also fed from the exciter output through another rectifier circuit.
Exciter voltage buildup can be accomplished using the residual exciter flux. For
convenience and to shorten the build-up time, flashing from station battery supply is
also incorporated.

The main alternator field rectifier generally consists of four parallel thyristors
each having a fuse in its circuits so that if the thyristor fails, the fuse opens thereby
allowing the system to continue operation. The thyristor assembly is so rated that
with loss of one thyristor unit, the alternator field requirements are met with sufficient
margin. The exciter rotor provides attachment and support for the rotating thyristor
assembly which overhangs the rotor diameter.

The power supply and rectifier control, included as a part of the rotating portion,
produce the necessary phase controlled triggering signals in response to a DC control
level supplied by the voltage regulator.

Generator field current measurement is obtained from current transformers located

on the AC side of alternator field rectifier. The system is equipment with AVR
(Automatic Voltage Regulator)

The exciter AC voltage is averaged, compared against the exciter voltage

reference and applied to rectifier control and rectifier in a suitable manner to maintain
the exciter terminal voltage at the desired level.

Brushless excitation system

Fig. 3.7 shows a simplified diagram of a brushless excitation system. The portion
enclosed by dashed lines is the rotating portion of the system.

The excitation system consists of an alternator rectifier, main exciter and a

permanent magnet generator (PMG) pilot exciter. Both the main and pilot exciter are
driven directly from the main shaft. The main exciter has a stationary field and a
rotating armature which is directly connected through silicon rectifiers to the main
alternator field. Thus the commutator, collectors and brushes are eliminated. The main
exciter’s field is fed from a shaft driven permanent magnet generator having rotating
permanent magnets attached to the shaft and a stationary three phase armature. The
AC output of permanent magnet generator is rectified by three phase full wave phase
controlled thyristor bridges. The thyristor assembly is usually housed in removable
drawers which can be taken out easily for repair. Redundancy is provided to increase
Reactive Power - Voltage Control 3.13

Fig. 3.7 Brushless excitation system

reliability. The thyristors are forced cooled with main and reserve fans. The thyristor
bridges are controlled by a set of dual firing circuits operating in parallel.
The base excitation is controlled by an input setting to the thyristor gating
circuits. This control signals is derived from the permanent magnet generator via a
regulated DC supply which also serves the regulator logic circuitry. The regulator
controls excitation by supplying a buck boost control signal which adds algebraically
to the basic setting. The regulator elements also comprise of solid state circuits.

The brushless, excitation system eliminates the use of commutator, collector and
brushes. It has a short time constant and a response time of less than 0.1 second. The
short time constant affords advantage in improved small signal dynamic performance and
facilitates the application of supplementary power system stabilizing signals.

Static excitation system

A static excitation system draws excitation power from the main alternator
terminals through a step down transformer and a rectifier system using silicon
controlled rectifiers. A static excitation system using SCR is shown in Fig 3.8.
3.14 Power System Operation and Control

Fig. 3.8 Static excitation system using silicon controlled rectifiers

The rectifier transformer is connected to main alternator bus without breakers or

fuse. This transformer is three phase in door type immersed in oil with forced air cooling.
The star connected primary is connected to alternator bus. The delta connected secondary
feeds the rectifier system. The delta connected tertiary supplies power to grid control
circuits and other auxiliary equipment. The rectifiers are connected in parallel to provide
sufficient current carrying capacity. Each leg of rectifier is protected with series fuses,
surge protection and fault indicating light. The rectifiers are forced air cooled.

The start up is accomplished using the station battery to provide the initial
alternator field current. The crow bar circuit is to protect the rectifiers and alternator
against the effect of an excessive negative voltage which can occur if alternators loses
synchronism. Protections are provided to shut down the alternator unit in the event
of a short circuit in rectifier circuit fault in step down transformer, excessive current
in crow bar circuit and excessive alternating current being drawn by the excitation circuit.
Reactive Power - Voltage Control 3.15

The static excitation system has a very small response time and provides excellent
dynamic performance. However the circuitry is rather complex and specialised
maintenance is needed.
Silicon controlled rectifiers are ideally suited for a static excitation system because
they have high speed of response, have high power gain and can be easily protected.

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Assume that for some reason generator terminal voltage |V| has been decreased.
This results in a increased error voltage e which in turn causes increased values of
VR, ie, Vf and if. The direct axis generator flux increases as a result of increase in
if thus, raising the magnitude of the terminal voltage to the required level.

Potential transformer and Rectifier

Using potential transformer, the terminal voltage of the generator is stepped down
to the value required for control signal and then rectified to get DC voltage
proportional to the r.m.s value of terminal voltage.

Comparator
The comparator compares the measured signal |V| against the reference DC signal
Vref. The difference between these two signals produce an error voltage ‘ve’ called
error signal
The error signal e   |vref|   |v| ...(3.11)

Taking Laplace transform of equation (3.11)

 Vref s   V s  e s

Fig. 3.9 (a) shows the model of comparator

Fig. 3.9 (a) Model of comparator

3.16 Power System Operation and Control

Amplifier
The amplifier amplifies the input error signal depending on the amplification
factor. There are various types of amplifiers used in the excitation system. They are
tuned generator, amplidyne and electronic amplifier.
 VR  e

 VR  KA e ...(3.12)

where, KA  Amplifier gain

 VR  Output voltage of an amplifier

Taking laplce transform of equation (3.12)

 VR s  KA e s
Amplifier transfer function
 VR s
GA   KA
e s

GA  KA

where, KA  Instantaneous amplifier gain

GA  Amplifier transfer function

Fig. 3.9 (b) Model of amplifier

 VR s KA ...(3.13)
GA  
e s 1  sTA

KA  10 to 400

TA  0.02 to 0.1 sec

Reactive Power - Voltage Control 3.17

Exciter
The purpose of the exciter is to supply field current to the rotor field of the
synchronous generator.
Let Re be the exciter field resistor
Le be the exciter field inductance

Fig. 3.11 Equivalent circuit for field winding

Fig. 3.10 Circuit of an exciter
of an exciter

From Fig 3.11

d ...(3.14)
Input voltage,  VR  Re ie  Le ie
dt
Output voltage of an exciter (or) field voltage of a generator,
 Vf  ie
 Vf  K1 ie ...(3.15)

Taking laplce transform of equation (3.14) and (3.5)

 VR s  [Re  Le s] ie s
 Vf s  K1 ie s
Transfer function of the exciter,
 Vf s K1 K1
Ge   
 VR s Re  Le s   Le  
Re  1   s
Re  
   
3.18 Power System Operation and Control

k1
Re
Ge 
 Le 
1 s
R
 e 
Ke
Ge 
1  sTe
K1
where, Ke 
Re
Le
Te 
Re

Ke = Gain of the exciter

Te = Time constant of the exciter in sec.
Te ranges from 0.5  1.0 seconds
The exciter model is shown in Fig. 3.12

Fig. 3.12 Model of an exciter

Synchronous Generator
Synchronous generator generates three phase AC power at its terminals. It may
be driven by steam turbine at a very high speed or by low speed water turbine
depending on the energy available at that particular place.

The terminal voltage of the generator is maintained constant during its varying
load conditions, with the help of excitation system.

The terminal voltage of the generator equals to difference between induced emf
E and drop across the armature Vdrop

V  E  Vdrop

At no load the drop can be neglected

Reactive Power - Voltage Control 3.19

Fig. 3.13 Circuit diagram of a synchronous Fig. 3.14 Equivalent circuit for field winding
generator of a synchronous generator

V  E (neglect drop)

Taking laplace transform  V s  E s

From Fig. 3.14 Applying kVL to the field winding

d ...(3.16)
 Vf  Rf  if  Lf  if
dt

Emax  If XL  If Lfa

 If 
Erms    L
2  fa

2 2 E

If  Erms 
Lfa Lfa


2 
Rf  E  Lf  E 
d
 Vf  
Lfa  dt 
Taking lapalce transform

2
 Vf s  [R  sLf]  E s
Lfa f

Transfer function of the generator

 V s  E s  E s
 
 Vf s  Vf s 2
[R  sLf]  E s
Lfa f
3.20 Power System Operation and Control

Lfa kf
 
 Lfs  1  sTd0
2 Rf  1 

Rf 
 
Lfa
Kf 
2 Rf


Td0  open cir cuit dir ect axis time constant

Lf
Td0 
Rf
Lf  Self inductance of field windings

Rf  Resistance of field windings

Lfa  Mutual inductance coefficient between rotor field
and stator armature
The synchronous generator model is shown in fig. 3.15

Fig. 3.15 Generator model

Kf range from 0.7 to 1.

Td0 range from 1.0 to 2.0 sec.

Combining all the individual blocks, we get the closed loop model of AVR as
shown in Fig. 3.16

Fig. 3.16 Closed loop model of AVR

Reactive Power - Voltage Control 3.21

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The performance of the automatic voltage regulator (AVR) can be carried out
in two ways. They are
(i) Static analysis
(ii) Dynamic Analysis

3.5.1 Static analysis of AVR

1. The AVR must regulate the terminal voltage |V| within the required static
accuracy limit.
2. It must have sufficient speed response.
3. It must be stable.

Fig. 3.17 Closed loop model of AVR

Initial error, e0   |Vref| 0   |V|0 ...(3.17)

Fig. 3.18. AVR block after reduction from Fig. 3.17

kA ke kf
Open loop transfer function G s 
1  sTA 1  sTe 1  sTd0
At initial condition
G s ...(3.18)
 |V|0    |Vref|0
1  G s
3.22 Power System Operation and Control

e0 must be less than some specified percentage P of reference voltage

|  Vref |0. The static accuracy specification is

P ...(3.19)
 e0   |Vref|0
100
For a constant input, the transfer function is obtained by setting s  0
Substitute (3.18) in (3.19) we get
 G s 
e0   |Vref|0     |Vref|0 
 1  G s 

  |Vref|0 
1 

 1  G s 
Put s0

e0   |Vref|0 
1    Vref 0
 1K
 1  Lt G s  p
 s0 
 
Position error constant Kp  Lt G s
s0

KA Ke Kf
Kp  Lt G s  Lt
s0 s  0 1  sTA 1  sTe 1  sTd0

Kp  KA Ke Kf

Kp  K  KA Ke Kf

 |Vref|0 ...(3.20)
 e0 
1K

If k increases, e0 decreases. So static error decreases with an increased loop

gain.
To find the value of K :
Consider equation (3.19),

p   |Vref|0 
e0   |Vref|0   e0  from equation 3.20 
100  1K 
Reactive Power - Voltage Control 3.23

 |Vref|0 P
  |Vref|0
1K 100

1 P

1K 100

100
1K
P
100 ...(3.21)
K 1
P

If e0 is less than 1% K must exceed 90%

3.5.2 Steady state response for a closed loop transfer function

KA Ke Kf
 V s 1  sTA 1  sTe 1  sTd0
Closed loop transfer function  
 Vref s KA Ke Kf
1
1  sTA 1  sTe 1  sTd0

KA Ke Kf

1  sTA 1  sTe 1  sTd0  KA Ke Kf

1
For a step input  Vref s 
s

Applying final value theorem

 Vstat  Lt s  V s
s0

1
s  KA Ke Kf 
s
 Lt
s  0 1  sTA 1  sTe 1  sTd0  KA Ke Kf

KA Ke Kf

1  KA Ke Kf

K
Vstat 
1K
3.24 Power System Operation and Control

3.5.3 Dynamic Analysis of AVR loop

Fig. 3.19. Block diagram of AVR

KA Ke Kf
Open loop transfer function G s 
1  sTA 1  sTe 1  sTd0

G s
Closed transfer function 
1  G s H s

G s
 V s    Vref s
1  G s
Taking inverse laplace transform,

 V t  L 1 [ V s]
The response depends upon the eigen values or closed loop poles, which are
obtained from the characteristics equation 1  G s  0
Find roots of characteristics equation [Eigen values] s1, s2, s3.

Case 1: Roots are real and distinct

The open loop transfer function G s is of 3rd order. There are three eigen
values s1, s2 and s3.

 K1 K2 K3 
 V t  L 1    
 s  s1 s  s2 s  s3 
Transient response  K1 es1 t  K2 es2 t  Ks es3 t

Case II: Two roots (Eigen values) are complex conjugate   j

The transient response is Ae t sin t   For AVR loop to be stable, the
transient components must vanish with time.
Reactive Power - Voltage Control 3.25

All the eigen values are located in left half of s-plane. Then the loop possesses
good tracking ability i.e., the system is stable. For high speed response, the loop
posses eigen values located far away to the left from origin in s-plane. The closer
the eigen value is located to the j axis, the more dominant it becomes.

"% BC018;8CH 2><?4=B0C8>=

Fig. 3.20 Block diagram of an AVR

Stability compensation improves the dynamic response characterstics without

affecting the static loop gain.
High loop gain is needed for static accuracy but this causes undesirable dynamic
response i.e possible instability.
This conflict situation can be avoided by adding series and/or feed back stability
compensation to the AVR loop. Consider the addition of a series phase lead
compensator as shown in Fig. 3.21.

Fig. 3.21 Series compensator with unity feedback

 KA Ke Kf 
Open loop transfer function  1  sTC  
 1  sTA 1  sTe 1  sTd0 
Series compensator network will not affect the static loop gain k and thus
maintains the static accuracy.

i.e., K  KA Ke Kf

But the dynamic characteristics will charge

If we tune Tc  Te
3.26 Power System Operation and Control

K 1  sTc
 Open loop transfer function becomes
1  sTA 1  sTd0 1  sTc

K
 G s 
1  sTA 1  sTd0

Root loci
Number of zeros, z  0

Number of poles, p  2

1 1
s1  and s2 
TA Td0

1 1
Td0  TA   
Td0 TA

Number of root locus N  P [. . . p  z]

N2

2q  1 
Asymptode angle,  
pz

where q  0, 1, , p  z  1

Fig. 3.22 Root loci for zero compensated loop

Reactive Power - Voltage Control 3.27

Here pz12011
 3
1  , 2 
2 2
Low loop gain (a) Still results in negative eigen values, the dominant poles
s2 yields sluggish response.

Increasing loop gain (b) results in oscillatory response. The damping of the
oscillatory response. The damping of the oscillatory term will however, not decrease with
increasing gains as was the case in uncompensated system. So the system is stable.

"& <4C7>3B >5 E>;C064 2>=CA>; 0=3 B42>=30AH E>;C064 2>=CA>;

The following are the methods of voltage control,

1. By excitation control
2. By static shunt capacitors
3. By static series capacitors
4. By static shunt reactors
5. By synchronous condensers
Other methods for voltage control
1. Tap changing Transformer
2. Booster Transformer
3. Regulating Transformer
4. Static VAR compensators
5. STATCOM

"' C0? 270=68=6 CA0=B5>A<4A

Almost all the transformers are provided with taps on the winding for adjusting
the ratio of transformation. Taps are usually provided on the high voltage winding
to enable a fine control of voltage. Generally the tap changing can be done only
when the transformer is in de-energised state. However in some cases tap changing
is also possible when the transformer is energised and such transformers are known
as tap changing under load (TCUL) transformers. These transformers make it possible
to maintain a constant voltage level on important busses in the system.
Fig. 3.23 shows a line, with impedance R  jX having tap changing transformer
at its two ends. Let ts and tr be the fractions of the nominal transformation i.e., tap
3.28 Power System Operation and Control

Fig. 3.23 Voltage control of a line using tap changing transformer

ratio/nominal ratio e.g. a transformer with nominal ratio 11/33 kV when tapped to
convert 11 kV to 36 kV has ts  36/33  1.09.
V1 and V2 are the nominal voltages at the sending end and receiving end
respectively. When taps are used, the actual sending end and receiving end voltages
would be ts v1 and tr v2. The product ts tr is generally made unity, so that overall
voltage level remains in the same order and the minimum range of taps is used. The
tap ratio ts and tr can be determined as under.

ts V1  tr V2  IZ  tr V2  IR cos   IX sin  ...(3.22)

Q
where  is the power factor angle of load and equals tan 1  
 p
P Q
Since I cos   and I sin   we get
tr V2 tr V2

RP XQ ...(3.23)
ts V1  tr V2  
tr V2 tr V2
1
Substitute tr  in equ.(3.23)
ts
1  V2 ts RP  X Q 
ts   
V1  ts V2 
2
2 V2 ts RP  XQ
(or) ts  
V1 V1 V2
 RP  XQ  V2 ...(3.24)
(or) t2s  1  
V1 V2  V1
 
For complete compensation V1  V2 and ts can be found from Eq.(3.24),
1
tr  in Eq.(3.24) all quantities are in per phase.
ts
Reactive Power - Voltage Control 3.29

"( BE2 C2A  CB2

Static Var Compensator (SVC) are placed in receiving substations and distribution
systems for smooth and stepless variation of compensation of reactive power injected
into line, by shunt capacitors and shunt reactors.
SVC – Static VAR compensator
TCR  TSC – Thyristor controlled reactor  Thyristor switched capacitor.

Fig. 3.24 Thyristor controlled reactor (TCR) and Thyristor switched capacitor (TSC)

The TCR+TSC compensation is shown in Fig. 3.24. It consists of a thyristor

controlled reactor bank and n capacitor banks each in series with a solid state
(thyristor) switch. The number n of capacitor banks is determined from practical
consideration which includes operating voltage level, maximum compensation
requirement, current rating of solid state switches etc. The solid state switch in series
with the reactor bank is composed of reverse parallel connected thyristor pair and is
capable of continuously controlling the current in the reactor from zero to maximum
rated value. Similarly the switch in series with each capacitor bank consists of reverse
parallel connected thyristor pairs. The switches in capacitor banks allows the switching
in of the required number of capacitor banks in discrete steps. Thus TSC-TCR scheme.
The advantages of TSC  TCR scheme over the TCR-FC (Thyristor controlled Reactor
– Fixed capacitor) scheme are: improved performance during large system disturbances
3.30 Power System Operation and Control

and lower losses. However this scheme is about 15-20% more costly as compared to
TCR  FC scheme. In addition to the switched capacitors, a small number of fixed
capacitors, serving as tuned filters are also included in this scheme as shown in Fig. 3.24.

Fig. 3.25 V-I Characteristics of SVC

where
BC  susceptance of capacitor, BL   Susceptance of reator at firing angle 

Advantages of SVC
1. Less maintenance
2. Possibility to regulate the phases individually
3. Used in HVDC converter stations (fast control of Q)
4. Mid point voltage will vary with the load.

"  BC0C82 BH=27A>=>DB 2><?4=B0C>A BC0C2><

The function of STATCOM is similar to that of SVC. It can inject lagging (or)
leading vars into the power system as a four quadrant. In four quadrant it can inject
(or) absorb real and reactive powers.
A STATCOM is similar to a synchronous condenser. In a synchronous condenser
the reactive power is generated by controlling the field current. However in a
STATCOM the same result is obtained by using voltage source converter.
Reactive Power - Voltage Control 3.31

Fig. 3.26 STATCOM Fig. 3.27 V-I Characteristics of STATCOM

A simple diagram of STATCOM is shown in Fig. 3.26. The DC voltage of the

battery is converted into AC voltage by the voltage source converter using GTO. This
AC voltage is injected into the line through the transformer.

If output voltage of Es of converter is more than line voltage, the converter

draws negative (i.e capacitive) reactive power and thus supplies lagging vars to the
system. This is needed during times of heavy loads. However if Es is less than line
voltage, the converter absorbs lagging vars and thus generates leading vars. This is
needed at times of low load. If Es is equal to line voltage, the STATCOM is floating
i.e. it is not supplying any reactive power to the system. Fig. 3.27 shows the V-I
characteristics of STATCOM.

Positive current i indicates inductive operation and negative current indicates

capacitive operation. Vref indicates floating condition.

Though STATCOM does the function of synchronous condenser it has the

following advantage over synchronous condenser.

1. STATCOM has no rotating parts

2. STATCOM does not add to the short circuit current of the system.

3. STATCOM has very fast response.

4. STATCOM does not have the problem of loss of synchronism.

5. STATCOM requires less maintenance.

3.32 Power System Operation and Control

WORKED EXAMPLES

4G0<?;4 3.1

Two units of generation maintained 66 kV and 60 kV line voltage at the ends of

an interconnected of inductive reactance perphase of 30  and with negligible
resistance and shunt capacitance. A load of 20 MW is to be transferred from 66
kV unit to 60 kV unit. Calculate the necessary condition between the two nodes
including the power factor of the current transmitted.
 Solution
E  66 kV ; V  60 kV ; R  0 ; X  30 /Ph

P  20 MW ;
66
Eph  kV
3

60 60
Vph  kV   103 V
3
 3
20
Single phase power, Pph  MW  6.66  106 W
3
PX  QR
V
V
6
PX 6.66  10  30
Since R  0 ;  V  
V 60
 103
3


 5767.73

V  1  5767.33 
  sin 1    sin  66 
E
    103 
3 
 
  8.7

 66 kV bus bar must have an advance of 8.7 over the 60 kV bus bar.

PR  QX QX
V 
V V
Reactive Power - Voltage Control 3.33

66 60
V  Eph  Vph      103

 

3 3
 
 3464.1 V
Q  30
3464.1 
 60   103
 
 3 
Q  4 MVAR/ph
From power triangle
Q
tan  
P
4
  0.6
6.66

  tan 1 0.6  30.989

Power factor cos   0.857
Fig. 3.27

4G0<?;4 3.2

A load of 18  j12 MVA is supplied with power from the bus bars of a power
plant via a 3, 110 kV line, 100 km long. The transmission line is represented by
-model and has the following parameters. R  20 , X  40 , C  0.697  F
Vs  115 kV. Find the power consumed from the power plant bus bars.

 Solution
S2 18  j12
 P2  jQ2   6  j4 MVA
ph 3
Vr 110
  103 V  63.5 kV
ph 3
C
QC  |Vr|2
2
1
  63.52  106  2 f  0.697  10 6
2
 0.441  106  0.441 MVAR
3.34 Power System Operation and Control

Fig. 3.28  - model of medium transmission line

S  P2  jQ2  jQC

 6  j4  j0.441

 6  j3.559 MVA

|S|2 62  3.5592
 PL  R  20
|Vr|2 63.52

 0.241 MW

|S|2 62  3.5592
 QL  X  40
|Vr|2 63.52

 0.483 MVAR

S  S   PL  j  QL

 6  j3.559  0.241  j0.483

 6.24  j4.04 MVA

S1  S  jQC  6.24  j4.04  j0.441

S1  6.24  j3.6 MVA

Total power consumed from the plant bus bar

S  3S1  18.72  j10.8 MVA

S  18.72  j 10.8 MVA

Reactive Power - Voltage Control 3.35

4G0<?;4 3.3

A single circuit 3, 220 kV, line runs at no load, voltage at the receiving end of
the line is 205 kV. Find the sending end voltage, if the line has resistance of
20  reactance of 87  and the susceptance as 5  10 4  . The transmission line
is to be represented by -model.

Fig. 3.29

 Solution
205
V2   118.35 kV

3

B
QC  |V2|2 
2

118.352  5  10 4
  3.5 MVAR Fig. 3.30
2

 |V1|  |V2|  | V|

P2 R  Q2 X
 |V2| 
V2

Q2   QC because current is leading and P2  0

QC X  3.5  87 
V1  V2   118.35   
V2  118.35 
V1  115.78 kV
3.36 Power System Operation and Control

Sending end line to line voltage  

3  115.78 kV

V1L  200.53 kV

4G0<?;4 3.4

A 3  Induction motor delivers 400 HP at an efficiency of 0.9. The p.f being 0.8
lagging. A loaded synchronous motor with the power consumption of 100 kW is
connected in parallel to the induction motor. Calculate the necessary of kVA and
operating power factor of synchronous motor, if the overall power factor is to be
unity.
 Solution
Power delivered  400  0.746 kW
Output power

Input power
400  0.746
Input power 
0.9
 331.55 kW Fig. 3.31
cos 2  0.8

2  36.87

Q2
tan 2 
P2

Q2  P2 tan 36.87

 331.55  0.75  248.66 kVAR

If we connect synchronous motor across the induction motor,
P  100 kW

Q  Q2  248.66 kVAR

Q
tan    2.486
P
  68.09
Reactive Power - Voltage Control 3.37

Power factor, cos , cos 68.09  0.3731

Power factor  0.3731

P
kVA supplied by synchronous motor 
Power factor
100

0.3731
 268.02 kVA


S 2
P Q
2

2


2
100  248.66

S  268.02 kVA

4G0<?;4 3.5

The load at receiving end of a 3 overhead line is 25 MW, 0.8 pf lags at the line
voltage of 33 kV. A synchronous compensator is situated at receiving end and the
voltage at both ends of the lines is maintained at 33 kV. Calculate the MVAR of
compensator. The line has a resistance and reactance of 5/ph, 20 /ph respectively.
(Dec 2009)

Fig. 3.32

 Solution
33 33
V2ph   19.05 kV ; V1 ph   19.05 kV
3
 3

25
P  106  8.333 MW
3
3.38 Power System Operation and Control

R  5/ph
X  20/ph
Power factor  0.8
Q2  P2 tan 2

cos 2  0.8

2  cos 1 0.8
Fig. 3.33
 36.86
Q2  8.333  0.75  6.25 MVAR

V21  V2   V2   V2

2 2
 PR  QX   PX  QR 
  V2    
V2 V2
   
Substitute P  P2 and Q  Q2  QC in the above equation, we get
2 2
 P2 R  Q2  QC X   P2 X  Q2  QC R 
V21   V2    
 V2   V2 
V21  V22  V42  2V22 [P2 R  Q2  QC X] 

[P2 R  Q2  QC X]2  [P2 X  Q2  QC R]2

 2V22 [P2 R  Q2  QC X]  P2 R2  [Q2  QC X]2 

2P2 R Q2  QC X  P2 X2  [Q2  QC R]2  2P2 RX [Q2  QC]  0

 P22 [R2  X2]  [Q2  QC]2 R2  X2  2V22 [RP2  Q2  QC X]  0

 R2  X2 [P22  Q22  2Q2 QC  Q2C]  2V22

[RP2  Q2  QC X]  0

 425 [8.332  6.252  2  6.25QC  Q2C] 

2  19.052 [5  8.33  6.25  QC 20]  0

Reactive Power - Voltage Control 3.39

425Q2C  19752 QC  166.412  0

Q2C  46.47QC  391  0

46.47  24.41
QC   35.44 or 11.03
2
We can consider, QC  11.03 MVAR

 Total reactive power for 3  3  11.03

QC  33.09 MVAR

4G0<?;4 3.6

A 415 kV line is fed through an 132/415 kV transformer from a constant 132 kV

supply. At the load end of the line, the voltage is reduced by another transformer
of ratio 415/132 kV. The total impedance of line is 40  j80 . Both transformers
are equipped with tap changers, the product of the two off-nominal setting is unity.
If the load on the system is 200 MW at 0.8 p.f lag. Calculate the settings of the
tap changers required to maintain the voltage at 132 kV.
 Solution

Fig. 3.34

415
|V1|ph  |V2|ph   239.6 kV
3


 239.6  103 V
3.40 Power System Operation and Control

t1 t2  1

P2  200 MW

 200  106 W
cos 2  0.8

2  36.86

Q2  P2 tan 2  200  tan 36.86 Fig. 3.35

 150 MVAR

 150  106 VAR

1
S2ph  P  jQ2
3 2

1
 [200  j150] MVA
3

 [66.67  j50]  106 VA

|V2|
t1 
|V1| |V2|  P2 R  Q2 X


239.6  103


 3 2 6 6
239.6  10   66.67  10  40  50  10  80

239.6  103
  1.06
225258

1
t2   0.94
t1

These settings are within the limit. Therefore it would not be necessary to inject
additional VARs at the load end.
Reactive Power - Voltage Control 3.41

4G0<?;4 3.7

Find the rating of synchronous compensator connected to the tertiary winding of

a 66 kV star connected, 33 kV star connected, 11 kV delta connected three winding
transformer to supply a load of 60 MW at 0.8 p.f lagging at 33 kV across the
secondary. Equivalent primary and tertiary winding reactances are 18  and
0.12  respectively. While the secondary winding reactance is negligible. Assume
that V1 is 66 kV and maximum off nominal setting between transformer primary
and secondary is 1:1.1.

Fig. 3.36

 Solution
t  1.1

66
|V1|  kV  38.105 kV
3


|V1| 66 1
|Vn|     34.64 kV
t 3 1.1

P2  60 MW, cos 2  0.8

60
P2 ph  MW  20 MW
3

2  cos 1 0.8  36.87

3.42 Power System Operation and Control

Q2 ph  P2 ph  tan 2

60
  0.75  15 MVAR
3

Xp  18 , Xt  0.12 

2 2
2  Q2  QC  p   P2 Xp 
|V1|   |Vn|     |V | 
 |Vn|   n 

2 2
 15  QC   20  18 
38.1052   34.64   18    
 34.64   34.64 

38.1052  [34.64  7.79  0.519QC]2  108

0.269Q2C  44.04QC  1800.3  1343.98  0

0.269Q2C  44.04QC  456.32  0

Q2C  163.717QC  1696.36  0

163.717  

2
167.717  4  1696.36
QC 
2

 152.6 or 11.1 MVAR

QC  11 MVAR/ph
[In practical significance]

Total reactive power required for the synchronous compensation is

QC  3  11  33 MVAR

QC  33 MVAR
Reactive Power - Voltage Control 3.43

4G0<?;4 3.8

A three phase oversheet line has resistance and reactance of 5 and 20 ohms
respectively. The load at the receiving end is 30 MW, 0.85 p.f lagging at 33 kV.
Find the voltage at the sending end. What will be the kVAR rating of the
compensating equipment inserted at the receiving end so as to maintain a voltage
of 33 kV at each end? Find also the maximum load that can be transmitted.
(May 2008)

Fig. 3.37

 Solution
33
V2 ph   19.05 kV
3


33
V1 ph   19.05 kV
2


30
Pph   106  10 MW
3

R  5 /Ph ; X  20 /Ph ; power factor  0.85

From power triangle, Q2  P2 tan 2

cos 2  0.85

2  cos 1 0.85  31.79

Q2  10  tan 31.79

 6.197 MVAR
Fig. 3.38
3.44 Power System Operation and Control

V21  V2   V2   V2

2 2
 PR  QX   PX  QR 
  V2    
V2 V2
   
Substitute Ph  P2 and Q  Q2  QC in the above equation, we get,
2 2
2  P2 R  Q2  QC X   P2 X  Q2  QC R 
V1   V2    
 V2   V2 
V21  V22  V42  2V22 [P2 R  Q2  QC X] 

[P2 R  Q2  QC R]2  [P2 X  Q2  QC R]

 2V22 [P2 R  Q2  QC X]  P2 R2  [Q2  QC R]2 

2P2 R Q2  QC X  P2 X2  P2 X2  [Q2  QC R]2  2P2 RX Q2  QC  0

P22 [R2  X2]  [Q2  QC]2 R2  X2  2V22 [P2 R  Q2  QC X]  0

R2  X2 [P22  Q22  2Q2 QC  Q2C]  2V22 [P2 R  Q2  QC X]  0

425 [102  6.1972  2  6.197 QC  Q2C]  2  19.052

[10  5  6.197  QC 20]  0

425Q2C  58821.194  5267.45QC  36290.25  89956.27  14516.1QC  0

425Q2C  19783.55QC  185067.714  0

Dividing by 425, we get

Q2C  46.55QC  435.45  0

46.55  

2
46.55  4  435.45
QC 
2
 23.275  10.309
 33.584 or 12.966
We can consider 12.966 MVAR
Reactive Power - Voltage Control 3.45

Maximum load that can be transmitted  Total reactive power for three phase
 3  12,966
QC  38,898 MVAR

4G0<?;4 3.9

A 132 kV line is fed through an 11/132 kV transformer from a constant 11 kV

supply. At the load end of the line the voltage is reduced by another transformer
of nominal ratio 132/11 kV. The total impedance of the line and transformer at
132 kV is 25  j66 . Both transformers are equipped with tap changing facilities
which are arranged so that the product of the two off-nominal settings is unity. If
load on the system is 100 MW at 0.9 p.f lagging. Calculate the settings of the tap
changes required to maintain the voltage of the load bus bar at 11 kV. Use base
MVA of 100 MVA. (Dec 2008)

 Solution

Fig. 3.39

132
|V1|ph  |V2|ph   76.210 kV  76210 V
3

t1 t2  1

P2  100 MW  100  106 W

Power factor  cos 2  0.19 lag

2  cos 1 0.9  25.84

Fig. 3.40
3.46 Power System Operation and Control

Q2  P2 tan 2  100  106  tan 25.84

 48.432 MVAR

 48.432  106 VAR

1 1
S2 ph  P2  jQ2  [100  j48.432] MVA
3 3
 33.333  j16.144 MVA
|V2 ph|
t1 

|V1 ph| |V2 ph|  P2 ph R  Q2 ph X
76210


 2
76210  331.333  25  16.144  66

76210
  1.00000131
76209.19
t1  1.00000131
1 1
t2    0.9999
t1 1.00000131
t2  0.9999

4G0<?;4 3.10

A three winding transformer is rated at 132/33/11 kV. The MVA ratings of the
three windings are 75,50 and 25 MVA respectively. The reactance of primary is
0.12 p.u on 132 kV, 75 MVA base. A static var compensating equipment is connected
to the tertiary winding. Neglecting losses find the tap settings to give satisfactory
operation under the following two conditions (a) Load of 60 MW, 50 MVar with
primary and secondary voltage limits of 125 and 33 kV. The static var system is
disconnected. (b) No load condition, SVS absorbing 25 MVAR and primary and
secondary voltage limits 140 kV and 33 kV.
 Solution
Xp is given in p.u, Base kV = 132 kV

Base MVA  75 MVA

125
V1   0.947 p.u
132
Reactive Power - Voltage Control 3.47

50
Q  0.667 p.u
75

XPQ
V1  Vn  IXp sin   Vn 
Vn

0.12  0.667
0.947  Vn 
Vn

V2n  0.947Vn  0.08  0

Vn  0.853 p.u  0.853  132  112.6 kV

140
V1   1.06 p.u
132

25
Q  0.333 p.u
75

0.12  0.333
1.06  Vn 
Vn

Vn  1.021 p.u  134.77 kV

112.6
Transformation ratio under load condition 
33

 3.413

134.77
Transformation ratio under no load condition 
33

 4.084

The actual ratio can be taken as mean of the above two values i.e., 3.748 varying
by  0.336 (or) 3.748  8.96%. Hence tap setting required is  8.96%.
3.48 Power System Operation and Control

4G0<?;4 3.11

A 3 overhead line has resistance and reactance per phase of 25 and 90 

respectively. The supply voltage is 145 kV while the load-end voltage is maintained
at 132 kV for all loads by an automatically controlled synchronous phase modifier.
If the kVAr rating of the modifier has the same value for zero loads as for a load
of 50 MW, find the rating of the synchronous phase modifier.
 Solution
 2 Q2r  (1)
2 2 2 2 Pr
 Vs  A Vr  B  2  2   2 A B pr cos     2A Qr sin   
 Vr Vr 
We have Vs  AVr  BIr (2)

145
Sending end voltage, Vs  V
3

132
Receiving end voltage, Vr  V
3

Line impedance, Z  25  j90 

Assuming short line model, Vs  Vr  IrZ

145 132
   Ir 25  j90
3
 3

83.71  76.2  Ir  93.4 74.4

 (3)

Comparing equ (3) and (2)

A1; 0

B  93.4   74.47

Pr  Vr Ir cos r  50 MW given

Substituting these values in equation (1), we get

 502 Q2r 
2 2 2 2
83.71  1 76.2  93.4  2
 
 76.2 76.22 

2  1  93.4  cos 0  74.47  50  2  1  93.4  Qr sin 0  74.4

Reactive Power - Voltage Control 3.49

1,200.92  106  3755.98  106  1.50 Q2r  106  2500.7  106  179.98 Qr

1,200.92  3,755.98  1.50 Q2r  2,500.7  179.98 Qr

1.50 Q2r  179.98 Qr  5,055.76  0

Solving the above equation, we get

Qr   44.87 MVAR

Qr Vr Ir sin r  44.87
 
pr Vr Ir cos r 50

tan r   0.8974

Power factor angle at the receiving end voltage

r   41.9

 The power factor is cos r  0.7442 leading

 The rating of the synchronous modifier  44.87 MVAR.

4G0<?;4 3.12

A 3 induction motor delivers 50 HP at an efficiency of 0.91, the operating power

factor being 0.76 lagging. A loaded synchronous motor with a power consumption
of 100 kW is connected in parallel with the induction motor. Calculate the necessary
kVA and the operating power factor of the synchronous motor if the overall power
factor is to be unity.

 Solution
500  746  10 3
The power delivered, P 
0.91

 409.9 kW

  cos 1 0.76  45.04

tan  45.04  0.855

3.50 Power System Operation and Control

Reactive power, Q  P tan 

 409.9  0.855

Q  350.53 kVAR

This lagging kVAR should be compensated by leading kVAR of the synchronous

motor.

Synchronous motor power consumption  100 kW

350.5
tan    3.505
100

 82.31

Power factor cos   cos 82.31

Power factor  0.274 leading

100
kVA of synchronous motor 
0.274

kVA of synchronous motor  364.5 kVA

4G0<?;4 3.13

Three supply points A, B and C are connected to a common bus bar M. Supply
point A is maintained at a nominal 275 kV and is connected to M through a
275/132 kV transformer (0.1 p.u reactance) and a 132 kV line of reactance 50 .
Supply point B is nominally at 132 kV line of 50  reactance. Supply point C is
nominally at 275 kV and is connected to M by a 275/132 kV transformer (0.1 p.u
reactance) and a 132 kV line of 50  reactance. If at a particular system load the
line voltage at M falls below it nominal value by 5 kV. Calculate the magnitude
of the reactive voltage ampere injection required at M to re-establish the original
voltage. The p.u values are expressed on a 500 MVA and resistance may be neglected
throughout.

 Solution
Base MVA  500
Base kV  132
Reactive Power - Voltage Control 3.51

Fig. 3.41 (a)

Fig. 3.41 (b) Equivalent single phase network

Base kV2 1322

Base impedance    34.84 
Base MVA 500
50
Line reactance in p.u   1.43
34.84
1.53
Reactance between M and N  parallel 1.43
2
0.765  1.43

0.765  1.43
 0.5 p.u
3.52 Power System Operation and Control

500
Hence fault MVA at M   1000 MVA
0.5
1000  106
Fault current   4.38 kA
3  132  103

Qm
 three phase short circuit current
3 Vm

where Qm and Vm are 3-phase line values
Qm

3 4.38  7.6 MVAR/kVA
Vm
Natural voltage drop at M  5 kV
Therefore the reactive power to be injected to offset this drop  5  7.6  38 MVAR

4G0<?;4 3.14

A 220 kV line has tap changing transformer at both ends. The transformer at the
sending end has nominal ratio 11/220 kV and that at the receiving end 220/11 kV.
The line impedance is 20  j60  and the load at the receiving end is 100 MVA,
0.8 p.f lagging. If the product of the two off-nominal top setting is 1, find the tap
settings to give 11 kV at load bus.
 Solution
100  0.8  106
P  26.67  106 W
3

100  0.6  106

Q  20  106 VAR
3
220
V1  V2   103  127.02  103 V
3

 RP  XQ  V2
t2s  1  
V1 V2  V1
 
2  20  26.67  10  60  20  106 
6
ts  1  1
 127.02  1032 
1
ts  1.058 and tr   0.95
ts
Reactive Power - Voltage Control 3.53

4G0<?;4 3.15

A 220 kV bus supplies a load of 0.8  j0.2 p.u through a short line and a
transformer. The p.u reactance of line and transformer are 0.2 and 0.05 p.u. If
the voltage at load terminals is 1 p.u, find voltage and power factor at 220 kV
bus. Base MVA  100, Base kV  220.

 Solution
V  1 0, X  0.25

P2  Q2 0.82  0.22
|I|    0.8246 p.u
V2 1

I  0.8246 
 14 p.u

Voltage at 220 kV bus  1  0.8246 

 14
 0.25 90


10.78 p.u
 1.069 

Power angle  10.78

Voltage at 220 kV bus  1.069  220  235.18 kV

Power factor at 220 kV bus  cos 10.78  14

 0.980 lagging

4G0<?;4 3.16

In the system of Example 3.15, shunt capacitors are provided at the receiving end
to supply the total reactive power requirement of 0.2 p.u. Find the voltage and
power factor at 220 kV bus.
 Solution
V  1 0, X  0.25
I  0.8 0 p.u

Voltage at 220 kV bus  1  0.8 0 0.25 90



 1.02 11.31
 p.u  224.4 kV

Power factor at 220 kV bus  cos 11.31  0.98 lagging

3.54 Power System Operation and Control

4G0<?;4 3.17

Find the constants of nominal  circuit for the uncompensated and compensated
  perphase
line of A 350 km long line has a total series impedance of 180 75
3
and a total shunt admittance to neutral perphase of 1  10 90
 Siemens (a)
Find ABCD parameter of the line (b) The line is provided with 60% series
compensation. Find ABCD parameters of the compensated line.
 Solution
For the uncompensated line
B  Z  180 75
 

ZY  1  10 3 90

180 75 
AD1 1
Z 2
  0.913 1.46
 1  0.09 165 

ZY   1  10 3    1  10 3 90

180 75  
C  Y  1   90   1  
 4   4 
 1  10 3 90   0.957  10 3 90.7
 1  0.045 165  S
For the compensated line
75  j0.6  173.867
B  Z  180 

B  46.59  j69.55  83.71 56.18

 

B  83.71 56.18
 

ZY  1  10 3 90
 
AD1 ] 
 1  [83.71 56.18   0.965 
1.38
2  2 
1.38 
A  D  0.965 

 83.71  1  10 3 90

56.18  
C  1  10 3 
90  1  
 4 
C  0.983  10 3 90.7
 S

It is seen that both for the uncompensated and compensated lines, the constants
of equivalent and nominal  circuit are nearly equal.
Reactive Power - Voltage Control 3.55

PART - A - QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Compare shunt and series capacitors. (Nov/Dec 2009)

Sl.No Shunt capacitor Series capacitor

1. The function of shunt capacitor is They are used to reduce inductive
to supply lagging kVAR to the reactance between supply point and
system. load.
2. It is mainly used for power factor It is mainly used to compensate the
correction at the load terminal of effect of series reactance.
low voltage.
3. If load VAR requirement is small, If the load VAR requirement is
shunt capacitor are of high used. small, series capacitors are of small
use.
4. If the total line reactance is high, If the total line reactance is high,
shunt capacitors are not effective. series capacitors are very effective
and stability is improved.

2. Where are synchronous condenser installed? (May 2014)

The synchronous condensers are installed at the receiving end of the transmission
line. (or) Tertiary winding of transformer.

3. State the advantages of switched capacitors in voltage control. (Dec 2014)

1. Remain charged to the positive (or) negative peak voltage and be prepared
for the new transient free switching on.
2. Switching of the capacitor is accomplished by separation of the firing pulses
to the anti-parallel SCR so that the SCRs will block as soon as the current
becomes zero.
3. Improved performance under large system disturbance and lower power loss
are obtained.
3.56 Power System Operation and Control

4. Show that the shunt compensation improves critical voltage as well as the
power factor. (May 2015)

Fig. 3.42 Distance from sending end

Once the voltage is improved the power factor will also be improved.

5. What is synchronous condenser? (April/May 2011)

It is a synchronous motor running at no-load and having excitation adjustable
over a wide range. It feeds positive VAR into the line under overexcited conditions
and negative VAR when under excited.

6. Write the relation between voltage, power and reactive at a node.

(April/May 2011) (Dec 2014)
V  f P, Q

E V2 QX
P  
R R R

7. What is the need for a compensator in the AVR loop?

(April/May 2008) (Nov/Dec 2008)
Stability compensation improves the dynamic response characteristics without
affecting the static loop gain.
Reactive Power - Voltage Control 3.57

8. Draw a typical arrangement of a simple AVR. (Nov/Dec 2007)

Fig. 3.43

9. What are the functions of excitation system?

(Nov/Dec 2013) (April/May 2008) (Nov/Dec 2008) (April/May 2009)
The basic function of an excitation system is to provide necessary direct current
to the field winding of the synchronous generator. The excitation system must be
able to automatically adjust the field current to maintain the required terminal voltage.
10. State the function AVR? (May 2011)
The function of Automatic voltage regulator (AVR) excitation control is to
regulate generator voltage and relative power output. As the terminal voltage varies
the excitation control, it maintains the terminal voltage to the required standard and
the demand of the reactive power is also met by the excitation control unit.
11. What are the properties of static compensators?
1. Maintain voltage at or near a constant level.
2. Improves power system stability
3. Improves power factor
4. Correct phase unbalance
12. When is feedback stability compensation used?
(Nov/Dec 2010) (April/May 2009)
High loop gain is needed for static accuracy but this causes undesirable dynamic
response, possibly instability. This conflicting situation is resolved by adding feedback
stability compensation to the AVR loop.
13. What are the different types of reactive power compensation? (Nov/Dec 2012)
(or) What are the various methods of voltage control in transmission system?
(Nov/Dec 2011) (Nov/Dec 2010)
1. Excitation control
2. Static shunt capacitor
3.58 Power System Operation and Control

3. Static series capacitor

4. Static shunt reactor
5. Synchronous condensers
6. Tap changing transformer
7. Booster transformer
8. Regulating transformer
9. Static VAR compensator
14. Define Booster transformer? (Nov/Dec 2012)
A transformer which is designed for a small adjustment of voltage instead of
changing the voltage levels is called “Regulating transformer or booster transformer”
for the control of voltage magnitude.
15. Distinguish between on-load and off-load tap changing. (April/May 2011)
Off load tap changing: The off-load tap changing transformer which requires the
disconnection of transformer when tap setting is to be changed. (Distribution
Transformer)
On-load tap changing transformer: The on-load tap changing transformer which
does not requires the disconnection of transformer when tap setting is to be changed.
(Power transformer).
16. What are the parts of a regulating transformer?
1. 3 phase auto-transformer called exciting transformer.
2. Series transformer.
17. What is meant by regulating transformer?
A transformer which is designed for a small adjustment of voltage instead of
changing the voltage levels is called regulating transformer for the control of voltage
magnitude.
18. Write about Static Var Compensator (SVC). (Nov/Dec 2007)
These comprises capacitor bank fixed or switched or fixed capacitor bank and
switched reactor bank in parallel. These compensators draw reactive power from the
line thereby regulating voltage, improve stability (steady state and dynamic), control
over voltage and reduce voltage and current unbalances. In HVDC application these
compensators provide the required reactive power and damp out sub harmonic
oscillations.
Reactive Power - Voltage Control 3.59

19. What are the different types of SVC? (May 2014)

1. TCR (Thyristor controlled reactor)
2. TSC (Thyristor switched capacitor)
3. TSC – TCR
4. FC – TCR (Fixed capacitor – TCR)
20. Draw the V-I characteristics of SVC?

Fig. 3.44

21. Distinguish between rotor angle stability and short term voltage stability.
(May 2015)

Rotor angle stability

It refers the ability of synchronous machines of an interconnected power system
to remain in synchronism after a disturbance.

Short term voltage stability

It involves dynamics of fast acting load components such as induction motors,
electronically controlled loads and HVDC converters. The study period of interest is
in the order of several seconds and the analysis requires solution of appropriate system
differential equations.
22. What are the merits of synchronous compensator? (Nov/Dec 2011)
1. Reactive power production is not affected by system voltage.
2. Flexibility of operation at all load conditions.
3. Smooth variation of reactive VARs as compared to step-by-step variation in
static capacitors.
3.60 Power System Operation and Control

4. It is used in HVDC converter stations.

5. It improves system stability.
23. What are the advantages and disadvantages of synchronous compensator?
(Nov/Dec 2013, Dec 2011)
Advantages
1. By varying the field excitation, the magnitude of current drawn by the motor
can be changed by any amount. This helps in achieving step less control
of power factor
2. The motor windings have high thermal stability to short circuit currents
3. The faults can be removed easily
Disadvantages
1. There are considerable losses in the motor
2. The maintenance cost is high
3. It produces noise
4. Except in sizes above 500 kVA, the cost is greater than that of static
capacitors of the same rating
5. As a synchronous motor has no self-starting torque, therefore, an auxiliary
equipment has to be provided for this purpose.
24. Draw the root loci for zero compensated loops. (Nov/Dec 2009)

Fig. 3.45
Reactive Power - Voltage Control 3.61

25. Discuss the effect of compensation on the maximum power transfer in a

transmission line.
|V| |E|
P sin 
X
At   90, maximum power can be transferred
|V| |E|
P  Pmax 
X
By varying X, , |V| we can get the control of power transfer.

PART - B QUESTIONS

1. (i) Discuss generation and absorption of Reactive Power

(8) (April/May 2010)
(ii) Explain how voltage control can be affected by injection of Reactive Power
(8) (April/May 2010)
2. Discuss in detail about the generation and absorption of reactive power
(April/May 2011) (April/May 2010) (16)
3. (i) Derive the relation between voltage, power and reactive power at a node
for applications in a power system control
(8) (Nov/Dec 2012) (Nov/Dec 2007) (April/May 2008) (May 2015)
4. Describe the various methods of reactive power control and explain any two in
detail. (16) (April/May 2011)
5. How to minimize transmission loss using reactive power control?
(6) (April/May 2010)
6. Explain the injection of reactive power by switched capacitors to maintain
acceptable voltage profile and to minimize transmission loss in a power system.
(16) (Nov/Dec 2007) (April/May 2008) (May 14)
7. With neat sketch explain the block diagram model of exciter system.
(April/May 2011) (April/May 2010) (16)
8. Develop a typical excitation arrangement to control the voltage of an alternative
and explain. (8) (April/May 2011)
9. Draw the diagram of a typical automatic voltage regulator and develop its block
diagram representation. (16) (Nov/Dec 2013) (Nov/Dec 2008) (Dec 2014)
3.62 Power System Operation and Control

10. Draw the circuit diagram for a typical excitation system and derive the transfer
function model and draw the block diagram. Discuss the stability aspects of the
AVR. (16) (April/May 2008) (April/May 2008)
11. Discuss the static and dynamic analysis of AVR. (Dec 2009)
12. Explain the methods of voltage control in a transmission system.

(16) (Nov/Dec 2012) (Nov/Dec 2010) (Nov/Dec 2009) (Dec 2014)

13. Briefly explain the role of tap changing transformer in voltage control?

(8) (Nov/Dec 2011)

14. What is static VAR compensator? Where it is used? Explain its operation. Also
state the merits of static VAR compensator over the other methods of voltage
control.

(16) (Nov/Dec 2011) (Nov/Dec 2007)

15. Explain the operation of on-load Tap Changing Transformer.

(10) (April/May 2010) (April/May 2010)

16. Explain how the OLTC can be used for voltage control. (6) (Nov/Dec 2008)
17. A 414 kV line is fed through an 132/415 kV transformer from a constant 132
kV supply. At the load end of the line, the voltage is reduced by another
transformer of ratio 415/132 kV. The total impedance of the line is
20  j40 . Both transformers are equipped with tap-changing, the product of
the two off-nominal setting is unity. If the load on the system is 250 MW at
0.8 of lagging. Calculate the settings of the tap-changer required to maintain the
voltage at 132 kV. (16) (April/May 2010)
18. A 132 kV line is fed through an 11/132 kV transformer from a constant 11 kV
supply. At the load end of the line, the voltage is reduced by another transformer
of ratio 132/11 kV. The total impedance of the line and transformer at 132 kV is
25  j66 . Both transformers are equipped with tap-changing, the product of the
two off-nominal setting is unity. If the load on the system is 100 MW at 0.9 of
lagging. Calculate the settings of the tap-changer required to maintain the voltage of
the load bus bar at 11 kV. Use base MVA of 100 MVA. (10) (Nov/Dec 2008)
Reactive Power - Voltage Control 3.63

19. The load at receiving end of a 3  overhead line is 225 MW, 0.8 pf lag at the
line voltage of 33 kV. A synchronous compensator is situated at sending end
and the voltage at both ends of the line is maintained at 33 kV. Calculate the
MVAR of compensator. The line has a resistance and reactance of
5 /ph, 20 /ph, r espectively. (16) (Nov/Dec 2009) (May, 2014)
20. Discuss at length, the effect of tr ansfor mer on load tap changing on voltage
stability. (16) (May 2015)
21. A thr ee phase over head line has r esistance and r eactance of 5 and 20 ohms
r espectively. The load at the r eceiving end is 30 MW, 0.85 power factor lagging
at 33 kV. Find the voltage at the sending end. What will be the kVAR r ating
of the compensating equipment inser ted at the r eceiving end so as to maintain
a voltage of 33 kV at each end? Find also the maximum load that can be
tr ansmitted. (16) (April/May 2008)
 UNIT - 4

D=8C 2><<8C<4=C 0=3 42>=><82 38B?0C27

# 42>=><82 38B?0C27

A power system has several power plants. Each power plant has several
generating units. At any point of time, the total load in the system is met by the
generating units in different power plants. Economic dispatch control determines the
power output of each power plant, and power output of each generating unit within
a power plant, which will minimize the overall cost of fuel needed to serve the system
load.
The economic dispatch problem involves the solution of two different problems
i.e., unit commitment and online dispatch.

Unit commitment
Optimum allocation of generators at each generating station at various station
load levels.,

Methods to find economic dispatch

(i) Base load method: Where the most efficient unit is loaded to its maximum
capability, then the second most efficient unit is loaded etc.
(ii) Best point loading: (Incremental Method) Where units are successively loaded
to their lowest heat rate point beginning with the most efficient, Unit and working
down to the least efficient unit.

4.1.1 Optimal operation of Generators on a busbar

1. Generator operating cost

The total generator operating cost includes fuel cost, cost of transmission loss,
labour and maintenance cost. For simplicity, fuel cost is considered to be variable.
The fuel cost is meaning fuel in case of thermal and nuclear station, but for
hydrostations, where the energy storage is apparently free, it is not applicable.
4.2 Power System Operation and Control

2. Cost of generation depends on operating constraints (or) system constraints

(i) Equality constraints

The equality constraints are the basic load flow equation given by
n ...(4.1)
Real power, Pp   ep eq Gpq  fq Bpq  fp fq Gpq  eq Bpq
 
 
 

q1
n ...(4.2)
 fp eq Gpq  fq Bpq  ep fq Gpq  eq Bpq

Reactive power, QP 

 
 
q1

Where, ep and fp are the real and imaginary components of voltage at the pth
bus and Gpq and Bpq are the transmission line conductancy and susceptances
betweenthe pth and qth buses.

i.e., Vp  ep  jfp
Ypq  Gpq  j Bpq

(ii) Inequality constraints

(a) Generator constraints
(i) KVA loading can be given by P2p  Q2p  C2p. where Cp  prespecified value.
(ii) Pp min  Pp  Pp max
Where Pp min is governed by thermal condition.

Pp max is limited by flame instability in boilers.

(iii) Qp min  Qp  Qp max

Where maximum reactive power generation is limited by overheating of the rotor.

Minimum reactive power generation is limited by stability limit of the machine.
(b) Voltage constraints
It is essential that the voltage magnitudes and phase angles of various buses
should vary within certain limits.

|Vp min|  |Vp|  |Vp max|

p min  p  p max
Unit Commitment and Economic Dispatch 4.3

Most of the system would not operate satisfactorily and require stabilizer.
Where |Vp|  Voltage and
p  Load angle

(c) Running spare capacity constraints

Total generation G  Pp specified  Pspare
Where
Pspare  Minimum spinning reserve capacity.
These constraints are required to meet.
(i) during the forced outages of one (or) more alternator on the system.
(ii) Unexpected sudden load on the system.
(d) Transformer tap settings
(i) Auto Transformer  0  t  1.0
(ii) Two winding transformer with trappings on secondary  0  t  n
where, n  transformation ratio.
(iii) Phase Shifting Transformer:
p min  p  p max

where,   Phase Shifting Angle

(e) Transmission line constraints

The real power flow and reactive power flow is limited by thermal capability
of the system.
Cp  Cp max

Where,
Cp max  Maximum loading capacity of the pth line.

(f) Network security constraints.

(i) If there is no outage, then all the constraints must be satisfied.
(ii) Even with one outage, constraints may not be satisfied.
Line by line outages should be considered based on this results proper security
system is to be provided.
4.4 Power System Operation and Control

4.1.2 Economic Dispatch Problem

Let,
FT  F1  F2    FN
FT  Total Fuel cost
F1  Fuel cost for generator 1
F2  Fuel cost for generator 2
Fn  Fuel cost for generator ‘n’
N
Equality constraint  PGi  PD  0
i1

Inequality constraint PGi, min  PGi  PGi, max

The necessary condition for the existence of a minimum cost operating condition
is that the incremental cost rates of all the units be equal to some undetermined value
.

d Fi (N-equations)

d PGi

N
(1-constraints)
Power balance equation is  PGi  PD
i1

There are two inequalities that must be satisfied for each of the units i.e., the
power output of each unit must be greater than or equal to the minimum power
permitted and must also be less than (or) equal to the maximum power permitted on
that particular unit.

PGi, min  PGi  PGi, max (2N in equalities)

The necessary conditions may be expanded slightly as shown in the set of

equations.

dFi
  for PGi, min  PGi  PGi, max
dPGi
Unit Commitment and Economic Dispatch 4.5

dFi
  for PGi  PGi max
dPGi
dFi
  for PGi  PGi min
dPGi
Net saving of cost:
Net saving  Ft   F1   F2

Where,
 F1  Increase in cost for unit 1 (or) the input to source 1 will be
increased by a small amount.
 F2  Decrease in cost for unit 2 or the input to source 2 will be
decreased by a small amount.
 Fi can be calculated using the following formula.

dFi
 Fi   dP
dPGi Gi

Three possible observations may be made concerning  Ft

1. If  Ft  0 the fuel input to the system is decreased by increasing generation

on source 1 and consequently the initial generation schedule was not the
optimum,
2. If  Ft  0 the fuel input to the system is increased by increasing the
generation of source 1 and in this case if would not be desirable to increase
the output of source 1. Infact, it may prove to be desirable to decrease the
output of unit 1.

#! 8=?DC  >DC?DC 2>BC 270A02C4A8BC82B

It specifies the input energy rate, Fi PGi Mkcal/hr or cost of fuel used per
hour Ci PGi Rs/hr as a function of the generator power output PGi.

Let Fi PGi be the input energy rate in Mkcal/hr.

Let Ci PGi be the fuel cost in Rs/hr.

A typical input-output curve is shown in Fig. 4.1.

4.6 Power System Operation and Control

Fig. 4.1 Input-output curve of generating unit,

#" 8=2A4<4=C0; 2>BC 2DAE4

The curve drawn between the output power and incremental fuel cost is called
incremental cost curve.

4.3.1 Cost Function

Let the cost of the fuel be K Rs/Mkcal. Then the input fuel cost Ci PGi is

Ci PGi  KFi PGi Rs/hr

Here Ci is the cost expressed in Rs/hr of producing energy in the generator

unit i. Thermal power PGi accounts for the major influence on Ci.

Ci PGi  K PGi Hi PGi Rs/hr ...(4.3)

The heat rate curve may be approximated as

Ci ...(4.4)
Hi PGi   bi  ai PGi
PGi

Because the initial portion of curve decreases, reaches minimum point and then
increases.
Unit Commitment and Economic Dispatch 4.7

Where ai, bi, ci are positive co-efficients.

Input energy rate, Fi PGi  PGi Hi PGi

 Ci 
 PGi   bi  ai PGi 
 PGi 
 Ci  bi PGi  ai P2Gi (Mkcal/hr)

We get a quadratic expression for input energy rate.

Fuel cost Ci PGi  KFi PGi

 KCi  Kbi PGi  KaiP2Gi

Ci PGi  Ci  bi PGi  ai P2Gi Rs/hr ...(4.5)

4.3.2 Incremental cost curve of Received Power (or) System

Incremental Cost (or) Incremental fuel cost (IC)
For thermal plants, the fuel cost is the main operating cost and accounts for
60-70 % of the total operating cost.
The assumptions of incremental cost theory are:
1. Input - output curves are continuous.
2. First derivative of input - output curves are continuous.
3. The incremental rate increases with increase in output.
Using equation (4.5)
CiPGi  ai P2Gi  bi PGi  Ci P2Gi Rs/hr.
dCi
slope of the fuel cos curve i.e., Rs/MWhr can be obtained by differentiating
dPGi
equation (4.5) with respect to PGi,
Small change in input
Incremental cost 
Small change in output
dCi PGi

dPGi

 2ai PGi  bi, i  1, 2, 3,  N

4.8 Power System Operation and Control

  IC  2ai PGi  bi Rs/MWhr ...(4.6)

This is a linear relationship. Therefore, we approximated incremental fuel cost

vs output power curve as a straight line shown in Fig. 4.2.

Fig. 4.2 Incremental fuel cost curve.

The incremental cost curve for a thermal power plant is shown in Fig. 4.3.

Fig. 4.3 Incremental cost curve for thermal power plant.

Unit Commitment and Economic Dispatch 4.9

The input output curve and incremental cost curve for a hydro power plant is
shown in Fig. 4.4.

Fig. 4.4(b) Incremental cost curve for hydro

Fig. 4.4(a) Input-output curve
power plant.

The incremental fuel cost of all the generating units must be the same. The
common value of incremental fuel cost  is called the system incremental cost. In
some cases, some of the units operate at their upper (or) lower limits, the IC of all
other machines which have not hit their limit must be equal to .  is called as
system  (or) incremental cost of received power.
The fuel cost curve and the incremental cost curve may have a number of
discontinuities as shown in Fig. 4.5(a).

Fig. 4.5(a) Fuel cost curve

The discontinuities occur when the output power has to be extended by using
additional boilers, steam condensers or other equipments. Discontinuities also appear
4.10 Power System Operation and Control

if the cost represents the operation of an entire power station, so that cost has
discontinuities on paralleling of generators. We can write real power generation as,

PGi  i  i ICi  i IC2i   MW

The discontinuities of fuel cost curve may be approximated as straight lines as
shown in Fig. 4.5(b).

Fig. 4.5(b) Incremental cost curve

When the economic load distribution between a number of generator units is

considered the optimum generating schedule is effected when an incremental increase
at one of the units replaces a compensating decrease at every other unit inturn at the
same incremental cost. The economic optimum load distribution is obtained when all
generator unit operate at the equal incremental rate.

## 2>>A38=0C8>= 4@D0C8>=B

The coordination equation is used to find the optimal loading of generators

corresponds to the equal incremental cost point of all the generators.

(i) Cost function

Let N be the number of generators

Let the total controllable system production cost be

N ...(4.6)
C  Ci
i1
Unit Commitment and Economic Dispatch 4.11

The generated real power PGi accounts for the major influence on Ci. The
individual real power generations are raised by increasing the prime mover torques
and this requires an increased expenditure of fuel. The reactive power generations
QGi do not have any measurable influence on Ci because they are controlled by varying
the field current.
For a plant with N generators.
The cost function or objective function,
N ...(4.7)
C  Ci PGi  C1 PG1  C2 PG2    CN PGN Rs/hr
i1

Where
Ci  Fuel cost to unit i, Rs/hr
C Total fuel cost, Rs/hr.

(ii) Constraints
A set of real power generation variables PGi must be selected that will minimize
the cost function.

Equality constraint
Let PD Tot be the total system real power demand.

PG base be the total constant base real power generation.

Let PD be the real power demand that must be supplied from the generator
units under control.

 PD  PD Tot  PG base
consider, the real power balance require that the controlled generation variables
PGi obey the constraint equation.
N ...(4.8)
PD  PG1  PG2    PGN   PGi
i1

Where,
PGi  Real power generation of unit i, MW
4.12 Power System Operation and Control

PD  Total power received by the plant bus and transferred to the load.
Since our system is a compact one, the losses can be neglected in the
transmission line. Equation (4.8) can be rewrite as follows,
N
H PG1, PG2  PGN  PD   PGi  0
i1

Inequality constraints
Since each generator must not be operated above its rating or below some
minimum value.
PGi, min  PGi  PGi, max for i  1, 2, 3  N

Fig. 4.6 Two bus system

Consider a two bus system shown in Fig. 4.6

2

 PGi  PG1  PG2

i1

 PDi  PD1  PD2

i1

#$ 2>>A38=0C8>= 4@D0C8>= F8C7>DC ;>BB

The optimization problem can now be stated as,

N
Minimize C   Ci PGi
i1
Unit Commitment and Economic Dispatch 4.13

Where,
C  Operating cost
i  Number of generators on the bus
N
subject to H PG1, PG2,  PGN  PD   PGi
i1

Using Lagrange multiplier ,

Lagrangian function C  C   H
N  N  ...(4.9)
  PGi 
LC   Ci PGi    PD  
i1  i1 
 
For minimum objective function, differentiate equation (4.9) with respect to
PGi and equate to zero.

 C
 0, i  1, 2,  N
 PGi

 C L  Ci
  00; i  1, 2,  N
 PGi  PGi  PGi

 Ci
 ; i  1, 2,  N
 PGi

 C1  C2  CN ...(4.10)
For N units,   
 PG1  PG2  PGN

Where,
 Ci
 Incremental cost of the unit i
 PGi
The optimal loading of generators corresponds to the equal incremental cost of
all the generators.
Equation (4.10) is called as coordination equation neglecting losses. The
incremental cost curve is shown in Fig. 4.6.
4.14 Power System Operation and Control

Fig. 4.7 Incremental cost curve.

Power generation, PGi  i  i ICi  i IC2i  

Where i, i, i are adjusted to give best possible curve fit. The graphical
representation of economic dispatch of ‘N’ units is shown in Fig. 4.8.

Fig. 4.8 Graphical representation of economic dispatch of N units.

N
Power demand PD   PGi
i1
Unit Commitment and Economic Dispatch 4.15

Inequality constraints included

PGi, min  PGi  PGi, max ; i  1, 2,  N

Because of above specified limits, some units will be unable to operate at the
same incremental fuel cost as other units. Therefore, if some units reach their limit
values the economic dispatch strategy calls for the remaining units to operate so as
to satisfy the equal incremental cost criterion.

#% 2>>A38=0C8>= 4@D0C8>= F8C7 ;>BB >A

4G02C 2>>A38=0C8>= 4@D0C8>=

In a system, where a number of stations are operating in parallel and are inter
connected, transmission loss must be taken into consideration in economic studies.
Incremental transmission loss characteristics and incremental plant characteristics must
be considered together to determine the optimum system economy.
N
Minimize C   Ci PGi ; i  1, 2,  N
i1

subject to the constraint

N N

 PDi  PL   PGi
i1 i1

N N ...(4.9)
 PDi  PL   PGi  0
i1 i1

Where PL  Transmission loss

Applying Lagrange multiplier, the optimum problem can be formulated as

N  N N  ...(4.10)

C   Ci PGi     PDi  PL   PGi 
i1  i1 i1 
 
For maximum objective function, differentiate equation (4.10) with respect to
PGi and equate to zero.
4.16 Power System Operation and Control

 C
0
 PGi

 C  Ci   PL
  0
 PGi  PGi  PGi

 Ci  PL 
1 
 PGi   PGi 

 ICi   [1  ITLi]

Where,
 Ci (IC-Incremental fuel cost)
 ICi
 PGi

 PL [ITL-Incremental transmission loss]

 ITLi
 PGi

ICi ...(4.11)
  Li ICi
1  ITLi

Where,
Li  Penalty factor of plants
1
Penalty factor i 
1  ITLi

Equation (4.11) is called as exact co-ordination equation when transmission losses

are considered or modified incremental cost.

The N optimum dispatch equations together with the power balance equation
for finding N  1 unknowns PG1, PG2,  PGN plus .

From the expression of the penalty factor, it may be noted that for optimum
operation, plants causing lower incremental transmission losses may be allowed to
operate with higher incremental cost.
Unit Commitment and Economic Dispatch 4.17

#& B>;DC8>= 1H 38A42C <4C7>3

N
Equating constraints  PGi  PD  0
i1

Total generation  Power demand

Inequality constraints: Since each generator most not be operated above its rating
or below some minimum value, PGi min  PGi  PGi max for i  1, 2, , N.

If a particular generator loading PGi reaches the limit PGi, max or PGi, min its
loading from now on is held fixed at this value and the balance load is then shared
between the remaining generators on equal incremental cost basis. The real generation
must not be set so as to cause overloads on certain lines.

#' B>;DC8>= 1H  8C4A0C8>= <4C7>3 F8C7>DC ;>BB

2><?DC4A 0??A>027

Case (i): Operating limits for power generation are not specified
Step 1: Assign initial trial value of ‘’(or) Calculate ‘’ using
N
bi
PD   2ai
i1
 N
1
 2ai
i1

Step 2: Compute PGi corresponding to ‘’ using either the equation,

PGi  i  i IC0  i IC02

(i.e.,) PGI  i  i   i 2

  bi [If cost function is given]

(or) PGi  ; i  1, 2,  N
2ai
4.18 Power System Operation and Control

N
Step 3: Compute  PGi
i1
N
Step 4: Check the power balance equation  PGi  PD
i1

The power balance equation is satisfied. Then optimum solution is obtained,

otherwise go to next step.
N
Step 5: If  PGi  PD
i1

Assign       (i.e.,) increment  and go to step (2).

N
If  PGi  PD
i1

Assign       (i.e.,) decrement  and go to step (2)

Where
P
 N
1
 2ai
i1
 P  Change in demand
Case (ii) Operating limits for power generations and the production cost
functions are given
Step 1: Compute  using the equation,
N
bi
PD   2ai
i1
 N
1
 2ai
i1
Unit Commitment and Economic Dispatch 4.19

Step 2: Compute PGi using equal incremental cost basis.

  bi
The economic schedules, PGi  , i  1, 2,  N
2ai
Step 3: If the computed PGi satisfy the operating limits.

PGi, min  PGi  PGi, max i  1, 2,  N then the optimum solution is obtained.
Otherwise, go to the next step.
Step 4: If PGi violates the operating limits then fix the generation at the respective limit.

If PGi  PGi, min ; fix PGi  PGi, min

PGi  PGi, max ; fix PGi  PGi, max
Step 5: Redistribute the remaining system load PD

PD new  PD old  Sum of the fixed generations to the remaining units.

Step 6: Compute new using PD new and compute the remaining generations using.

new  bi
PGi 
2ai

Step 7: Check whether the optimality condition is satisfied. i.e.,

dFi PGi
 new for PGi, min  PGi  PGi, max
dPGi
dFi PGi
 new for PGi  PGi, max
dPGi
dFi PGi
 new for PGi  PGi, min
dPGi
If the condition is satisfied, then stop. Otherwise, release the generation schedule
fixed at PGi, min or PGi, max of those units not satisfying optimality condition. Include
these units in the remaining units and modify the new power demand PD new
sum of the fixed 
 
PD new1  PD new  generators not satisfying 


optimality condition 


and go to step (6)

4.20 Power System Operation and Control

Fig. 4.9 Flow chart for economic dispatch neglecting losses

Unit Commitment and Economic Dispatch 4.21

4.8.1 Computational Approach for optimum Allocation of Generation

(Including losses)

Assume quadratic cost function

C  Ci PGi  ai P2Gi  bi PGi  Ci

dC
ICi   2ai PGi  bi
dPGi

N N
PL    PGi Bij PGj
i1 j1

N
 PL
 PGi
  2 Bij PGj
j1

Using coordination equation

ICi   [1  ITLi]

 N 

2ai PGi  bi    1   2Bij PGj 
 j1 
 
N
2ai PGi  bi    2Bii PGi    2Bij PGj
j1
ji

N
PGi [2ai  2  bii]    bi    2Bij PGj
j1
ji

N
bi ...(4.12)
1

  2 Bij PGj
j1
ji
PGi 
2ai
 2Bii

4.22 Power System Operation and Control

N
Power balance equation PD  PL   PGi  0
i1

Thus optimum generation is found by iterative method.

Solution by   iteration method with loss

Step 1: Choose Lagrange multiplier  as 0 (or) IC0 (or)

N
bi
PD   2ai
i1
Compute 0 using   N
1
 2ai
i1

Step 2: Assume PGi  0, i  1, 2,  N

Step 3: Solve for PGi using

N
bi
1

2  Bij PGj
j1
j1
PGi 
2ai
 2Bii


Where,
C  ai P2Gi  bi PGi  Ci
Step 4: Check if any PGi is beyond (or) below the inequality constraint.

PGi, min  PGi  PGi, max

If PGi  PGi, min fix PGi  PGi, min

PGi  PGi, max fix PGi  PGi, max

Unit Commitment and Economic Dispatch 4.23

Fig. 4.10 Flow chart for economic dispatch including losses

4.24 Power System Operation and Control

Step 5: Calculate transmission loss,

N N
PL    PGi Bij PGj
i1 j1

Step 6: Check for power balance equation

 N 
P P 
 D L  PGi   0
 i1 
 
Value of PGi gives the optimum generation. Otherwise, go to next step.
 N 

Step 7: Increase  by  , if  PD  PL  
0
PGi   0 (or)
 i1 
 
 N 

decrease  by  , if  PD  PL  
0
PGi   0
 i1 
 
Repeat from step (3), till the optimum solution is achieved.

#( BC0C4<4=C >5 D=8C 2><<8C<4=C ?A>1;4<

The total load in any power system varies from instant to instant. During certain
time of the day the load is at peak value, during certain other times it is very low and
during certain other times it is at some intermediate value. The load division between the
generating units in operation is determined from the principle of equal incremental costs.
The topic of unit commitment deals with specifying the units which should be operated
for a given load i.e., which units should be committed to supply a given load.
It is possible that it may be economical to decommit certain units when load is
low. To commit a unit means to bring the boiler to the required temperature, bring the
turbine and generator to synchronous speed and synchronise the generator to the system.
4.9.1 Need for unit commitment
1. Enough units will be committed to supply the system load.
2. To reduce the loss or fuel cost.
3. By running the most economic unit, the load can be supplied by that unit
operating closer to its best efficiency.
Unit Commitment and Economic Dispatch 4.25

4.9.2 Difficulties to find unit commitment solution

1. Time consuming process.
2. If the number of units are more, the number of combinations is more in a
complex bus system.
3. If ‘n’ be the number of units, then the number of combinations will be
2n  1
To select the generating units that will supply the forecasted (estimated load in
advance) load of the system over a required period of time at minimum cost as well
as provide a specified margin of the operating reserve known as the spinning reserve.
This procedure is known as unit commitment.

4.9.3 Constraints on unit commitment problem

The problem of deciding which units to commit for a load is beset with many
constraints some of these are as under.

(i) Spinning Reserve

Some system capacity has to be kept as spinning reserve to meet an unexpected
increase in demand and to ensure power supply in the event of any generating unit
suffering a forced outage. It is important to mention that the generating unit may
have to be shutdown because fault in generator or any of its auxiliaries.

(ii) Minimum down time

When a thermal generating unit is decommitter, it cannot be turned on
immediately. It has to remain decommitted for a specified minimum down time.

(iii) Minimum up time

When a thermal generating unit is operating, it cannot be turned off immediately.
Once it is committed, it has to be in the system for a specified minimum uptime.

(iv) Crew constraints

A plant always has two or more generating units. It may not be possible to
turn on more than one generating unit at the same time due to non-availability of
operating personnel.

(v) Transition cost

Restoring a unit to the system involves extra expenditure. During shut down of
a unit, it is expendient to keep the turbine shaft rotating at slow speed to prevent
4.26 Power System Operation and Control

unequal temperature distribution in turbine casing. This also involves energy consumption.
All these costs are termed as transition cost.

(vi) Hydro constraints

It is rare that a system has all thermal generating units only. Most systems have
some hydro electric units also. The operation of these units depends on availability
of water. Moreover hydro-projects are multipurpose projects. Irrigation requirements
also determine the operation of hydro plants.

(vii) Nuclear constraints

If a nuclear power plant is a part of the system, another constraint is added. A
nuclear plant has to be operated as a base load plant only.

(viii) Must run units

One or two units may be must run units. It may be necessary to run them from
consideration of voltage support and system stability.

(ix) Fuel supply constraint

Some plant may not be operated due to deficient fuel supply. Some plant may
require some special fuel which may not be available.

(x) Auxiliary power consumption

Addition of a unit results in increased auxiliary power consumption. This is
especially true for thermal generating units. This aspect generally results in extending
the load at which it becomes economical to add a new unit to the system.

#  <4C7>3B 0E08;01;4 5>A D=8C 2><<8C<4=C

The methods available for unit commitment problems are:

(i) Priority list method
(ii) Dynamic programming

4.10.1 Priority List Method

As the name suggests this method that we prepare a priority list of the order
in which the generating units should be added to the system. This list would also
include the order of shutting down the units when the system demand decreases.
Unit Commitment and Economic Dispatch 4.27

When the load is very low, the unit with the lowest heat rate supplies the entire
load. As he load increases the units having heat rates in ascending order are
successively added to the system.

We consider a system fed by four generating units A, B, C and D each of 150

MW. The unit B has the lowest heat rate, D as next higher heat rate, A has still
higher and C has the highest heat rate.

It is necessary to plant the following heat rate curves:

1. Heat rate curve of unit B

2. Combined heat rate curve of unit B and D

3. Combined heat rate curve of units B, D and A

4. Combined heat rate curve of units B, D, A and C

The heat rate curve of unit B shows the input in kcal/MWhr hour for different
values of outputs in MW for the unit B. The combined heat rate curve of units B
and D shows the total input in k-cal per MW hour for different values of outputs in
MW. If the two units B and D are in operation and share the load as per the principle
of equal incremental costs. The combined heat rate of units B, D and A shows the
total input for all these three units in operation at the same incremental cost and
sharing the load and so on. The loads at which the units are to be added are given
by the points of intersection as shown in Fig. 4.11.

Fig. 4.11 Sequence of adding units

4.28 Power System Operation and Control

Let us consider a load of 600 MW and four generating units each of 210 MW
capacity. If all the four units are to be operated, the operating cost will be minimum
when the loads are allocated as per the equal incremental cost criterion. However it
is possible that only if unit 1,2 and 3 are operated and load allocated to these three
units as per equal incremental cost criterion, the operating cost is lesser than that
when all the four are operated.
One possible method for determining optimal unit commitment is to try all
possible combinations of units for supplying the load. In the above case of four units
each of 210 MW to meet 600 MW load demand, the possibilities are
1. All units 1 to 4 operated.
2. Units 1, 2, 3 operated and unit 4 shut down
3. Units 1, 3, 4 operated and unit 2 shut down
4. Units 1, 2, 4 operated and unit 3 shut down
5. Units 2, 3, 4 operated and unit 1 shut down
If operating costs is calculated for all the above five combinations, the scheme
giving the minimum operating cost can be implemented. When the number of units
is very large, this simple method becomes very lengthy and a better technique is
necessary.
For a system having a large number of units. it is preferable to use a method
which can be used in a digital computer. Dynamic programming is one such technique.
The problem of unit commitment is also governed by the consideration of
auxiliary power consumption, reserve requirement, starting losses, stability
consideration of voltage instability. Many of these considerations cannot be expressed
in economic terms. The technical aspects of the problem of unit commitment are as
important as the economic aspects. As such, the decision on plant capacity to be
operated and unit commitment must be based as both technical and economic aspects.
The algorithm for unit commitment as per priority list method can be summerised
as under:
1. When the load is decreasing, examine whether shutting down a generating
unit would still leave enough generation to supply the load plus axillary
power consumption plus spinning reserve requirement. If this condition is
not satisfied, continue running the already operating units and go to step 2.
2. Find out the time when the unit being shut down will be needed again. Let
this time be T.
Unit Commitment and Economic Dispatch 4.29

3. If T is less than minimum shut down time, keep the unit on and go to step
5. If not go to step 4.
4. Calculate and compare the costs. Include shut down and start-up costs. If
the total cost for that unit shut and operating are the same and there is not
substantial saving keep that unit on. If sufficient saving exists, shut down
the unit.
5. Repeat the above sequence for the next generation unit on priority list. If
this unit requires to be shut down, go to next and continue.

Complexity in optimal unit commitment

The problem of unit commitment is really a complex problem. To reduce the
complexity the transmission losses are neglected in solving unit commitment problem.
Thus the total generation equals the load. Moreover atleast one unit has to be kept
on all the time, because minimum load is never zero.
We can divide the 24 hour period into time intervals as shown in Fig. 4.12
where it is shown that day can be divided into 5 intervals with loads as shown.
The problem of unit commitment aims to find the feasible combination of
generating units to supply the load at minimum operating cost during each time
interval.
Let us assume that the system has 4 generating units., One of these must be
kept ON to supply the minimum load. For the remaining 3 units there are a total of
23  1  7 combinations of units to supply the load. These are shown in table 4.1
when the load ON denotes that the unit is ON and OFF denotes that the unit is off.

Fig. 4.12
4.30 Power System Operation and Control

Table 4.1

Unit x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 x6 x7
1 ON ON ON OFF ON OFF OFF
2 ON ON OFF ON OFF ON OFF
3 ON OFF ON ON OFF OFF ON

It has to be remembered that all the above combinations may not be feasible
for a certain time interval. This is evidently, due to the simple fact that a combination
of total capacity less than system load is not feasible and can be disregarded for that
time interval.

Let Xn i  Combination Xn for ith interval.

Then Xm i  1 represents combination Xm for i  1 th interval. If i  2 and

x  4, it means that units 2 and 3 are ON during this interval and Unit 1 is off.

The cost Cn i denotes minimum operating cost of nth combination for ith
interval. Then Cm i  1 will denote minimum operating cost of Xm i  1 and so on.

The operating cost is not the only cost which has to be considered in optimising
unit commitment. Some cost is incurred in changing the state. This cost is usually
referred to as startup or shut down cost. Another terminology is transition cost. Let
this cost be denoted by symbol ‘S’. Then

Snm, i  cost of transition from combination Xn i to combination Xm i  1

Since the number of generating units in any system is pretty large (may be 20
or even more) the combination of units can be 220  1 which is a very large number.
Combining it with the number of time intervals (say N) in which the day is divided
makes the solution all the more complex. Therefore the unit commitment problem is
solved for each time interval separately by a subprogram and then the results for all
these N intervals are combined.
Unit Commitment and Economic Dispatch 4.31

The total cost tnm i for any time interval can be written as

tnm i  Cn i  Snm i

where Cn i is the minimum operating cost of nth combination for ith interval and
Snm i is the cost of transition from combination xm i  1 to combination xn i.

4.10.2 Solution of unit commitment problem by Forward Dynamic

Programming

The method of dynamic programming can be applied to solve unit commitment

problem in two ways i.e., Forward and Backward. In Forward Dynamic Programming
(FDP) we start with the first duration obtain and unit commitment schedule for this
duration, go to second duration till we reach the last duration. In backward dynamic
programming we start with the last duration obtain the unit commitment schedule for
this duration and proceed backward till we reach the first duration. FDP has some
distinct advantages over backward dynamic programming. In using FDP, initial
conditions are easily specified, calculations can be carried out for any desired length
of time and the previous history of each unit can be calculated at every stage.

The minimum cost in duration i for nth combination can be written as

Tcost i, n  min

[Least total cost to reach state i, n  operating cost for state i, n  transition
cost from state i  1, m to state i, n]
...(4.13)
The operating cost for any stage needs the method of economic dispatch. This
is evidently due to the fact that for any give combination of units, the operating cost
is minimum if all the units in this combination are operating at equal incremental
cost.

Two other variables enter the strategy for unit commitment by forward dynamic
programming. This is because a number of possible combinations exist for every state.
Let this be denoted by K.

Another variable is the number of paths (or) strategies to save at every step.
Let this variable be denoted by L. Fig. 4.13 shows a simple flow chart for unit
commitment through forward dynamic programming.
4.32 Power System Operation and Control

Fig 4.13 Flow chart for unit commitment using forward dynamic programming.
Unit Commitment and Economic Dispatch 4.33

Block 1 : The stage in load cycle is specified as i. We start with i  1 i.e.

first stage.
Block 2 : The operating cost for this stage is computed. This has to be
repeated for all possible combinations K.
Block 3 : We now go to i  1th stage.
Block 4 : The number of feasible paths in duration i  1 is found and stored.
Block 5 : The minimum total cost as mentioned in Eq (4.13) is calculated.
This has to be repeated for all states in ith interval.
Block 6 : The lowest cost paths (number L) are saved in computer memory.
Block 7 : Check whether the program has reached the last stage in load cycle.
If yes optimal schedule is printed. Otherwise ‘i’ is updated to
i  1 and program is repeated.

WORKED EXAMPLES

4G0<?;4 4.1

A power plant consists of two 200 MW units, whose input cost data given by
F1  0.004 P21  2.OP1  80 Rs/hr
F2  0.006P22  1.5P2  100 Rs/hr.
For the total load of 250 MW, what should be the division of load between two
units for most economic operation. (Dec 2007, Dec 2012)

 Solution
dF1
1   2  0.004P1  2
dP1

 0.008P1  2

dF2
2   2  0.006P2  1.5
dP2

 0.012P2  1.5

From equal incremental cost basis, 1  2

4.34 Power System Operation and Control

0.008P1  2  0.012 P2  1.5

0.008P1  0.012 P2   0.5 ...(1)

P1  P2  250 ...(2)

Multiplying equation (2) by 0.012

0.012 P1  0.012 P2  3 ...(3)

Adding equation (1) and (3) we get

0.02 P1  2.5

P1  125 MW

P2  250  P1

 250  125

P2  125 MW

4G0<?;4 4.2

The fuel cost functions for three thermal plants in $/h are given by
F1  0.004 P2g1  5.3 Pg1  500
F2  0.006 Pg2  5.5 Pg2  400
F3  0.009 P2g3  5.8 Pg3  200
Where Pg1, Pg2 and Pg3 are in MW
Find the optimal dispatch and the total cost when the total load is 925 MW with
the following generator limits.
100 MW  Pg1  450 MW
100 MW  Pg2  350 MW
100 MW  Pg3  225 MW
(May 2008) (June 2009)

 Solution
(i) Find initial value of 
Unit Commitment and Economic Dispatch 4.35

N
bi
PD   2ai
i1
 N
1
 2ai
i1

5.3 5.5 5.8

925   
2  0.004 2  0.006 2  0.009

1 1 1
 
2  0.004 2  0.006 2  0.009
2368.055
  8.9737
263.889
(ii) Find the generations using   8.9737

dF1 Pg1
 1  2  0.004 Pg1  5.3
dPg1

dF2 Pg2
 2  2  0.006 Pg2  5.5
dPg2

dF3 Pg3
 3  2  0.009 Pg3  5.8
dPg3

  5.3
Pg1   459.21 MW
2  0.004

  5.5
Pg2   289.47 MW
2  0.006

  5.8
Pg3   176.31 MW
2  0.009
N
The solution satisfies  PGi  925 MW
i1

But generation schedules of unit 1 is not within the limit. Set unit 1 to its
maximum output.
4.36 Power System Operation and Control

Pg1  Pg1 max

 Pg1  Pg1 max  450 MW

1  2  0.004 Pg1  5.3  2  .004  450  5.3

 8.9  
PD new  PD  Pg1  925  450  475 MW
Now shar e the load
Pg2  Pg3  475 MW between units 2 and 3 using equal incr ements cost r ule.

2  3

2  0.006 Pg2  5.5  2  0.009 Pg3  5.8

0.012 Pg2  0.018Pg3  0.3 ...(1)

Pg2  Pg3  475 ...(2)

Multiplying equation (2) by 0.018, we get

0.018 Pg2  0.018 Pg3  8.55 ...(3)

Adding equation (1) and (2) we get

0.03 Pg2  8.85

Pg2  295 MW
Sub in equation (2), we get
Pg3  475  Pg2  475  295  180 MW

Optimal dispatch is Pg1  450 MW

Pg2  295 MW

Pg3  180 MW

F1  0.04  4502  5.3  450  500  3695

F2  0.006  2952  5.5  295  400  2544.6

F3  0.009  1802  5.8  180  200
Unit Commitment and Economic Dispatch 4.37

 1535.6
Total cost  F1  F2  F3

Total cost  7775.25 Rs/hr

4G0<?;4 4.3

In a power system having two units, the loss coefficient are:

B1  0.0015 MW 1
B12   0.0006 MW 1
B21   0.0006 MW 1
B22   0.0024 MW 1
The incremental production costs of the units are
dF1
 0.08 PG1  20 Rs/MWhr
dPG1
dF2
 0.09 PG2  16 Rs/MWhr
dPG2
Find the generation schedule for   20 and 25. Find also the change in
transmission losses between the two schedules. (Dec 2008)

 Solution
 0.0015  0.0006   B11 B12 
Bmn   
  0.0006 0.0024   B21 B22 

Incremental cost, IC1  0.08 PG1  20

IC2  0.09 PG2  16
PL  B11 P2G1  2 B12 PG1 PG2  B22 P2G2
Incremental transmission loss,
dPL
ITL1   2 B11 PG1  2B12 PG2
dPG1

 2  0.0015 PG1  2   0.0006 PG2

 0.003 PG1  0.0012 PG2

4.38 Power System Operation and Control

dPL
ITL2   2 B12 PG1  2 B22 PG2
dPG2

 2   0.0006 PG1  2  0.0024 PG2

  0.0012 PG1  0.0048 PG2

From Co-ordination equation

IC1 IC2
 
1  ITL1 1  ITL2

For   20

0.08 PG1  20 0.09 PG2  16

  20
1  0.003 PG1  0.0012 PG2 1  0.0012 PG1  0.0048 PG2

0.08 PG1  20
 20
1  0.003 PG1  0.0012 PG2

0.08 PG1  20  20  0.06 PG1  0.024 PG2

0.02 PG1  0.024 PG2  0

0.02
PG2  P  0.833 PG1
0.024 G1
0.09 PG1  16
 20
1  0.0012 PG1  0.0048 PG2

0.09 PG2  16  20  0.024 PG1  0.096 PG2

substitute PG2  0.833 PG1, we get

0.09 PG1  16  20  0.024 PG1  0.096  0.833 PG1
0.09 PG1  0.024 PG1  0.096  0.833 PG1  20  16
0.146 PG1  4
4
PG1   27.397 MW
0.146
PG2  0.833 PG1  0.833  27.39
 22.82 MW
Unit Commitment and Economic Dispatch 4.39

Loss, PL  0.0015  27.3922  2   0.0006  27.397  22.82  0.0024  22.822

 1.628 MW
For   25
0.08 PG1  20
 25
1  0.003 PG1  0.0012 PG2

0.08 PG1  20  25  0.075 PG1  0.03 PG2

0.155 PG1  0.03 PG2  5 ...(1)

0.09 PG1  16
 25
1  0.0012 PG1  0.0048 PG2

0.09 PG1  16  25  0.03 PG1  0.12 PG2

0.06 PG1  0.12 PG2  9 ...(2)

1  0.12  0.0186 PG1  0.0036 PG2  0.6 ...(3)

2  0.03  0.0018 PG1  0.0036 PG2  0.27 ...(4)

3  4  0.0204 PG1  0.87

PG1  42.647 MW

Substitute in equation (2)

0.06  42.64  0.12 PG2  9

0.12 PG2  9  2.56

6.44
PG2   53.6 MW
0.12

Loss, PL  0.0015  42.6472  2   0.0006  42.647  53.667  0.0024  53.552

 6.894
Change in transmission loss  6.894  1.628
Change in transmission loss  5.266 MW
4.40 Power System Operation and Control

4G0<?;4 4.4

Obtain the priority list of unit commitment using full load average production cost
for the given data
Heat rate for unit 1, H1  510  7.2 PG1  0.0014 P2G1 MW/hr
Heat rate for unit 2, H2  310  7.85 PG2  0.00194 P2G2 MW/hr
Heat rate for unit 3, H3  78  7.97 PG3  0.00482 P2G3 MW/hr

Minimum Maximum Fuel

Unit
(MW) (MW) cost (k)
1 150 600 1.1
2 100 400 1.0
3 50 200 1.2
PD  550 MW (Dec 2009)

 Solution
Step 1: Full load average production cost (FLAPC)
K1  H1 PG1 max
FLAPC1 
PG1 max

1.1  [510  7.2  600  0.00142  6002]


600
 9.79
K2  H2 PG2 max
FLAPC2 
PG2 max

1.0 [310  7.85  400  0.00194  4002]


400
 9.4
K3  H2 PG3 max
FLAPC3 
PG3 max

1.2 [78  7.97  200  0.00482  2002]


200
 11.188 Rs/MWhr
Unit Commitment and Economic Dispatch 4.41

Step 2: Priority order (Arrange FLAPC in ascending order)

Unit FLAPC Min (MW) Max. (MW)

2 9.4 100 400
1 9.79 150 600
3 11.188 50 200

Step 3: Unit commitment

Minimum MW from Maximum MW from

Combination
combination combination
213 300 1200
21 250 1000
2 100 400
All the three units would be held on until load reached 1000 MW, unit 2 and
1 would be held on until the load reached 400 MW, then unit 1 would be dropped.
For demand of 550 MW, units 2 and 1 would be operated.

4G0<?;4 4.5

The cost characteristics of three plants of a plant are:

C1  0.05 P21  17.0P1  160 Rs /hr
C2  0.06 P22  14.4 P2  200 Rs /hr
C3  0.08 P23  9.0 P3  240 Rs /hr
where P1, P2, P3 are in MW.
The incremental transmission losses for the network with respect to plants 1, 2 and 3
are 0.05, 0.10 and 0.15 MW per MW of generation. Find the optimal dispatch for a
total load of 100 MW and also its incremental cost of received power. (May 2011)

 Solution
IC1  0.1 P1  17 ITL1  0.05
IC2  0.12 P2  14.4 ITL2  0.1
IC3  0.16 P3  9 ITL3  0.15
PD  100
4.42 Power System Operation and Control

IC1 IC2 IC3

  
1 ITL1 1  ITL2 1  ITL3

0.1 P1  17 0.12 P2  14.4 0.16 P3  9

  
1  0.05 1  0.1 1  0.15
 0.105 P1  17.89  0.133 P2  16  0.19 P3  10.59
1  2  3
N
bi
PD   2ai
i1
new  N
1
 2ai
i1

17.89 16 10.59
100   
0.105 0.133 0.19

1 1 1
 
0.105 0.133 0.19
446.418
  20.0134
22.306
new  b1 20.0134  17.89
P1    20.22 MW
2a1 0.105

new  b2 20.0134  16
P2    30.18 MW
2a2 0.133

new  b3 20.0134  10.59

P3    49.60 MW
2a3 0.19

Incremental cost  20.0134

Unit Commitment and Economic Dispatch 4.43

4G0<?;4 4.6

The fuel inputs per hour of plant 1 and 2 are given as

F1  0.2P21  40P1  120 Rs/hr
F2  0.25 P22  30P2  150 Rs/hr
Determine the economic operating schedule and the corresponding cost of generation
of the maximum and minimum loading on each unit is 100 MW and 25 MW.
Assume the transmission losses are neglected and the total demand is 180 MW.
Also determine the saving obtained if the load is equally shared by both the units.
(Dec 2013) (Dec 2011)
 Solution
Incremental production cost of unit 1 is
dF1
 0.4 PG1  40 Rs/hr
dPG1

Incremental production cost of unit 2 is

dF2
 0.5 PG2  30 Rs/hr
dPG2

25  PG  100

PD  180 MW
2
bi
PD   2ai 180 
40 30

i1 0.4 0.5
   75.56
2 1 1
1 
 2ai
0.4 0.5
i1

  b1 75.56  40
PG1    88.9 MW
2a1 0.4

  b2 75.56  30
PG2    91.1MW
2a2 0.5

Check for limits 25  88.9  100 and 25  91.1  180

4.44 Power System Operation and Control

PG1, PG2 are within the limits cost of generation for unit 1.

F1  0.2 P2G1  40 PG2  120

 0.2  88.92  40  88.9  120

F1  5256.64 Rs/hr

F2  025  P2G2  30 PG2  150

 0.25  91.12  30  91.1  150

 4957.80 Rs/hr

Total cost  5256.64  4957.80

Total cost  10,214.44 Rs/hr

180
If the load on each unit is  90 MW, the cost of generation will be
2

F1  0.2  902  40  90  120

 5340 Rs/hr

F2  0.25  902  30  90  150

 4875 Rs/hr

F1  F2  10,215 Rs/hr

Net saving  10,215  10214.44  0.56 Rs/hr

Net saving obtained  0.56 Rs/hr

Unit Commitment and Economic Dispatch 4.45

4G0<?;4 4.7

There are 3 thermal generating units which can be committed to take the system
load of 800 MW. The fuel cost data and generation operating limit data are given
below. Obtain an optimum unit commitment using brute force enumeration
technique.
F1  0.006 P2G1  7PG1  600
F2  0.01 P2G2  8PG2  400
F3  0.008 P2G3  6PG3  500 operating limits are
100  PG1  400 MW
50  PG2  300 MW
150  PG3  500 MW
Power demand  800 MW.

 Solution
Brute force technique Number of combinations  23  1  8  1  7

Sl.No. Unit I Unit II Unit III PG1 PG2 PG3 Max min Solution cost (Rs.)
1. Off Off Off – – Infeasible –

2. Off Off On – – – 500 150 Infeasible –

3. Off On Off – – – 300 50 Infeasible –

4. Off On On – 300 500 800 200 Feasible 9200

5. On Off Off – – – 400 100 Infeasible –

6. On Off On 400 – 400 900 250 Feasible 8540

7. On On Off – – – 700 150 Infeasible –

8. On On On 335 151 314 1200 300 Feasible 8627.04

consider the 4th case: (feasible)

PD  800 MW

Units 2 and 3 are operating

4.46 Power System Operation and Control

 bi 8 6
PD  800  
2ai 2  0.01 2  0.008
 
1 1 1
 
2ai 2  0.01 2  0.008

  14

  b2 14  8
PG2    300 MW
2a2 2  0.01

  b3 14  6
PG3    500 MW
2a3 2  0.008

F2  a2 P2G2  b2 PG2  C2

 0.01  3002  8  300  400  Rs.3700

F3  a3 P2G3  b3 PG3  C3

 0.008  5002  6  500  500  Rs.5500

Total fuel cost FT  F2  F3

 3700  5500

 Rs.9200
Consider 6th case (feasible): Units 1 and 3 are operating
bi 7 6
PD   800  
2ai 2  0.006 2  0.008
 
1 1 1
 
2ai 2  0.006 2  0.008

  12.057

  b1 12.057  7
PG1  
2a1 2  0.006

 421.416  PG1 max

 PG1  PG1 max  400 MW

Unit Commitment and Economic Dispatch 4.47

PG3  PD  PG1  800  400  400

F1  a1P2G1  b1PG1  C1

 0.006  4002  7  400  600  Rs.4360

F3  a3 P2G3  b3 PG3  C3

 0.008  4002 .6  400  500  Rs.4180

Total fuel cost FT  F1  F3

 4360  4180  Rs.8540

consider 8th case: Units 1, 2, and 3 are operating.
bi 7 8 6
PD   800   
2ai 2  0.006 2  0.01 2  0.008
 
1 1 1 1
  
2ai 2  0.006 2  0.01 2  0.008

  11.02

  b1 11.02  7
PG1    335 MW
2a1 2  0.006

  b2 11.02  8
PG2    151 MW
2b2 2  0.01

  b3 11.02  6
PG3    314 MW
2b3 2  0.008

F1  0.006  3352  7  335  600  Rs.3618.35

F2  0.01  1512  8  151  400  Rs.1836.01

F3  0.008  3142  6  314  500  Rs.3172.7

FT  F1  F2  F3

FT  Rs.8627.04
4.48 Power System Operation and Control

Total fuel cost for the 6th case is less than that of the other cases of feasible
solution.
 when the system load level is 800 MW, it is preferable to keep unit 1 and
3 running.

4G0<?;4 4.8

A plant has two generators supplying the plant bus and neither is to operate below
20 MW (or) above 135 MW. Incremental costs with PG1 and PG2 in MW are:
dF1
 0.14 PG1  21 Rs/MWhr
dPG1
dF2
 0.225 PG2  16.5 Rs/MWhr
dPG2
For economic dispatch, find the plant  when the demand equals (a) 45 MW
(b) 125 MW (c) 250 MW.
 Solution
(a) PD  45 MW
N
bi
PD   2ai 45  
21

16.5 
i1 0.14 0.225 
     23.15
N  1  1 
1  0.14 0.225 
 2ai  
i1

  b1 23.15  21
PG1    15.41 MW
2a1 0.14

PG1  PG min

 Fix PG1  PG1 min  20 MW

1  0.14PG1  21

23.8  
 Optimality condition is satisfied therefore PG1  20 MW

PG2  PD  PG1  45  20  25 MW
Unit Commitment and Economic Dispatch 4.49

The optimum schedule is PG1  20 MW

PG2  25 MW

(b) PD  125 MW

21 16.5 
125    
 0.14 0.225 

1 1

0.14 0.225
  30.061

  b1 30.06  21
PG1  
2a1 0.14

 64.726 MW

  b2 30.0616  16.5
PG2  
2a2 0.225

 60.275 MW

20  PG1  135 and 20  PG2  135

 The optimum schedule is

PG1  64.726 MW

PG2  60.274 MW

(c) PD  250 MW

250  
21

16.5 
0.14 0.225 
    40.849
 1  1 
 0.14 0.225 
 
  b1 40.849  21
PG1    141.78
2a1 0.14

  b2 40.849  16.5
PG2    108.22
2a2 0.225
4.50 Power System Operation and Control

141.78  135, PG1  PG1, max

 Fix PG1  PG1, max  135 MW

1  0.14 PG1  21

 39.9  
 The optimality condition satisfied
Therefore PG1  135 MW
PG2  PD  PG1  250  135  115 MW
The optimum schedule is
PG1  135 MW

PG2  115 MW

4G0<?;4 4.9

For the incremental cost characteristics of two thermal plants as given by

dF1
 60  0.2 PG1 Rs/MWhr
dPG1
dF2
 40  0.3 PG2 Rs/MWhr
dPG2
Calculate the sharing of load of 200MW for most economic operation. If the plants
are rated 150 MW and 250 MW, what will be the saving in cost in Rs/hr in
comparison to loading in the same proportion to rating.
 Solution
1  2

60  0.2PG1  40  0.3 PG2

0.2 PG1  0.3 PG2   20

PG1  1.5 PG2   100 ...(1)
PG1  PG2  200 ...(2)
2  1  2.5 PG2  300

PG2  120
Unit Commitment and Economic Dispatch 4.51

Substitute PG2 in equ. (1)  PG1   100  1.5  120

 80 MW
Rating of the plant 1 is 150 MW and plant 2 is 250 MW.
PG1, min  PG1, max  150 MW
PG2, min  PG2, max  250 MW
150
Consider loading in the same proportion to rating i.e.,  75 MW for unit 1
2
250
and  125 MW for unit 2.
2
75
 dF1 
Increase in cost for unit 1    dP   dPG1
80  G1 
75
  60  0.2 PG1 dPG1
80
75
 0.2 P2G1 
  60 PG1  
 2 80

  377.5 Rs./hr
125
 dF2 
Increase in cost for unit 2    dP   dPG2
120 
G2 

125
  40  0.3 PG2 dPG2
120
125
 P2G2 
  40 PG2  0.3 
 2 120

 383.75 Rs/hr
Total yearly saving  6.25  8760
 Rs.54750
4.52 Power System Operation and Control

4G0<?;4 4.10

Determine priority list using FLAPC for the data given.

Unit Loading limits Fuel cost parameters

Fuel cost
No. Min Max ai bi ci
1 100 400 0.006 7 600 1.1
2 50 300 0.01 8 400 1.2
3. 150 500 0.008 6 500 1.0

Also obtain optimum unit commitment solution for the power.

(May 2014)
 Solution
H1  0.006 P2G1  7 PG1  600

H2  0.01 P2G2  8PG2  400

H3  0.008P2G3  6PG3  500

H1 PG1 
FLAPC1  K1 
PG1 
PG1  PG1, max

1.1 [0.006  4002  7  400  600]

  11.99
400
H2 PG2 
FLAPC2  K2 
PG2 
PG2  PG2, max

1.2 [0.01  3002  8  300  400]


300
 14.8
H3 PG3 
FLAPC3  K3 
PG3 
PG3  PG3, max
Unit Commitment and Economic Dispatch 4.53

Priority order (Arrange FLAPC in ascending order

Unit FLAPC Min (MW) Max (MW)

3 11 150 500
1 11.99 100 400
2 14.8 50 300

Unit commitment

Minimum MW from Maximum MW from

Combination
combination combination
312 300 1200

31 250 900

3 150 500

All the three units would be held on until the load reached 900 MW. Units 1
and 3 would be held on until the load reached 500 MW, then unit 1 would be dropped.

4G0<?;4 4.11

The fuel cost of two units are given by

F1  1.6  25 PG1  0.1 P2G1 Rs /hr
F2  2.1  32 PG2  0.1 P2G2 Rs./hr.
If the total demand on the generators is 250 MW, find the economic load scheduling
of the two units.

 Solution
dF1
1   25  2  0.1PG1
dPG1

dF2
2   32  2  0.1  PG2
dPG2
4.54 Power System Operation and Control

For two units 1  2

25  0.2PG1  32  0.2PG2

0.2 PG1  0.2PG2  7

Dividing by 0.2, PG1  PG2  35 ...(1)

Total demand PG1  PG2  250 ...(2)

Adding equations (1) and (2), we get

285
2PG1  285 ; PG1 
2

 142.5 MW

substituting PG1 in equation (2), we get

PG2  107.5 MW

Alter:
N
bi
PD   2ai 250  
25 32 
 
i1  0.2 0.2 
 
N 1 1
1 
 2ai
0.2 0.2
i1

 53.5

  b1 53.5  25
PG1    142.5 MW
2a1 0.2

  b2 53.5  32
PG2    107.5 MW
2a2 0.2

 PGi  250 MW
i1
Unit Commitment and Economic Dispatch 4.55

4G0<?;4 4.12

A power plant has three units with the following cost characteristics:
C1  0.05 P2G1  23.5 PG1  700 Rs/hr
C2  0.2 P2G2  20 PG2  850 Rs/hr
C3  0.09 P2G3  18 PG3  960 Rs/hr
Where PGi’s are in MW.
Maximum and minimum loading allowable on each unit are: 150 MW and 40 MW.
Find the optimal scheduling for a load of 275 MW.) (May 2010)

 Solution
(i) Find 

N
bi
PD   2ai
i1
 N
1
 2ai
i1

23.5 20 18 
275     
  2  0.05 2  0.2 2  0.09   36.55
 1 1 1 
 2  0.05  2  0.2  2  0.09 
 
(ii) Find PGi using   36.55

  b1 36.55  23.5
PG1    130.5 MW
2a1 2  0.05

  b2 36.55  29
PG2    41.375 MW
2a2 2  0.2

  b3 36.55  18
PG3    103.055 MW
2a3 2  0.09
4.56 Power System Operation and Control

(iii) Check PGi limit

40  PG1  150

40  PG2  150

40  PG3  150
The optimum schedule is
PG1  130.5 MW

PG2  41.375 MW

PG3  103.055 MW

4G0<?;4 4.13

Two areas are interconnected as shown in fig. Total generating capacity in each
is 600 MW. The cost characteristics are
C1  2000  20P1  0.05P21 Rs/hr
C2  2750  26P2  0.03091P22 Rs/hr
Find the cost of generation if (a) each area supplies its own load. (b) Units are
loaded as per economic scheduling. Assume that line has unlimited capacity and
transmission losses are negligible. Also find the saving and tie line loading.
 Solution

P1  350 MW

P2  550 MW

C1  2000  20 350  0.05 3502

 Rs.15125 per hour

Unit Commitment and Economic Dispatch 4.57

C2  2750  26 550  0.03091 5502

 Rs. 26400.275 per hour

Total cost  C1  C2  Rs.41525.275 per hr

dC1
(b)  20  0.1 P1
dP1

dC2
 26  0.06182 P2
dP2

For economic scheduling

dC1 dC2

dP1 dP2

Total load is 350  550  900 MW

Let loads be P1 and 900  P1. Then

20  0.1 P1  26  0.6182 900  P1

P1  380.9 MW

P2  519.1 MW

C1  2000  20 380.9  0.05 380.92

 Rs.16872.24 per hour

C2  2750  26 519.1  0.03091 519.12

 Rs.24575.76 per hour

Total cost  C1  C2  Rs. 41448 per hour

Saving  Rs.41525.275  41448

 Rs.77.275 per hr

Tie line load  380.9  350

 30.9 MW from plant1 to plant 2

4.58 Power System Operation and Control

4G0<?;4 4.14

The incremental costs of two generating plants are:

dF1
 20  0.1 PG1 Rs/MWhr
dPG1
dF2
 22.5  0.15 PG2 Rs/MWhr . The system is operating on economic dispatch
dPG2
 PL
with PG1  PG2  100 MW and  0.2. Find the penality factor of plant 1.
 PG2

 Solution
IC1 IC2
 
1  ITL1 1  ITL2

 IC1  L1  IC2  L2 ...(1)

1 1
L2    1.25   PL 
1  ITL2 1  0.2  ITL  
  PG 
From equ (1)

IC1, L1  IC2  L2

20  0.1 PG1 L1  22.5  0.15 PG2  1.25

22.5  0.15 PG2

L1   1.25
20  0.1 PG1

Given PG1  PG2  100 MW

22.5  0.15  100

 L1   1.25
20  0.1  100

L1  1.5625
Unit Commitment and Economic Dispatch 4.59

4G0<?;4 4.15

In a system consisting of 2 generating unit connected to the transmission line, the

dF1 dF2
IC’s are  0.16 P1  32 ;  0.24 P2  36 with P1  P2  100 MW and
dP1 dP2
dPL
 0.2. Find the penalty factor of plant 1.
dP2

 Solution
1 dPL
Penalty factor  where ITL1 
1  ITL1 dP1

dF1
IC1 
dP1

dF2
IC2 
dP2

The coordination equation is

IC1 IC2

1  ITL1 1  ITL2

dF1 dF2
dP1 dP2

 dPL   dPL 
 1  dP   1  dP 
 1   2

0.16 P1  32 0.24P2  36

 dPL  1  0.2
 1  dP 
 1

0.16  100  32 0.24  100  36


dPL 0.8
1
dP1

48
 75
dPL
1
dP1
4.60 Power System Operation and Control

1
 Penalty factor for unit I, 
dPL
1
dP1

75

48
1
i.e.,  1.5625
1  ITL1

Penalty factor for unit 1  1.5625

4G0<?;4 4.16

A heat rate of 100 MW fuel fixed generator is

10 Mkcal/MWhr at 25% rating.
9 Mkcal/MWhr at 40% rating.
8 Mkcal/MWhr at 100% rating.
cost of the fuel is Rs. 2/Mkcal.
Find (i) Fuel cost of 25,40, 100% loading
(ii) Incremental cost (iii) Fuel input rate using quadratic approximation to deliver
101 MW. (June 2014)

 Solution
Energy input Fi PGi  PGi Hi PGi  Ci  bi PGi  ai P2Gi

Input fuel cost Ci PGi  K Fi PGi  Ci  bi PGi  ai P2Gi

Ci
Heat rate Hi PGi   bi  ai PGi
PGi

Ci ...(1)
H1 PG1  H1 25   bi  ai  25  10
25
Ci ...(2)
H2 PG2  H2 40   bi  ai  40  9
40
Ci ...(3)
H3 PG3  H3 100   bi  ai  100  8
100
Solving equations (1), (2), (3) find the values of a1, b1, c1
Unit Commitment and Economic Dispatch 4.61

 0.04 1 25   ci   10 
 0.025 1 40   bi    9 
 0.01 1 100   a    8 
 i 
  0.675
 10 1 25 
1   9 1 40   45
 8 1 100 
1 45
Ci    66.666
 0.675

 0.04 10 25 
2   0.025 9 40   4.95
 0.01 8 100 
2
bi   7.33

 0.04 1 10 
3   0.025 1 9   0
 0.01 1 8
ai  0

Fi PGi  Hi PGi  PGi Ci  PGibi  P2Giai

 66.66  7.33 PGi

(a) At 25% rating:

F 25  66.66  7.33  25  250 Mkcal/hr
C 25  K  F 25  2  250  500 Rs/hr
(b) At 40% rating:
F 40  66.66  7.33  40  360 Mkcal/hr
C 40  2  F 40  720 Rs/hr
(c) At 100% rating:
F 100  66.66  7.33  100  800 Mkcal/hr
C 100  2  F 100  1600 Rs/hr
4.62 Power System Operation and Control

(ii) Incremental cost

dC PGi K  dF PGi dF PGi
IC   2
dPGi dPGi dPGi

 2  7.33  14.66 Rs/MWhr

[C PGi  2F PGi  2  66.66  2  7.33 PGi]

(iii) Cost using quadratic approximation

C 101  2  66.66  2  7.33  101

 1614 Rs/hr

PART - A - QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. Name the methods of finding economic dispatch.

The two methods to find economic dispatch are:
(i) Load scheduling (ii) Unit commitment

2. Distinguish between economic dispatch and unit commitment.

(AU/June/14)

Economic load dispatch Unit commitment

1. Optimum allocation of generation to Optimum allocation of number of units
each station. (At each generating to be operated to determine the units
station at various station load levels). of a plant that should operate for a
given load is the problem of unit
commitment.
2. The problem assumes that there are There are number of subsets of the
‘n’ units already connected to the complete set of n units that would
system. satisfy the expected demand.
3. Purpose of economic dispatch Purpose of unit commitment is to find
problem is to find the optimum the optimal subset among the subsets
operation policy for these ‘n’ units. which provide the minimum operating
cost.
Unit Commitment and Economic Dispatch 4.63

3. Write the equality and inequality constraints considered in the economic

dispatch problem. (Nov/Dec 2011)
The equality constraint equation N
PD  PG1  PG2    PGN   PGi
i1
Power demand  Total generation
Where
PGi  Real power generation of unit 1, MW.
PD  Total power received by the plant bus and transferred to the load.
Since out system is a compact one and we neglect the losses in the transmission
line.
N
H PG1, PG2  PGN  PD   PGi  0
i1

Inequality Constraints
Since each generator must not be operated above its rating or below some
minimum value.

PGi, min  PGi  PGi, max for i  1, 2,  N

4. Define incremental cost? (April/May 2010)

The rate of change of fuel cost with real power generation is called incremental
cost.

5. What is incremental cost criterion? (Nov/Dec 2012)

Total system load has to be divided among all units that all the units operate
at equal incremental cost.

  1  2   N

6. What is meant by incremental cost curve? (Nov/Dec 2010) (Nov/Dec 2007)

The incremental cost curve is defined as the ratio of a small change in the
input to the corresponding small change in the output.

Incremental fuel cost   input/  output

where  represents small changes.

4.64 Power System Operation and Control

The incremental cost curve is obtained by considering the change in the cost
of generation to the change in real-power generation at various points on the
input-output curves, i.e., slope of the input-output curve as shown in Fig.

7. Draw the incremental cost curve for a thermal plant.

(April/May 2009), (Dec 14)

dCi
Where,  
dPGi

Ci  Operating cost

PGi  Power generation

8. Define incremental efficiency?

It is defined as the reciprocal of incremental fuel rate (or) incremental production cost.

dP
Incremental  
dF
Unit Commitment and Economic Dispatch 4.65

9. Write the quadratic expression for fuel cost.

Ci PGi  ai P2Gi  bi PGi  Ci Rs/hr

Where,
ai, bi, ci are constants
PGi  Power generation.

10. What is meant by unit commitment?

Optimum allocation of generators at each generating station at various station
load levels.

11. List few constraints that are accounted in unit commitment problem.
(April/May 2010) (Nov/Dec 2010) (Nov/Dec 2007 (Dec 2014)
1. Spinning reserve
2. Thermal constraints
(i) Minimum up constraints
(ii) Minimum down constraints
(iii) Crew constraints
3. Other constraints
(i) Hydro constraints

12. Define spinning reserve? (April/May 2011) (May/2014) (May/2015)

It is the term describe the total amount of generation availability from all units
synchronized on the system.
 Total amount 
Spinning reserve     [Present load  Losses]
 of generation 
13. What are the thermal unit constraint? (Nov/Dec 2012)
Minimum up time, minimum down time and crew constraints.

14. Define minimum up time? (April/May 2011)

Once the unit is running, it should not be turned off immediately.

15. Define minimum down time? (April/May 2011)

Once the unit is decommited there is a minimum time before it can be
recommited.
4.66 Power System Operation and Control

16. What is meant by priority list method? (Nov/Dec 2009)

Priority list method is the simplest unit commitment solution method which
consists of creating a priority list of units.

17. What is meant by total generator operating cost?

The total generator operating cost includes the cost of fuel, cost of transmission
loss, labour and maintenance costs.

18. Mention the assumption made in the formation of loss formula matrix, B.
(April/May 2008)
1. Assume generators are identical.

2. Assume generators have identical incremental cost curves.

3. Neglect the shunt capacitance of the line.

19. Define base point? (April/May 2009)

The present operating point of the system is called base point.

20. Define participation factor?

(Nov/Dec 2009) (April/May 2008) (Nov/Dec 2008) (April/May 2009)
The change in generation required to meet power demand is called as
participation factor.

1
 PGi Fi
Participation factor for each unit   N
 PD
1
 Fi
i1

21. What is meant by FLAPC? (Nov/Dec 2013)

The full load average production cost (FLAPC) is the Heat Rate (HR) multiplied
by the fuel cost Fi Pi

Mathematically it is represented as:

FLAPC  HRi  Fi Pi  FiP

i max/Pi min

 ai bi Pi max  ci Pi max2/Pi max

Unit Commitment and Economic Dispatch 4.67

22. Write the condition for the optimal power dispatch in a lossless system.
(Nov/Dec 2013)
The necessary condition for the existence of a minimum cost operating condition is
that the incremental cost rates of all the units be equal to some undetermined value .
dCi [N equations]

dPGi
N
Power balance equation is  PGi  PD
i1

23. Explain the penalty factor.

ICi
  ICi Li
1  ITLi

1
Li 
1  ITLi

Li is called penalty factor.

ITL  Incremental transmission loss.

24. What is the purpose of economic dispatch?
To minimize the fuel costs for the power system.
25. What is base load?
It is the load that has been drawn constently throughout the time.
4.68 Power System Operation and Control

26. Find the incremental transmission losses for a two area power system, where
the bus voltages are kept fired and the line power flow is a function of line
angle. Power loss is a function of area B only.
(May 2015)
dPL
ITL1   2 B11 PG1  B12 PG2
dPG1

dPL
ITL2   2 B22 PG2  B12 PG1
dPG2

PART - B: QUESTIONS
1. Derive coordination equation for economic dispatch including losses, in the power
system. Give steps for economic dispatch calculation. Neglecting losses.
(16) (April/May 2011) (Dec 14)
2. (i) Explain the   iteration method for finding the solution of economic
dispatch including transmission losses with a neat flow chart.
(10) (Nov/Dec 2012)
(ii) A generating unit has two 200 MW units whose input cost data is as follows:
F1  0.004P21  2.0 P1  80 Rs/hr
F2  0.006P22  1.5 P2  100 Rs/hr
For a total load of 250 MW, find the load dispatch between the two units for
economic operation. (6) (Nov/Dec 2012)
3. (i) Derive the coordination equation with losses neglected.
(8) (April/May 2011)
(ii) The cost characteristics of three plants of a plant are:
C1  0.05 P21  17.0 P1  160 Rs/hr
C2  0.06 P22  14.4 P2  200 Rs/hr
C3  0.08 P23  9.0 P3  240 Rs/hr
where P1, P2, P3 are in MW

4. The fuel inputs per hour of plants 1 and 2 are given as

F1  0.2 P1  40 P1  120 Rs/hr
F2  0.25 P2  30 P2  150 Rs/hr
Determine the economic operating schedule and the corresponding cost of
Unit Commitment and Economic Dispatch 4.69

generation. The, maximum and minimum loading on each unit is 100 MW ad

25 MW. Assume the transmission losses are ignored and the total demand is
180 MW. Also determine the saving obtained if the load is equally shared by
both the units. (16) (Nov/Dec 2013)
5. The fuel cost functions for three thermal plants are given by
F1  0.004 P2g1  5.3 Pg1  500 $/hr
F2  0.006 P2g2  5.5 Pg2  40 $/hr
F3  0.009 P2g3  5.8 Pg3  200 $/hr
are Pg1, Pg2, Pg3 in MW. Find the optimum scheduling and the total cost per
hr. For a total load of 975 MW with the following generator limits.
100 MW  Pg1  450 MW
100 MW  Pg2  350 MW
100 MW  Pg3  225 MW
(16) (April/May 2008) (April/May 2008)
6. The fuel inputs per hour of plant 1 and 3 are given as
F1  0.2P21  40 P1  120 Rs/hr
F2  0.25 P22  30 P2  150 Rs/hr
Determine the economic operating schedule and the corresponding cost of
generation of the maximum and minimum loading on each unit is 200 MW and
50 MW. Assume the transmission losses are ignored and the total demand is
360 MW. Also determine the saving obtained if the load is equally shared by
both the units. (16) (Nov/Dec 2011)
7. Explain the term ‘Incremental operating cost’ of power system related with
economic dispatch. (8) (Nov/Dec 2011)
8. With a neat flow chart explain the iterative algorithm for solving the economic
dispatch equation of N-bus power system taking into account the effects of system
losses. (16) (April/May 2010) (Nov/Dec 2009)
9. A power plant has 3 units with the following cost characteristics
C1  0.05 P21  23.5 P1  700 Rs/hr
C2  0.2 P22  20 P2  850 Rs/hr
C3  0.09 P23  18 P3  960 Rs/hr
Maximum and minimum loading allowable on each unit are: 150 MW and 40
MW. Find optimal scheduling for a load of 275 MW. (16) (April/May 2010)
4.70 Power System Operation and Control

10. A power plant consists of two 200 MW units, whose input cost data given by,
F1  0.004 P21  2.0 P1  80 Rs/hr
F2  0.006 P32  1.5 P2  100 Rs/hr
For the total load of 250 MW, what should be the division of load between two
units for most economic operation? (16) (Nov/Dec 2007)
11. A heat rate of 100 MW fuel fired generator is
10 Mkcal/MWhr at 25% rating
9 Mkcal/MWhr at 40% rating
8 Mkcal/MWhr at 100% rating.
Find
(i) Fuel cost of 25%, 40%, 100% loading.
(ii) Incremental cost
(iii) Fuel input rate using quadratic approximation to deliver 101 MW.
(AU/May 11)
12. Determine the economic operation point for the three thermal units delivering a
total load of 600 MW without considering generate limit as well as with
considering generator limit. (AU/May 2015)

Unit 1 : Maximum output  600 MW, minimum output  150 MW

The fuel cost function is F1 P1  550  7.7P1  0.00165 P21 Rs/hr
Unit 2 : Coal fired: Maximum output  500 MW, minimum output  125 MW.
The fuel cost function is F2 P2  300  7.8P2  0.002 P22 Rs/hr
Unit 3 : Coal fired: Maximum output  600 MW, minimum output  150 MW
The fuel cost function is F3 P3  80  7.99 P3  0.005 P23 Rs/hr
13. (i) What is unit commitment problem? and discuss its constraints.
(8) (April/May 2011) (April/May 2008)
(ii) Explain the priority list method using suitable numerical examples.
(8) (April/May 2011)
14. State the unit commitment problem. With the help of a flow chart, explain
forward dynamic programming solution method of unit commitment problem.
(16) (Nov/Dec 2013)
15. Explain Priority list method using full load average production cost. State the
merits and demerits. (16) (April/May 2011) (April/May 2010)
Unit Commitment and Economic Dispatch 4.71

16. (i) Explain the priority list method using suitable numerical example.
(10) (Nov/Dec 2012) (April/May 2010) (April/May 2008) (Nov/Dec 2008) (May 2015)
(ii) Define 1. Minimum up time 2. Minimum down time 3. Spinning reserve.
(6) (Nov/Dec 2012)
17. Explain in detail about forward dynamic programming method with suitable
diagram. (8) (Nov/Dec 2007) (Dec 14)
18. (i) Explain the unit commitment problem using priority ordering load dispatch.
(8) (April/May 2008)
19. Construct the priority list for the units given below: (Nov/Dec 2009)

Unit Heat rate Pmin Pmax Fuel cost

1. 510  7.20 P1  0.00142 P21 150 600 1.1
2. 310  7.85 P2  0.00194 P22 100 400 1.0
3. 78  7.97 P3  0.00482 P23 50 200 1.2

20. Determine the priority list using full load average production cost for the data
given below. (May 11)

Unit No. Min Max ai bi ci Fuel cost

1 100 400 0.006 7 600 1.1
2 50 300 0.01 8 400 1.2
3 150 500 0.008 6 500 1.0

Also obtain optimum unit commitment solution for the power demand of 800
MW.
21. Create a unit commitment using the priority list method for the following three
units (Dec 2014)
The fuel cost equations are as follows:

Unit 1: F1 P1  561  7.92 P1  0.001562 P21

Unit 2: F2 P2  310  7.85 P2  0.00194 P22

4.72 Power System Operation and Control

Unit 3: F3 P3  93.6  9.56 P3  0.005784 P23

150  P1  600
100  P2  400
50  P3  200.
22. What is unit commitment problem? Discuss its constraints.
(16) (April/May 2010) (Nov/Dec 2007) (April/May 2008) (Nov/Dec 2008)
23. In a power system having two units, the loss coefficient are:
B11  0.0015 MW 1, B12   0.0006 MW 1,
B21   0.0006 MW 1, B22   0.0024 MW 1.
The incremental production cost of the units are:
dF1
 0.08 PG1  20 Rs/MWhr
dPG1
dF2
 0.09 PG2  16 Rs/MWhr.
dPG2
Find the generation schedule for   20 and 25. Find also the change in
transmission losses between the two schedules. (16) (Nov/Dec 2008)
 UNIT - 5

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Operation in plants with automated control systems work mainly in a central

control room. In olden plants, the control for the equipment are not centralized and
the switch board operators controls the flow of electricity from a central point, whereas,
auxiliary equipment operation work throughout the plant, operating and monitoring
values, switches and gauges.
Electric power systems have grown in size and complexity. Their power
generation, transmission and distribution methods and equipment have constantly
improved in performance and reliability. The power industry in nuclear plant was
among the first to use analog controls for turbine generators and introduced the use
of an line digital control computers. These advances were often needed because of
the enormous growth in megawatt requirements of the power systems.
The satisfactory operating state is given by the following conditions: Frequency
within normal operating range, bus voltage magnitude within specified range, current
flows an all transmission lines within ratings, transformers and generators operate
within their ratings and no load shedding anywhere in the system.

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Today’s power systems are essentially very huge interms of energy generated,
transmitted and utilised, number of customers and total investment. The installed
capacity in USA excess 1000 GW with annual energy generated exceeding 5000 TWhr.
The installed capacity in India exceeds 140 GW with annual energy generated
exceeding 700 TWhr. Moreover the system is growing continuously with more
generating plants, transmission lines and distribution lines being added every month.
The power system feeds a very large number of domestic, commercial, industrial,
agriculture, electric traction and other customers.
Generation, transmission and distribution of electrical energy has to face the
following challenges
5.2 Power System Operation and Control

1. No method for large scale storage of electrical energy has been devised so
far. Electrical energy must be generated and supplied instantaneously.
2. The real and reactive power demand changes from instant to instant, day
to day and season to season. Power system has to meet this varying demand
all the time.
3. The overall cost in generation, transmission and distribution must be kept
to its minimum so that electricity tariff is not abnormally high. Moreover
the decision regarding increase in tariff lies with Government departments
and regularity bodies. The power utility has no right to increase the tariff
by itself.
4. Many environmental factors have to be kept in view. It is essential that
generation, transmission and distribution of electrical energy should have
minimum impact on environment.
5. The quality of electric supply must be maintained. This includes proper
voltage, proper frequency and adequate reliability. However an average
customer has no means to judge quality unless it becomes very bad.
Power system engineers employ large number of controls and many complex
devices to satisfy the above challenges. Moreover the above considerations require
the power systems to be operated as interconnected systems. An isolated power system
can hardly meet the above challenges.
The operation and control of an interconnected power system cannot be done
manually. A manually operated system is too slow and is subject to human errors.
Therefore all power systems, throught out the world, are controlled through computers
installed in a centre called Energy control centre. The various functions of an energy
control centre (ECC) can be enumerated as under:
1. Load forecasting: Long term, medium term and short term.
2. Planning of increase in generation capacity, transmission capacity and
distribution capacity.
3. System monitoring.
4. Planning of scheduled maintenance and repair.
5. State estimation.
6. Unit commitment and economic dispatch.
7. Automatic generation control.
Computer Control of Power Systems 5.3

8. Reactive power management.

9. Reliability planning and monitoring.
10. Emergency control.
11. Maintenance of system records.

1. Load forecasting
Long term and medium term forecasts are needed for deciding about system
expansion strategies. Pretty long time is needed to setup new generation and
transmission projects. A hydroelectric power plant may needed about 8-10 years for
setting up. A thermal power plant may take 3-4 years for installation. If medium
term forecasts indicate a big increase in demand, the utility may have to go in for
gas turbine power plant. The electric utility has always to be ready to meet the demand
and load forecasts help in long term planning, fuel budgeting, operations planning,
preparation of weekly generation schedules, allocation of pool savings etc. Proper and
accurate long term, medium term and short term load forecasting has lot of bearing
on reliability of electric supply in future.

2. Planning System Expansion

Based on load forecasting the utility has to plan the expansion of generation,
transmission and distribution facilities. Instead of planning and building each power
plant and other facilities in isolation it is necessary to plan for optimal generating
and transmission capacity expansion. Planning also helps the utility to arrange proper
finances in future. So that projects may not suffer due to lack of finances. Planning
is also necessary to ensure that each expansion project is taken in hand at proper
time and completed on schedule.

3. System monitoring
System monitoring makes available the upto date information on the conditions
in the power system. The important and critical quantities have to be measured and
the data sent to the energy control centre so that a continuous watch may be kept
on the system. System monitoring also includes collecting important information about
voltage profiles, frequency, generator loadings, transformer tap positions etc. For proper
system monitoring digital computers are installed in energy control centres to collect
and process the critical informations. Moreover the computer can also check the
incoming information match it with prestored values and limits and alarm the operators
in the event of an overload, an out of limit voltage, a forced outage etc. System
monitoring also helps in making arrangements for emergency supplies from a
neighbouring utility.
5.4 Power System Operation and Control

4. Planning scheduled maintenance and repair

No equipment can operate continuously without outage. As and when an outage
takes place the system operators have to inform the repair crew to start and repairs
so that the equipment which has suffered an outage can be restored to serve. Scheduled
maintenance aims to keep the equipment in proper working condition so that forced
outages can be avoided or at least post poned. The requirements of repair and
maintenance staff can also be estimated only by proper planning. This can help in
reducing the operating expenses and thus result in overall savings.

5. State estimation
State estimation refers to the process of estimating the unknown system state
variables. These estimates arc made on the basis of measurements. The state estimator
operates on real time inputs which are of two types i.e., data and status information.
The on/off status of circuit breakers disconnect switches etc. determines the network
configuration which changes everytime these devices operator. Remote terminal units
(RTU)s installed at different places in the system send information about power system
status. Measurements are made to estimate the system performance in real time from
the points of view of system security control and constraints on economic dispatch.
The estimator has to eliminate these in accurate measurements and produce the best
estimates. The output of state estimation is used for security, reliability, economic
dispatch and control.

6. Unit commitment and Economic dispatch

Unit commitment means the decision as to how many and which units should
be committed to supply the load at different times of day, week and month. Economic
dispatchment the amount of load which should be put an different generators to ensure
optimal operation. Both these factors have a lot of bearing on the fuel and operating
costs of thermal plants. Moreover the water in hydro-electric plants should also be
put to optimum use. All these calculations require availability of lot of data about
loads, fuel cost statistics of thermal plants, availability of water in hydro plants etc.
The task of keeping certain reserve capacity makes the problem all the more complex.
This is possible only through the use of digital computers in the energy control centre.

7. Automatic generation control

Once the plant loadings for a certain future time are know, the information has
to be sent to different plants for automatic generation control. The settings of speed
changers have to be adjusted to enable the different generators to produce the required
electrical power. ALFC of multi area systems is possible only with the help of digital
computers in the energy control centre. Moreover unnecessary power output changes
of generators should be kept to minimum to reduce wear of control system.
Computer Control of Power Systems 5.5

8. Reactive power management

The system voltage profile depends largely on reactive power balance in the
system. An overexcited synchronous generator produces lagging vars. However
producing large amount reactive power by generators limits their capacity to generate
active power. From the point of view of economy reactive power should be generated
at the place of requirement i.e., at the load itself. Use of shunt capacitors is a
convenient method of reactive power generation. Application of static var system, on
load tap changing of transformers, use of FACTs devices etc. has to be coordinated
by the energy control centre.

9. Reliability planning and monitoring

The application of probability techniques in the quantitative evaluation of power
system reliability is rapidly increasing. This is because of the following two main
reason.
 Consumers are becoming more and more dependent on electrical energy and
are also more conscious of their right to demand high quality.
 Sizes of generating units and transmission lines are increasing. These system
have to be very reliable because a forced shut down of a large sized
generating unit or high capacity transmission link can lead to power system
stability and security problems. Many indices have been suggested to express
reliability in quantitative terms. The most accepted terms are
ASA i.e., Average Service Availability
Total customer hours for which supply is available
Index 
Total customer hours
CAIDI  Customer Average Interruption Duration Index

SAIDI  System Average Interruption Duration Index

SAIFI  System Average Interruption Frequency Index

Many critical loads like digital systems, power electronic systems, variable speed
drives etc. require a very high reliability level.

10. Emergency control

Power systems operate in normal state for over 95% of time. But emergency
situation occur off and on. Breaking of conductors of transmission lines due to heavy
winds, rain and snow, forced outage of generating units, over voltages due to lightning
and switching and even mal-operation of relays and circuit brakers etc. Cause many
5.6 Power System Operation and Control

emergency conditions. It is possible that the whole area served by the utility may so
completely dark. The ECC has to be equipped and be ready to face such situations
and take suitable automatic and manual actions to bring back the system to normal
state as early as possible.

11. Maintenance of System Records

Planning, design, installation, testing, commissioning and operation of power
system generates lot of records and information. All such data and records are essential
for future planning. Records of outage are necessary for reliability studies. All these
records are maintained and updated for future reference as and when required.

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Proper and efficient management system requires lot of data about operating
conditions. Many operations have to be carried out at unattended locations from
operating centre. In many situation operations such as opening or closing a circuit
breaker etc. have to be carried out but the cost of providing operating personnel may
be prohibitive. If an operator has to go from the control centre to the site to perform
such operations there would be considerable delay. Such delays result in long outage
durations and poor reliability. SCADA systems have been developed to overcome such
problems. The need to control remote operations and monitor them led to development
of SCADA.

5.3.1 Functions of SCADA

The main functions of SCADA can be enumerated as under
Data Acquisition: To provide data, measurements and status information to operate.
Plotting: To plot different measurements in real time regine.
Supervisory control: To operate and control circuit breakers remotely.
Alarms: To send alarm signals as regards undesirable operating conditions.
Logging: To log all information, alarms etc.
Load shedding: To provide automatic and manual load shedding in emergency
conditions so as to maintain system synchronism and stability.
Load restoration: To restore loads after systems returns to normal state.
Automatic Generation Control: To control generation at the power plants.
Computer Control of Power Systems 5.7

5.3.2 Need for SCADA

The main reasons for adopting SCADA are as under.
1. To reduce cost
2. To reduce man power
3. To reduce future capital requirements
4. To improve level of service
5. To avoid environmental accidents
6. To comply with regulator requirements
7. To attain and maintain competitive edge
8. To replace existing aging system.
9. To manage complex systems.

5.3.3 Components of SCADA

1. Sensors: (digital (or) analog) and control relays which interface with the power
system.
2. Remote terminal Units (RTUs): There are small computerised units deployed
in field at specific sites and locations. RTUs are collection points for getting
information and reports from sensors and for sending commands to relays.
3. Master unit: Large computer system which serves as a central processor.
4. Communication links
5. Software

5.3.4 Configurations
SCADA system may have different configurations depending on the system and
its requirements. Each configuration consists of a master unit M and remote unit R.
Fig. 5.1 (a) shows a one to one SCADA configuration. It has a master unit for
each remote unit. Fig. 5.2 (b) shows star configuration with master unit at a central
location and remote units branched out. The number of remote units may be any
depending on the power system. However each communication channel has one remote.
It is also called hub configuration. Fig. 5.3 (c) shows a configuration there may be
many remote units on a communication channel. Fig. 5.4 (d) shows a network
5.8 Power System Operation and Control

configuration. It has one master unit M, several communication channels and many
remotes on each channel. It is a combination of star and party line configurations

Fig. 5.1 SCADA configuration (a) One to one (b) Star (c) Party-line (d) Network
Computer Control of Power Systems 5.9

5.3.5 Master unit

Fig. 5.2 shows the layout of a typical SCADA system

The master unit is the heart of SCADA system. All operations of different RTUs
are made from the master unit and reported bank by RTUs to the master unit. The
master unit has a digital computer and other auxiliary equipment to permit
communications between master unit and RTUs. One such equipment is a modem
(modulator - demodulator). The computer uses digital pulses. Modem converts these
digital pulses to analog signal so that it can be transmitted to RTU. The messages
from master unit to RTUs are in the form of tones of audio frequency and are sent
by frequency shift techniques. Frequency shift signaling is pretty immune from noise.
The other equipments include line printer, operators console, CRT, graphic instruments
board etc. as shown in fig. 5.2. The printer enables the messages received from RTUs
to be converted to hard copy. Sometimes a single line diagram of the power system
controlled through SCADA also exists in the master station. Digital/analog (D/A)
converters are also provided in master unit so that informations like line currents, bus
voltages, frequency, real and reactive power flows as received in digital from is
converted to analog form and read by various indicating instruments. Some recording
instruments are also provided so that visuals representation of the condition is
displayed. Colour CRT screens enable different colours to indicate changes in voltage
levels, positions of circuit breakers etc.
Some flashing indicators and alarm signals are used to draw the attention of
operator.
For remote operations the operator at the master station follows ‘Select before
operate’ procedure which is as follows:
1. The operator selects the RTU
5.10 Power System Operation and Control

2. RTU acknowledges the selection.

3. Operator selects the device to be operated at that RTU.
4. RTU acknowledges that the device has been selected.
5. Operator performs the desired operation.
6. RTU performs the operation and sends a signal to master unit indicating
that the desired operation has been performed. This signal may be a message
printed by printer (or) indication on CRT screen.

5.3.6 Remote Terminal Units (RTUs)

These units are located at selected locations in the power system. They are
equipped with micro-computers and thus have logic and memory capabilities. Such
RTUs are also termed intelligent remote terminal units. Sometimes these units can
perform certain pre-programmed functions without any direction from the master unit
but report all these actions to the master unit. They also have a modem to enable
them to receive messages from master unit and also send compliance reports to the
master unit. In addition they have relays to send trip signal to the circuit breakers
and other disconnecting equipment. They are also provided with transducers to make
different measurements. RTUs use A/D converters to send these measurements to the
master unit.
Intelligent RTUs have memory capability and can store information e.g. It can
store complete information about the tripping and subsequent reclosing of a circuit
breaker. In situations where many operations take place in quick succession,the RTU
is fitted with sequence of events recording facility. In this case the events separated
by even a few milliseconds can be recorded in correct sequence e.g. In case of a
fault both phase fault relays may operate one after the other. Sequence of events
recording RTU can record both these events in correct order so that the protection
engineer can see whether the sequence of events was correct. In all such cases the
RTU reports to the master unit and then the information is erased from it memory
so that RTU can record next event.

5.3.7 Communication channels in SCADA system

The communication channels between the master unit and RTU’s from an
important part of SCADA. The communication links can be wire circuit, wireless
(microwave) link or power line carrier channel. The important considerations in
selecting a communication link are the signal to noise ratio and the bandwidth. Good
signal to noise ratio and high bandwidth enable errorless messages and high speed
Computer Control of Power Systems 5.11

of signal transmission. Most of time a telephone line with a bandwidth of 300-3500

Hz is sufficient. Power line carrier system have been in use in power systems for
pretty long time. Capacitors rated to withstand the transmission line voltage along
with tuned circuits are used to couple a carrier to a power circuit. The capacitive
reactance of the coupling capacitors are low at carrier frequencies but high at power
frequency. Thus carrier channel signals can be superimposed on power circuit. Wireless
channel has high efficiency and reliability.

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The installed generation capacity in India has increased from about 1710 MW
in 1950 to about 140000 MW in 2009. The electrical energy generated annually has
increased from about 5  109 kwh in 1950 to about 700  109 kwh in 2009. The
percapita consumption has increased from 15.6 kwh in 1950 to about 700 kwh in
2009. Yet every state is facing shortage of electrical energy. The peak time power
shortage is about 13% and energy shortage is about 8%. Only about 50% of population
has access to electrical energy. The reason for shortages can be attributed to the fact
that generation, transmission, distribution and utilisation of electrical energy is not
being managed properly.
Energy management system is an interactive energy management tool that helps
track energy usage and reduce wastage. It can be described in terms of its application
to electric utilities, who manage generation, transmission and distribution of electric
energy and users industries, commercial hours etc. SCADA is used for both these
categories.

5.4.1 Energy management system for utilities

EMS for generation, transmission and distribution systems uses SCADA and
some other softwares for monitoring the system, state estimation, security analysis
and contingency analysis. It attempts at one or more of the following.
1. Economic dispatch
2. Unit commitment
3. Network improvement solutions
4. Asset Management
5. Loss identification and reduction.
6. Automatic remote meter reading, installation of new meters, retrofitting of
existing meters, on line checking of utility meters.
5.12 Power System Operation and Control

7. Remote monitoring of important distribution parameters.

8. Improvement of data accuracy.
9. Analysis of maintenance schedule.
10. Record of daily sequence of events
11. Analysis of capacity utilisation.
12. Analysis of power quality problem like voltage sags, THD etc.
13. Accurate demand prediction.
14. Load shifting to reduce peak time power shortage.
15. Better utilisation of man power and cost reduction.
16. Meta data analysis through energy management software, energy accounting
software, distribution network analysis software, feeder analysis software,
capacitor optimisation software etc.

5.4.2 Energy management system for users

Energy management systems for large users envisages demand side management,
energy conservation, energy auditing etc. Development of co-generation, captive power
generation also form part of energy management systems. The aims are:
1. Purchase of energy at lowest cost.
2. Maintain high efficiency of equipment.
3. Reusing and Recycling of energy by cascading (e.g. water heat recovery)
4. Use of more appropriate technology.
5. Demand control.
6. Accurate energy accounting.
7. Increased productivity.
8. Loss identification and management.
9. Better utilisation of man power.
10. Monitoring and improving power factor.
11. Monitoring specific energy consumption.
12. Analyse maintenance and repair schedules.
Computer Control of Power Systems 5.13

The basic principles of energy conservation include maximum energy efficiency

and maximum cost effectiveness in energy use. Energy conservation planning includes
specifying energy conservation targets, identifying energy inefficient facilities, adoption
of energy conservation measures and evaluating energy conservation benefits.

Demand side management involves all activities which involve actions by the
user. The scope of DSM includes load management, increased electrification,
developing DSM programs, peak clipping, vally filling, load shedding, strategic energy
conservation, strategic load growth etc.

Energy audit is an important part of energy management system. It involves

carrying out a continuous systematic procedure for plant energy study and analysis
of energy utilisation in the plant. It aims to find out how much energy is being used
in the plant, how much should be used and to what extent can energy requirement
be reduced by using energy efficient procedures and devices. The quality and quantity
of energy input and energy consumption is taken into account. A large number of
instruments (electrical, temperature, chemical, mechanical) and measurements are
needed for detailed energy audit of a large industrial installation.

EMS for industries also uses tools like SCADA and many other softwares.

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Network topology means the different ways in which the active and passive
devices are connected in a network. In a power system the main active devices are
the synchronous generators. Each power system has a number of power plants and
each power plant has more than one generator. Each generator has a step up
transformer to setup the voltage from generation voltage (generally 11 kV in India)
to 132, 220, 480 kV. Each power plant feeds one (or) more transmission lines. Power
plants exist in different areas and are thus spread over the entire area. The total system
consisting of all the lines etc is called grid. Circuit breakers are installed at each end
of line and other buses etc. for disconnecting the faulty equipments and cirants in
the event of fault.

An important aspect of network topology is that with each circuit braker

operation and reclosing and topology changes. The computers and softwares in the
regional and state load dispatch centres continuously monitor the network topology
and calculate the line loadings, transformer loadings etc. Network topology
determination is a pre-requisite to state estimation, operation and control of power
system.
5.14 Power System Operation and Control

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The power system all over the world have expanded considerably during the
past few decades. In general a power system may have about 6 generating plants
with a total of about 25 generates about 50 buses and an equal number of HV and
EHV lines. The operation and control of such a system is a complex task. The
requirements of reliability, economic operation and security even under the most
difficult situations makes the job of power system engineers really cumbersome.
SCADA systems are used extensively by every utility to monitor the performance
of the system. The data as obtained by SCADA system is used to take decisions in
emergency state. To ensure correct decision it is necessary to know the existing state
of the system. The state variables are the voltage magnitudes and phase angles at the
buses. The inputs to the load flows analysis are the P and |V| at generator buses (Pu
buses) and P and Q at load buses. If this complete information is not available, the
load flow analysis cannot be made. Moreover it is possible that there may be errors
in these in put quantities.
The state estimation process is meant to determine the best possible estimate
of voltage magnitude and phase angles recognising the fact that some of the inputs
(obtained from measurements by SCADA instruments) may be erroneous and
they may also be redundant measurements.

5.6.1 Maximum Likelihood Weighted Least Squares Estimation

The state estimation can be done by the following criteria

(i) Maximum Likelihood Criterion

In this method the aim is to maximise the probability that the estimate of state
variable x is the true value of state variable vector x [i.e. maximize].

(ii) Weighted least square criterion

In this case the aim is to minimize the sum of squares of the weighted deviations
of the estimated measurement z from the actual measurements z. Let zmeas be the
measured value of a quantity and ztrue be the true (correct) value of that quantity.
Further let ‘e’ be the random measurement error. Then

zmeas  ztrue  e ...(5.1)

The error ‘e’ is a random number. The probability density function of ‘e’ is a
normal distribution with mean value zero. The probability density function is
Computer Control of Power Systems 5.15

1 e 
2 ...(5.2)
PDF e   

2  22 

where,   Standard deviation

2  Variance
Fig. 5.4 shows the normal distribution curve.

Fig. 5.4 Normal distribution

Fig. 5.3 shows a simple DC circuit having two resistance in parallel fed by a
voltage source.

Fig. 5.3 DC circuit

Let the measured values of the two currents be zmeas

1 and zmeas
2 respectively.
We can write each measured current as sum of true value and error.
5.16 Power System Operation and Control

Thus

zmeas
1  ztrue
1  e1 ...(5.3)

zmeas
2  ztrue
2  e2 ...(5.4)

Both errors are randomly distirbuted with zero mean. The PDF for e1 and e2
are

1   e21  ...(5.5)
PDF e1  exp  2 
1 
2
 21 

1   e22  ...(5.6)
PDF e2  exp  2 
2 
2
 22 

In above equation 1 is standard deviation for e1 and 2 is standard deviation

for e2.

Since true current through R1 is x/R1 and true current R2 is x/R2 we can write
PDF for zme
1
as
and zme
2
as
as

2 ...(5.7)
  meas x  
   z1  
meas 1  R1  
PDF z1   exp   
1 
2
 2
21 
 
2 ...(5.8)
  meas x  
   z2  
meas 1  R2  
PDF z2   exp   2


2 
2
 2
 2 
Now we have to find the probability that measured value is the true value.
meas meas
z1  dz1
as
Prob zme
1   PDF zmeas
1  dzmeas
1 as dzme
1
as

meas
z1

as
 PDF zmeas
1  dzme
1
Computer Control of Power Systems 5.17

Then
2
   zmeas  x  
  1 R1  
    meas ...(5.9)
1
Prob zmea
1
s
  exp   dz1
2
1  221
 
2
   zmeas  x  
  2 R2  
    meas ...(5.10)
1
Prob zmea
2
s
  exp   dz2
2
2  222
 
The probability of two events happening together is the product of the two
probabilities.

Thus
s
Prob zmeas
1 and zmeas
2   PDF zmea
1  PDF zmeas
2  dzmeas
1 dzmeas
2 

2 2
  meas x     meas x  
   z1  R      z2  R  
  1    2 
1   1   meas meas
 exp   exp    dz1 dz2 ...(5.11)
1 
2
 
2
21 2
 2  
2
22 
   

The maximum probability of zmeas

1 can be found by maximizing the PDF zmeas
1 

i.e. Max. prob zmeas

1   max PDF zmeas
1  dzmeas
1 ...(5.12)

Maximum PDF zmeas

1  is the same as maximum ln PDF zmeas
1  ...(5.13)

Therefore we can write

Maximum prob zmeas

1 and zmeas
2 

2 2
  zmeas  x   zmeas  x  
  1 R1   2 R2  
      ...(5.14)
 max   ln 1 
2    ln 2 
2
  
 221 222 
5.18 Power System Operation and Control

The term 1  2 and 2 2 are constant. The remaining two terms are
appearing with negative sign. Therefore we have to minimize these two terms to get
as
maximum probability of zmeas
1 and zme
2 

Thus
2 2
  1meas x   zmeas  x  
z    2 
 R1 R2   ...(5.15)
  
meas meas  
Max prob z1 and z2   min   
 221 222 
 
To minimize the function on right hand side of (Eq.5.15) we take the differential
and equate to zero. Thus
2 2
  zmeas  x   zmeas  x  
 1 R1   2 R2  
     
d
 0
dz  221 222
 

  zm eas x   zmeas  x 

1 R1   1 R2 
   
or  0 ...(5.16)
R1 21 R2 22

The solution is

zm
1
eas
zm
2
eas

R1 21 R2 22
x ...(5.17)
1 1
 2 2
R21 21 R2 2

If one of the ammeters is of higher accuracy, its variance will be lower than
that of other

e.g. If 21   22 Eg. (5.17) reduces to

x  zmeas
1 R1 ...(5.18)

It is seen from the above analysis that in the method of maximum likelihood
the estimate of unknown quantity is expressed as the value of the quantity which
Computer Control of Power Systems 5.19

gives the minimum of sum of squares of difference between each measured value
and true value (being measured) and each squared difference divided (or weighted)
by the variance of the meter error. Thus the method is basically weighted least square
estimation.
If we are making N measurements to estimate the value of a parameter x, we
can write
N
[zmeas
i  fi x]2
min  J x 
x
 21 ...(5.19)
i1

Where N  Number of measurements

zmeas
i  Value of ith measured quantity
21  Variance of ith measurement
J x  measurement residual
fi  function which is used to find the value being measured by the ith
measurement.
If we have M unknown parameters for which we are estimating the values using
N measurements we can write
N ...(5.20)
[z1  f1 x1, x2  xm]2
min J x1 x2  xm 
x1, x2  xm
 21
i1

5.6.2 Power system state estimation

Remote terminal units of SCADA system used in power system monitor and
report the following data.
1. MW and MVAR flows on all important lines
2. MW and MVAR loadings of generates and transformers.
3. Voltage magnitude at important buses.
The above data is sent to energy control centre every few seconds. This data
is processed at ECC by a computer program called state estimator. The output of this
computer program consists of voltage magnitudes and phase angles at different buses.
As a matter of fact the total number of measurements is more than required. This
5.20 Power System Operation and Control

redundancy is essential because some measurements may be erroneous. Therefore

statistical properties of the measurement errors are used to detect, identify and eliminate
bad data, then the weighted least square method is applied to estimate the errors. The
final values are used for contingency analysis and security constrained optimal power
flow.

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Whenever any equipment is not available for service, the equipment is said to
have suffered an outage. An outage may be a forced outage or scheduled maintenance
outage. The forced outage may be due to fault or defect in the equipment. Whenever
a forced outage occurs the equipment (generator, transformer, line) has to be
disconnected from service and sent for repairs. At the same time an attempt is made
to ensure continuity of supply to consumers as for as possible. Scheduled maintenance
is also necessary for different equipments to restore them to good working condition.
Every utility has elaborate maintenance schedules for different equipments.

Forced outages of generators, lines etc. May cause emergency conditions, the
possible effect of outages are analysed using contingency analysis program.

Fig. 5.5 shows a simple flow chart to illustrate to the principles of contingency
analysis. The program reads data, sets up system model, estimates initial conditions
and simulates faults an generators one by one. For each fault condition of possibility
of lines being loaded, bus voltages going outside limits etc. are found. Similarly faults
on lines are also simulated one by one and possibility of over-loading (or) voltage
limit violation are found.

The flow chart of Fig. 5.5 is for single contingency. However there is always
a possibility of more than one forced outage simultaneously. All utilities have programs
for testing their systems for two outages occurring together. Moreover outages can
also occur in sequence i.e one outage followed by another. This condition has also
to be tested.
Computer Control of Power Systems 5.21

Fig. 5.5 Flowchart for contingency Analysis

5.22 Power System Operation and Control

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Fig. 5.6 State Transition diagram

Fig. 5.6 shows the different states in which a power system may exist at different
times. For over 98% of time it exists in normal state. For over 98% of time it exists
in normal state. However sometimes the system may go to alert and other states. The
transition diagram depicts the transition of the system from normal to other states
and back.

When the system is in normal state the generation matches the load. This equality
is shown by alphabet E in transition diagram. Another symbol used in this diagram
is 1. This symbol denotes that none of the equipments (generators, lines, transformers
 are met with and therefore
etc.) is over loaded. In normal state both these conditions
E and I are mentioned in the diagram for normal state. E denotes that equality between
generation and load is disturbed. Similarly I denotes that some equipment is
overloaded.

When in normal state the system is secure and some amount of spinning reserve
also exists. When a small decrease in generation occurs or some other disturbance
takes place, the system may go to Alert State. However, the system is synchronised
but the security level is reduced below the specified limit. But generation and load
are matching and none of the equipments is over loaded. Some corrective action is
initiated and system may go back to normal state. However if preventive action is
not successful or if disturbance is severe, the system may go to emergency state. If
Computer Control of Power Systems 5.23

the disturbance is severe the system may transition directly from normal to emergency
 system is synchronised but some equipments may
state. For emergency state also the
be overloaded (symbols E and I denote these condition). Some emergency control
action are needed if the system laters emergency state. If these emergency control
action fail, the system may transition to in Extremis state. When in this state the
synchronisation is upset and the system gets disintegrated into islands. The generation
and load matching so longer exists and overloding
 of equipment may also occur. This
state is characterised by symbols E and I. This state may witness tripping of one or
more generators (due to over loading) and some lines may also get tripped. Some
parts of the country (or province) may also face block out if the system is in Extremis.
The conditions which force the power system to go from Normal to In Extremis may
last for a few seconds or a few minutes. The power system engineers have to take
some very important corrective actions to take the system to ‘Restorative’ and then
to ‘Normal’ state. This process may take or any hours or even days. Turbines have
to be restored and generators have to be synchronised again. The islands, in which
the system has disintegrated, have to be connected again and lost loads have to be
picked up. The control strategies which are adopted when the system is not in ‘Normal’
state can be summarised as under.
Alert state: Preventive control to restore adequate reserve generating margin,
generation shifting, tie line rescheduling, voltage reduction.
Emergency state: Immediate control to clear equipment overloads, fault clearing,
fast valuing dynamic braking, exciter control, load control, capacitor switching and
all controls mentioned in ‘Alert’ state.

In Extremes
Heroic action to control disruption of entire system, Load shedding, controlled
islanding and all controls mentioned in ‘Emergency state’.
Restorative: Corrective control to re-establish viable system, generating units
restarting and synchronisation load restoration, re-synchronisation of different islands
and areas.

$( 70A3F0A4 A4@D8A4<4=CB 5>A 2><?DC4A 2>=CA>; >5

?>F4A BHBC4<

The main equipment is a computer with enough storage capability. Many years
ago main frame computers were used for this purpose but new desktop computers
have also huge storage capability and are sufficient for most power systems. In an
energy control centre computers are connected in ring formation. All computers have
5.24 Power System Operation and Control

back up computers too. The main computer is used for on line program execution.
The other computers are for duties like data acquisition etc. The stand by computers
are meant for emergency duty. Some CROs, printers are also there. The stand by
computer is kept updated so that there is no loss of data or control. The change over
from main computer to stand by computer can be manual, or automatic but is generally
automatic. Operator’s console, modems, graphic instruments board also exist. The
communication channels go out from the station to remote terminal units. Computer
based telementry and data processing facilities have been provided.
Modern trend is to use computers for relaying also. The advantages of using
computers for relaying are logging capability and application expansion possibility.
Accuracy, fast response and overall economy are the other advantages.

Numerical relays sample the valves of current, voltage etc. many times each
second A/D converters convert these sample to digital form and feed then to the
computer. Whenever a fault occurs the computer calculates the fault current and issues
necessary commands to RTU for circuit breaker operation and isolation of faulty
section. Computer relays can locate faults also. Moreover self checking features can
also be incorporated. However the computer relays have relatively short life span on
the other hand conventional relay have long life.

$  B>5CF0A4 5>A 2><?DC4A 2>=CA>; >5 ?>F4A BHBC4<

1. On line security monitoring and state estimation.

2. Data acquisition, supervisory control etc.

3. Real time monitoring end control (ie., LFC, Economic dispatch, load
shedding and restoration, transformer tap changing, control of static var
systems etc.

4. Operating systems.
Computer Control of Power Systems 5.25

PART - A - QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. What are the typical sensors used in power system applications?
1. Signal conditioners
2. Multiplexers
3. A/D converters
2. List out the condition for normal operation of a power system.
(April/May 2011)
A system is said to be in normal state if both load and operating constraints
are satisfied. It is one in which the total demand on the system is met by satisfying
all the operating constraints. (i.e., equality (E) and inequality (I) constraints).
3. What are the functions of control center? (April/May 2008)
System monitoring, Data acquisition and control, LFC, Economics dispatch, State
estimation, contingency analysis, security constrained optimal power flow.
4. Define SCADA system? (Nov/Dec 2012) (Nov/Dec 2010) (Nov/Dec 2013)
It stands for supervisory control and data acquisition system, allows a few
operators to monitor the generation and high voltage transmission systems and to take
action to correct overloads.
5. Mention four types of SCADA systems. (April/May 2010)
1. Type-1 (Small distribution systems)
2. Type-2 (Medium sized power systems)
3. Type-3 (Regional control centre)
4. Type-4 (National and Regional control centre)
6. What are the functions of SCADA? (Nov/Dec 2007) (Nov/Dec 2008)
1. Monitoring
2. Alarm
3. Control and indication of AGC
4. Data logging
5. Data acquisition
7. What role SCADA plays in electrical power system? (A.U. May 2015)
1. Monitoring
5.26 Power System Operation and Control

2. Alarm
3. Control and indication of AGC
4. Data logging
5. Data acquisition
6. ON/OFF Control
8. List the applications of SCADA. (Dec/2014)
1. Automatic generation control
2. Interchange scheduling
3. Optimal power flow
4. Short circuit analysis
9. Define the EMS system. (Nov/Dec 2011) (April/May 2009)
Energy management system is the process of monitoring, coordinating and
controlling the generation, transmission and distribution of electrical. It is performed
at centres called “system control centres”, by a computer system called EMS.
10. What are the EMS function? (Nov/Dec 2009)
1. Network Configuration/Topology Processor
2. State Estimation
3. Contingency Analysis
4. Three Phase Balanced Operator Flow
5. Optimal Power Flow
6. Dispatcher Training Simulator
11. What are the objectives of Automatic generation control?
(May/June 2014))
1. To hold frequency at or very close to a specified nominal value.
2. To maintain the correct value of interchange power between control areas.
3. To maintain each units generation at the most economic value.
12. Denote the hierarchical levels used in EMS.
1. System control centre
2. Area control centre
3. Remote terminal unit
Computer Control of Power Systems 5.27

13. Define ‘network topology’ in a power system.

(Nov/Dec 2012) (Nov/Dec 2007)
In order to run the state estimation, we must know how the transmission lines
are connected to the load and generation buses. This information is called network
topology.
14. What is emergency state? (April/May 2010) (Nov/Dec 2009)
This state can be reached either directly from the normal state or via the alert
state. In this state, the equality constraints are unchanged.
15. Define restorative state. (Nov/June 2014)
To bring the extremis state back to normal through the restorative state which
is a slower process.
16. Define state estimation?
(April/May 2011) (Nov/Dec 2010) (Nov/Dec 2013) (Nov/Dec 2008) (April/May
2009)
State estimation is the process of assigning a value to an unknown system state
variable based on measurements from that system according to some criteria.
17. What does the output of the state estimator consist of?
It consists of all voltage magnitude and phase angles, transmission line MW
and MVAr flows and bus loads and generation, calculated from line flows.
18. What is meant by power system security? (Dec 2014)
It is defined as the degree of risk in the ability to survive imminent disturbances
(contingencies) without interruption of customer service.
19. What do you understand by security constraints? (April/May 2008)
1. If there is no outage, then all the constraints must be satisfied.
2. Even with one outage, constraints may not be satisfied.
Line by line outages should be considered, based on this results proper security
system is to be provided.
20. What is power system considered to be secured?
A power system is said to be secured in there is neither any occurrence of
overloading of any equipment nor transient instability due to a set of credible
contingencies.
21. What are the functions of load dispatch centre? (Nov/Dec 2011)
1. Loading of generating stations
5.28 Power System Operation and Control

2. Loading of units within the generating station

3. Control of system voltage and reactive power flow.

4. Maintaining continuity of service.

22. What are responsibilities of regional load dispatch centres?

(A.U. May/2015)
Distribution system in large urban areas several hydro power station with cascade
control.

23. What is load forecasting?

The problem of load forecasting is that of estimating the future load demand
of a given power system.

24. How is load forecasting classified?

1. Very short term

2. Short term

3. Medium term

4. Long term

25. What are the important types of relays used for protection?
1. Over-current relay

2. Impedance relay

3. Under frequency relay

4. Under and over voltage relay

26. Distinguish between reliability and security of power system. (May 2008)
Reliability is a probabilities index defined as the long term average number of
days on which daily peak load exceeds the available generating capacity.

27. Write importance of state estimation in power system. (Dec 2008)

To obtain the best possible values i.e., “best estimate” of the bus magnitudes
and angles by processing the available network data. The complex bus voltages
V  serve as the state variables of the power system. State estimation is the process
to clean up the erroneous data.
Computer Control of Power Systems 5.29

PART - B: QUESTIONS
1. Explain need of computer control of power system. (6) (Nov/Dec 2011)
2. Briefly discuss the various functions of energy control centre.
(8) (Nov/Dec 2010)
3. (i) Illustrate SCADA with typical schematic. (8) (April/May 2008)
(ii) What are the functions of a modern power system control centre?
(8) (April/May 2008)
4. Discuss the functions of ‘SCADA’ in power system operation.
(16) (Nov/Dec 2012) (Dec 2014)
5. Briefly explain various functions of SCADA with a neat diagram.
(10) (Nov/Dec 2011)
6. Write short notes on:
(i) SCADA systems. (8)
(ii) Security analysis and control. (8) (April/May 2011)
7. Draw a block diagram to show the hardware configuration of a SCADA system for
a power system and explain the application of SCADA in monitoring and control
of power system. (10) (Nov/Dec 2013) (Nov/Dec 2009) (April/May 2008)
8. Explain the hardware components and functional aspects of SCADA system using
a functional block diagram. Also discuss the functions of SCADA.
(16) (April/May 2010)
9. What is EMS? What are its major functions in power system operation and
control? (6) (Nov/Dec 2013) (April/May 2008)
10. Explain the security monitoring using state estimation with necessary diagrams.
(16) (Nov/Dec 2013) (Nov/Dec 2009) (May 2015)
11. Enumerate the various operating states and the control strategies of a power
system. (16) (Nov/Dec 2012)
12. Explain briefly how the system states are continuously monitored and controlled.
(8) (April/May 2010)
13. Write short note on security control. (4) (Nov/Dec 2008)
14. Draw the state transition diagram and explain the various operating state of a
power system and the associated control actions. (16) (Nov/Dec 2008)
5.30 Power System Operation and Control

15. Explain the operating state of a power system in the security perspective with
an example (16) (Nov/Dec 2007) (Dec 2014) (May 2015)
16. Explain various state transition and control strategies using state transition
diagrams. (16) (Nov/Dec 2011) (April/May 2008)
17. Explain the various operating states of a power system with transition diagram.
(16) (April/May 2011) (Nov/Dec 2010)
18. Draw a state transition of a power system showing different sets of operating
states classified according to security level. Mark on the diagram and explain
the state transition that may occur due to system disturbances and also the
different control actions that can be taken to improve the security level of the
system. (16) (April/May 2008)
19. Explain the various controls for secure operation. (June 2014)
Question Paper 1

M 2151
B.E/B.Tech DEGREE EXAMINATION, APRIL/MAY 2008
Seventh Semester
Electrical and Electronics Engineering
EE 431 — POWER SYSTEM CONTROL
Time: Three hours Maximum: 100 Marks

Answer ALL Questions

Part A – 10  2  20 Marks)

1. List any four major objectives of power system control.

Refer Page No: 1.50

2. What is the need of voltage regulation in power system?

Refer Page No: 1.53

3. What is meant by load frequency control?

Refer Page No: 2.83

4. Define area control error.

Refer Page No: 2.83

5. Draw a typical arrangement of a simple AVR.

Refer Page No: 3.57

6. What is a static VAR compensator?

Refer Page No: 3.58

7. What are the functions of SCADA?

Refer Page No: 5.25

8. Distinguish between reliability and security of power system.

Refer Page No: 5.28

9. Define participation factor.

Refer Page No: 4.66

10. What is meant by incremental cost curve?

Refer Page No: 4.63
2 Power System Operation and Control

Part B – (5  16  80 Marks)

11. (a) Discuss in detail the recent trends in real time control of power systems.
(16)
Refer Page No: 1.1.1
Or
(b) Draw the P-f and Q-V control channels of a synchronous generator and
explain how voltage an frequency are maintained constant. (16)
Refer Page No: 1.11
12. (a) Two synchronous generators operating in parallel. Their capacities are
200 MW and 400 MW. The droop characteristics of their governor are 4%
and 5% from no load to full load. Assuming that the generators are operating
at 50 Hz at no load, how would be a load of 600 MW shared between them.
What will be the system frequency at this load? Assume free governor action.
(16)
Refer Page No: 2.1
Or
(b) Draw the block diagram of single area load frequency control system
and explain the salient features under static and dynamic conditions. (16)
Refer Page No: 2.5
13. (a) Explain the injection of reactive power by switched capacitors to
maintain acceptable voltage profile and to minimize transmission loss in a
power system. (16)
Refer Page No: 3.2
Or
(b) (i) Explain the operation of static VAR compensator and state its
advantages over other methods of voltage control. (8)
Refer Page No: 3.9
14. (a) Briefly discuss the various functions of energy control centre. (16)
Refer Page No: 5.2
Or
(b) Explain the four operating states of a power system in the security
perspective with an example. (16)
Refer Page No: 5.22
Question Paper 3

15. (a) Develop an iterative algorithm for solving the optimum dispatch equation
of an ‘n’ bus power system taking into account the effects of system losses.
(16)
Refer Page No: 4.8.1
Or
(b) A power plant consists of two 100 MW units, whose input cost data
given by,
F1  0.05 P21  20P1  800 Rs/hr
F2  0.06 P21  16P1  1000 Rs/hr.
For the total load of 150 MW, what should be the division of load between
two units for most economic operation? (16)
Refer Example: 4.1
4 Power System Operation and Control

M 3279
B.E/B.Tech DEGREE EXAMINATION, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2008
Seventh Semester
Electrical and Electronics Engineering
EE 1401 — POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND CONTROL
(Regulation 2004)
Time: Three hours Maximum: 100 Marks

Answer ALL Questions

Part A – 10  2  20 Marks)
1. Define Load Factor.
Refer Page No: 1.51

2. What is the need for load forecasting?

Refer Page No: 1.58

3. What do you understand by coherent group of generators?

Refer Page No: 2.82

4. Compare the functions of “Speed Governor” and “Speed Changer” of a

turbine generator set.
Refer Page No: 2.82

5. What are the various functions of excitation system?

Refer Page No: 3.57

6. What is the need for a compensator in the AVR loop?

Refer Page No: 3.56

7. What is participation factor with respect to economic load dispatch?

Refer Page No: 4.66

8. Write the condition for the optimal power dispatch in a lossless system.
Refer Page No: 4.67

9. Write importance of state estimation in power system.

Refer Page No: 5.27

10. What are the functions of SCADA?

Refer Page No: 5.25
Question Paper 5

Part B – (5  16  80 Marks)
11. (a) (i) Discuss the various reserve requirements in power system operation.
(6)
Refer Page No: 1.9
(ii) The maximum demand on a power station is 100 MW. If the annual
load factor is 40%, calculate the total energy generated in a year. (4)
Refer Page No: 1.16
(iii) A diesel station supplies the following loads to various consumers: (6)
Industrial consumer  1500 kW, Commercial establishment  750 kW,
Domestic power  100 kW, Domestic light  450 kW. If the maximum
demand on the station is 2500 kW and the number of kWh generated per
year is 45  106, determine (1) Diversity factors (2) Annual load factor.
Refer Example: 1.7
Or
(b) (i) What are system level and plant level controls? (6)
Refer Section: 1.12
(ii) Define diversity factor. Discuss the practical ways to improve the
diversity factor. (6)
Refer Section: 1.8
(iii) Write short note on Load Forecasting. (4)
Refer Section: 1.10.1
12. (a) What are the components of speed governor system of an alternator?
Derive its transfer function with an aid of a block diagram. (16)
Refer Section: 2.2
Or
(b) Two 50 Hz power stations are connected by means of an interconnected
cable of negligible impedance, so that the stations work in parallel. Station
A has a full load capacity of 15 MW and uniform speed regulation of 3%.
Station B has a capacity of 4 MW and uniform speed regulation of 4%.
The load on the busbars of station B is 4 MW and of station A is 10 MW.
Calculate the generated output of each station, power transmitted by
interconnected cable and operating frequency assuming free governor action
6 Power System Operation and Control

and that the speed changers of generators were set to have frequency of 50
Hz at no-load.
Refer Example: 2.3

13. (a) Draw the diagram of a typical automatic voltage regulator and develop
its block diagram representation. (16)
Refer Section: 3.4

Or
(b) (i) Explain how the OLTC can be used for voltage control. (6)
Refer Section: 3.8

(ii) A 132 kV line is fed through an 11/132 kV transformer from a constant

11 kV supply. At the load end of the line the voltage is constant 11 kV
supply. At the load end of the line the voltage is reduced by another
transformer of nominal ratio 132/11 kV. The total impedance of the line
and transformer at 132 kV is 24  j66 ohms. Both transformers are equipped
with tap changing facilities which are arranged so that the product of the
two off-nominal settings is unity. If load on the system is 100 MW at 0.9
pf lagging. Calculate the settings of the tap changes required to maintain
the voltage of the load busbar at 11 kV. Use base MVA of 100 MVA. (10)

Refer Example: 3.9

14. (a) In a power system having two units, the loss co-efficient are
B11  0.0015 MW 1, B12   0.0006 MW 1
B21   0.006 MW 1, B22  0.0024 MW 1
The incremental production costs of the units are
dF1
 0.08 PG1  20 Rs/MWhr
dPG1
dF2
 0.08 PG2  16 Rs/MWhr .
dPG2
Find the generation schedule for   20 and 25. Find also the change in
transmission losses between the two schedules. (16)
Refer Example: 4.3

Or
Question Paper 7

(b) (i) What is unit commitment problem? Discuss the constraints that are
to be accounted in unit commitment problem. (8)
Refer Section: 4.9
(ii) Explain the priority ordering method of committing units. State merits
and limitations of this method. (8)
Refer Section: 4.26
15. (a) (i) Briefly discuss the various functions of energy control center. (12)
Refer Section: 5.2
(ii) Write short note on security control. (4)
Refer Section: 5.20
Or
(b) Draw a state transition diagram and explain the various operating state
of a power system and the associated control actions.
Refer Section: 5.22
8 Power System Operation and Control

Question Paper Code: Q 2761

B.E/B.Tech DEGREE EXAMINATION, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2009
Seventh Semester
Electrical and Electronics Engineering
EE 1401— POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND CONTROL
(Regulation 2004)
Time: Three hours Maximum: 100 Marks

Answer ALL Questions

Part A – 10  2  20 Marks)
1. What is the difference between load curve and load duration curve?
Refer Page No: 1.51

2. What is meant by system voltage control?

Refer Page No: 1.52

3. Define stiffness of the interconnected system.

Refer Page No: 2.85

4. Draw the dynamic response of change in frequency for a step load change.
Refer Page No: 2.85

5. Compare shunt and series capacitors.

Refer Page No: 3.55

6. Draw the root loci for zero compensated loops.

Refer Page No: 3.60

7. Define participation factor.

Refer Page No: 4.66

8. What is meant by priority list method?

Refer Page No: 4.66

9. What are the EMS functions?

Refer Page No: 5.26

10. What is emergency state?

Refer Page No: 5.27
Question Paper 9

Part B – (5  16  80 Marks)
11. (a) (i) Discuss the main functions of security control. (8)
Refer Section: 1.1.2
(ii) Differentiate cold reserve from hot reserve. (4)
Refer Section: 1.9
(iii) Explain the term economic dispatch control (EDC) (4)
Refer Section: 1.1.2
Or
(b) A generating station supplies the following loads: 15000 KW, 12000 KW,
8500 KW, 6000 KW and 450 KW.
The station has a maximum demand of 22000 KW. The annual load factor
of the station is 48%. Calculate
(i) the number of units supplied
(ii) the diversity factor
(iii) the demand factor. (16)
Refer Example: 1.10
12. Two 1000 KW alternators operate in parallel. The speed regulation of first
alternator is 100% to 103% from full load to no load and that of other 100%
to 105%. How will the two alternators share a load of 1200 KW and at what
load will one machine cease to supply any portion of the load? (16)
Refer Example: 2.9
Or
(b) Draw the block diagram of two area load frequency control system and
explain the uncontrolled static analysis. (16)
Refer Section: 2.7
13. (a) (i) Explain the transfer function of modeling of exciter system with
neat diagram. (8)
Refer Section: 3.4
(ii) Discuss the static and dynamic analysis of AVR. (8)
Refer Section: 3.5
Or
(b) (i) What are the methods of voltage control? Explain any two methods
in detail.
Refer Section: 3.7
10 Power System Operation and Control

(ii) The load at the receiving end of a three phase, overhead line is 225
MW, 0.8 lagging PF, at a line voltage of 33 KV. A synchronous compensator
is situated at the receiving end and the voltage at both ends of the line is
maintained at 33 KV. Calculate the MVAR of the compensator. The line has
5 ohm resistance per phase and 20 ohm inductive reactance per phase. (8)
Refer Example 3.5
14. (a) State the unit commitment problem. With the help of a flowchart
explain forward dynamic programming solution method of unit commitment
problem. (16)
Refer Section: 4.10.2
Or
(b) (i) Develop an iterative algorithm for solving the optimum dispatch
equation of an ‘n’ bus power system taking into account the effects of system
losses. (8)
Refer Section: 4.8.1
(ii) Construct the priority list for the units given below: (8)

Pmin Pmax Fuel cost

Unit Heat rate (MBtu/hr)
(MW) (MW) (Rs/MBtu)
1 510  7.20 P1  0.00142 P21 150 600 1.1

2 310  7.85 P2  0.00194 P22 100 400 1.0

3 78  7.97 P3  0.00482 P23 50 200 1.2

Refer Example: 4.4

15. (a) (i) Briefly discuss the various functions of energy control centre. (8)
Refer Section: 5.2
(ii) With a neat block diagram explain the SCADA hardware configuration. (8)
Refer Section: 5.7
Or
(b) Explain the security monitoring using state estimation with necessary
diagrams. (16)
Refer Section: 5.14
Question Paper 11

Question Paper Code: D 2208

B.E/B.Tech DEGREE EXAMINATION, APRIL/MAY 2010
Seventh Semester
Electrical and Electronics Engineering
EE 1401 — POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND CONTROL
(Regulation 2004)
Time: Three hours Maximum: 100 Marks

Answer ALL Questions

Part A – 10  2  20 Marks)
1. What do you understand by load curve?
Refer Page No: 1.51

2. What is the function of AVR loop?

Refer Page No: 3.57

3. State whether changes in AVR loop will be reflected in LFC loop.

Refer Page No: 2.84

4. Mention any two advantages of state variable model.

Refer Page No: 2.85

5. Write the relation between voltage, power and reactive power at a node.
Refer Page No: 3.56

6. Distinguish between on-load and off load tap changing.

Refer Page No: 3.58

7. List the few constraints that are accounted in unit commitment problem.
Refer Page No: 4.65

8. Define Incremental cost in power dispatch.

Refer Page No: 4.63

9. Mention four types of SCADA systems.

Refer Page No: 5.25

10. What is Emergency State?

Refer Page No: 5.27
12 Power System Operation and Control

Part B – (5  16  80 Marks)
11. (a) (i) Explain the need for voltage and frequency regulation in power
system. (8)
Refer Section: 1.11
(ii) A generating station has a Maximum demand of 400 MW. The annual
load factor is 65% and capacity factor is 50% find the reserve capacity of
the plant. (8)
Refer Example: 1.1
Or
(b) (i) Explain the system voltage control and security control. (8)
Refer Section: 1.1.2
(ii) Consider an inductive load of type Z  R  jX. By how many percent
will the real load drop if the voltage is reduced by 1%? (8)
Refer Example: 1.15
12. (a) (i) Obtain the state variable model of a Single Area LFC. (8)
Refer Section: 2.9.3
(ii) Explain the tie-line bias control of two area system. (8)
Refer Section: 2.8
Or
(b) For a system of regulation  4 Hz/p.u MW, Kp  150 Tp  18 sec,
 P0  0.01 P.U. Find the dynamic response for uncontrolled case. Also derive
the equation used. (16)
Refer Example: 2.11
13. (a) (i) Draw the circuit diagram of a typical excitation system and explain
the components. (8)
Refer Section: 3.3
(ii) Discuss generation and absorption of reactive power. (8)
Refer Section: 3.1
Or
(b) (i) How to minimize transmission loss using reactive power control?
(6)
Refer Section: 3.2.3
Question Paper 13

(ii) Explain the operation of on-load Tap Changing Transformer. (10)

Refer Page No: 3.8
14. (a) (i) Explain with neat flowchart the procedure for finding solution for
unit commitment problems using forward dynamic programming method.
(8)
Refer Section: 4.10.2
(ii) Explain priority list method using full load average production cost.(8)
Refer Section: 4.26
Or
(b) A power plant has 3 units with the following cost characteristics. (16)
C1  0.05 P21  23.5 P1  700 Rs/hr
C2  0.2 P22  20P2  850 Rs/hr
C3  0.09 P23  18P3  960 Rs/hr.
Maximum and minimum loading allowable on each unit are: 150 MW and
40 MW. Find the optimal scheduling for a load of 275 MW.
Refer Example: 4.12
15. (a) Explain the hardware components and functional aspects of SCADA
system using a functional block diagram. Also discuss the functions of
SCADA. (16)
Refer Section: 5.6
Or
(b) (i) Explain briefly how the system states are continuously monitored
and controlled. (8)
Refer Section: 5.22
(ii) Explain the different functions of Energy Control Centre. (8)
Refer Section: 5.2
14 Power System Operation and Control

Question Paper Code: 31293

B.E/B.Tech DEGREE EXAMINATION, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2010
Seventh Semester
Electrical and Electronics Engineering
EE 1401 — POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND CONTROL
(Regulation 2004)
Time: Three hours Maximum: 100 Marks

Answer ALL Questions

Part A – 10  2  20 Marks)
1. Define the term “diversity factor”.
Refer Page No: 1.51

2. What do you mean by spinning reserve?

Refer Page No: 1.53

3. Define per unit droop.

Refer Page No: 2.81

4. Write down the equation for area control error of two area system.
Refer Page No: 2.83

5. What is stability compensation?

Refer Page No: 3.57

6. List the methods of voltage control?

Refer Page No: Refer Page No: 3.57

7. Write a few constraints in unit commitment problem.

Refer Page No: 4.65

8. What is meant by incremental cost curve?

Refer Page No: 4.63

9. Define state estimation.

Refer Page No: 5.27

10. Mention the uses of SCADA in power system.

Refer Page No: 5.25
Question Paper 15

Part B – (5  16  80 Marks)
11. (a) Explain the following: (16)
(i) Hot reserve and cold reserve.
(ii) Load curve and load duration curve.
(iii) Governor control
(iv) Security control.
Refer Page No: 1.9
Refer Page No: 1.4
Or
(b) A generating station has the following daily load cycle:

Time (hours): 0-6 6-8 8-12 12-14 14-18 18-20 20-24

Load (MW): 45 35 75 20 80 25 50

(i) Draw the daily load curve. (16)

(ii) Draw the load duration curve.
(iii) Calculate load factor.
(iv) Calculate plant capacity factor if the capacity of the plant is 120 MW.
Refer Example: 1.5

12. (a) Develop the model of single control area and obtain its block diagram
representation. Explain the salient features under static and dynamic
conditions.
(16)
Refer Section: 2.5
Or
(b) Two synchronous generators operating in parallel. Their capacities are
700 MW and 600 MW. The droop characteristics of their governor are 4%
and 5% from no load to full load. Assuming that the generators are operating
at 60 Hz at no load, how would be a load of 800 MW shared between them.
What will be the system frequency at this load? Assume free governor action.
(16)
Refer Example: 2.1

13. (a) (i) Discuss generation and absorption of reactive power. (8)
Refer Section: 3.1
16 Power System Operation and Control

(ii) Explain how voltage control can be affected by injection of reactive

power.
(8)
Refer Section: 3.27
(b) (i) Explain the operation of on-load tap changing transformer. (8)
Refer Section: 3.8
(ii) A 414 kV line is fed through 132/415 kV transformer from a constant
132 kV supply. At the load end of the line, the voltage is reduced by another
transformer of 415/132 kV. The total impedance of line is 20  j40 ohms.
Both transformers are equipped with tap-changing. The product of the two
off-nominal setting is unity. The load on the system is 250 MW at 0.8 p.f.
lagging. Calculate the settings of the tap changer required to maintain the
voltage at 132 kV. (8)
Refer Example: 3.9
14. (a) State the unit commitment problem. Explain priority list method of unit
commitment problem in detail. (16)
Refer Section: 4.8.1
Or
(b) With a neat flow chart explain the interactive algorithm for solving the
economic dispatch equation of N-bus power system taking into account the
effects of system losses. (16)

15. (a) Discuss the various functions of energy control centre. (16)
Refer Section: 5.2
Or
(b) Explain the operating states of a power system in the security
perspective with an example. (16)
Refer Section: 5.22
Question Paper 17

Question Paper Code:

B.E/B.Tech DEGREE EXAMINATION, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2011
Seventh Semester
Electrical and Electronics Engineering
EE 2401 — POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND CONTROL
(Regulation 2008)
Time: Three hours Maximum: 100 Marks

Answer ALL Questions

Part A – 10  2  20 Marks)
1. Define “Connected load”.
Refer Page No: 1.54
2. What is a “Load Curve”?
Refer Page No: 1.51
3. What is “AGC”?
Refer Page No: 2.81
4. What are the conditions necessary for sharing load operating in parallel
between the two synchronous machines?
Refer Page No: 2.82
5. What are the merits of synchronous compensator?
Refer Page No: 3.59
6. What are the various methods of voltage control in transmission system?
Refer Page No: 3.57
7. Write the equality and inequality constraints considered in the economic
dispatch problem.
Refer Page No: 4.63
8. Define spinning reserve constraint in unit commitment problem.
Refer Page No: 4.65
9. Define the EMS system.
Refer Page No: 5.26
10. What is the function of load dispatch center?
Refer Page No: 5.27
18 Power System Operation and Control

Part B – (5  16  80 Marks)
11. (a) A generating station has a maximum demand of 20 MW, a load factor of
60% a plant capacity factor of 48% and a plant use factor of 80%. Find the
(i) Daily energy produced.
(ii) Reserve capacity of the plant.
(iii) Maximum energy that could be produced daily if the plant were
running all the time and
(iv) Maximum energy that could be produced if the plant when running
(acc. to operating schedule) were fully loaded.
Refer Example: 1.11
Or
(b) (i) A generating station has a maximum demand of 50,000 kW.
Calculate the cost per unit generated from the following data.
Capital cost  Rs.95  106
Annual load vector  40%
Annual cost of fuel and oil  Rs.9  106
Taxes, wages and salaries etc.  Rs.7.5  106
Interest and depreciation  12%. (12)
Refer Example: 1.12
(ii) 1. Define “diversity factor”. (2)
Refer Section: 1.8
2. Define “Planed use factor”. (2)
Refer Section: 1.6 (h)
12. (a) Draw the block diagram of uncontrolled two area load frequency control
system and explain the salient features under static conditions. (16)
Refer Section: 2.7
Or
(b) How is speed governor mechanism modeled? Explain its operations with
the speed load characteristics? (16)
Refer Section: 2.2
13. (a) (i) Develop a typical excitation arrangement to control the voltage of
an alternator and explain. (8)
Refer Section: 3.4
Question Paper 19

(ii) Briefly explain the role of tap changing transformer in voltage control?
(8)
Refer Section: 3.8
Or
(b) What is static VAR compensator? Where it is used? Explain its
operation. Also state the merits of static VAR compensator over the other
methods of voltage control. (16)
Refer Section: 3.9
14. (a) (i) Explain the unit commitment problem using priority ordering load
dispatch. (8)
Refer Section: 4.10.1
(ii) Explain the term ‘Incremental Operating cost’ of power system related
with economic dispatch. (8)
Refer Section: 4.3
Or
(b) The fuel inputs pre hour of plants 1 and 2 are given as
F1  0.2 P21  40 P1  120 Rs /hr
F2  0.25 P22 | 30 P2  150 Rs /hr
Determine the economic operating schedule and the corresponding cost of
generation if the maximum and minimum loading on each unit is 100 MW
and 25 MW. Assume the transmission losses are ignored and the total
demand is 180 MW. Also determine the saving obtained if the load is equally
shared by both the units. (16)
Refer Example: 4.6
15. (a) (i) Explain need of computer control of power system. (6)
Refer Section: 5.23
(ii) Briefly explain various functions of SCADA with a neat diagram. (10)
Refer Section: 5.6
Or
(b) Explain various state transitions and control strategies using state
transition diagram.
Refer Section: 5.22
20 Power System Operation and Control

Question Paper Code: 11377

B.E/B.Tech DEGREE EXAMINATION, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2012
Seventh Semester
Electrical and Electronics Engineering
EE 2401/EE 71/10133 EE 701 — POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND
CONTROL
(Regulation 2008)
Time: Three hours Maximum: 100 Marks

Answer ALL Questions

Part A – 10  2  20 Marks)
1. Define the term “maximum demand”.
Refer Page No: 1.53
2. Define “load curve”.
Refer Page No: 1.51
3. What are the types of automatic load frequency control for interconnected power
system?
Refer Page No: 2.84
4. What is automatic load dispatching?
Refer Page No: 2.85
5. What are the different types of reactive power compensation?
Refer Page No: 3.57
6. Define “Booster transformer”.
Refer Page No: 3.58
7. What is incremental cost criterion?
Refer Page No: 4.63
8. Name some thermal constrains in unit commitment problem.
Refer Page No: 4.65
9. What is “SCADA”?
Refer Page No: 5.25
10. Define ‘network topology’ in a power system.
Refer Page No: 5.27
Question Paper 21

Part B – (5  16  80 Marks)
11. (a) (i) A generating station has the following daily load cycle.
Time (hrs) 0-6 6-10 10-12 12-16 16-20 20-24
Load (MW) 40 50 60 50 70 40
Draw the load curve and find. (10)
1. Max. demand
2. Units generated/day
3. Average load
4. Load factor.
Refer Example: 1.5
(ii) Explain the types of load forecasting. (6)
Refer Section: 1.10
Or
(b) Explain the important objectives of power system and various control
strategies during its operation. (16)
Refer Section: 1.1
12. (a) With a neat block diagram, explain the single area load frequency
control system. (16)
Refer Section: 2.5
Or
(b) (i) Discuss the integration of economic dispatch control with automatic
generation control. (8)
Refer Section: 2.11
(ii) Derive an expression for load sharing between two alternators. What
are the effects of fuel supply and change of excitation? (8)
Refer Section: 2.3
13. (a) (i) Discuss the relation between voltage and reactive power at a node.
(9)
Refer Section: 3.1
(ii) Explain briefly the reactive power requirement for control of voltage
in long radial lines. (7)
Refer Section: 3.1
22 Power System Operation and Control

Or
(b) Explain the methods of voltage control in a transmission system.

(i) By transformer tap setting. (8)

Refer Section: 3.8

(ii) By Booster transformer. (8)

Refer Section: 3.7

14. (a) (i) Explain the   iteration method for finding the solution of
economic dispatch including transmission losses with a neat flowchart. (10)
Refer Section: 4.7

(ii) A generating unit has two 200 MW units whose input cost data is as
follows:
F1  0.004 P21  2.0P1  80 Rs/hr
F2  0.006 P22  1.5 P2  100 Rs/hr,
For a total load of 250 MW, find the load dispatch between the two units
for economic operation. (6)
Refer Example: 4.1

Or
(b) (i) Explain the priority list method for unit commitment problem.(10)
Refer Section: 4.10.1

(ii) Define (6)

1. Minimum up time,
2. Minimum down time
3. Spinning reserve.
Refer Section: 4.25

15. (a) Discuss the functions of ‘SCADA’ in power system operation. (16)
Refer Section: 5.6

Or
(b) Enumerate the various operating states and the control strategies of a
power system. (16)
Refer Section: 5.22
Question Paper 23

Question Paper Code: 31409

B.E/B.Tech DEGREE EXAMINATION, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2013
Seventh Semester
Electrical and Electronics Engineering
EE 2401/ EE 71/ 10133 EE 701 — POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND
CONTROL
(Regulation 2008/2010)
(Common to PTEE 2401 – Power System Operation and Control for B.E.
(Part-Time) Fifth Semester - Electrical and Electronics Engineering –
Regulation 2009)
Time: Three hours Maximum: 100 Marks

Answer ALL Questions

Part A – 10  2  20 Marks)
1. Define plant capacity factor.
Refer Page No: 1.51
2. List out the various needs for frequency regulation in power system.
Refer Page No: 1.53
3. Give two conditions for proper synchronizing of alternators.
Refer Page No: 2.82
4. What is the function of load frequency control?
Refer Page No: 2.82
5. What are the various functions of excitation system.
Refer Page No: 3.57
6. What are the advantages and disadvantages of synchronous compensators?
Refer Page No: 3.58
7. What is meant by FLAC?
Refer Page No: 4.66
8. Write the condition for the optimal power dispatch in a lossless system.
Refer Page No: 4.67
9. What are the functions of SCADA?
Refer Page No: 5.25
10. Define state estimation.
Refer Page No: 5.27
24 Power System Operation and Control

Part B – (5  16  80 Marks)
11. (a) (i) A generating station has a maximum demand of 50,000 kW.
Calculate the cost per unit generated from the following data.
Capital cost  Rs.95  106
Annual load factor  40%
Annual cost of fuel and oil  Rs.9  106
Taxes, wages and salaries, etc  Rs.7.5  106
Interest and depreciation  12% (12)
Refer Page No: 1.12
(ii) 1. Define ‘Diversity factor’. (4)
2. Define ‘Plant use factor’.
Refer Section: 1.8
Refer Section: 1.6 (h)
Or
(b) (i) Define the following: (6)
1. Hot reserve
2. Cold reserve
3. Spinning reserve.
(ii) A generating station has the following daily load cycle:

Time (Hours) 0-6 6-10 10-12 12-16 16-20 20-24

Load (MW) 20 25 30 25 35 20
Draw the load curve and calculate. (10)
1. Maximum demand
2. Units generated per day
3. Average load
4. Load factor.
Refer Example: 1.5
12. (a) Two synchronous generators operating in parallel. Their capacities are
300 MW and 400 MW. The droop characteristics of their governor are 4%
and 5% from no load to full load. Assuming that the generators are operating
at 50 Hz at no load, how would be a load of 600 MW shared between them.
What will be the system frequency at this load? Assume free governor action.
(16)
Refer Example: 2.1
Question Paper 25

Or
(b) What are the components of speed governor system of an alternator?
Derive its transfer function with an aid of a block diagram. (16)
Refer Section: 2.2
13. (a) Describe various methods of voltage control and explain any three in
detail. (16)
Refer Section: 3.7
Or
(b) Draw the diagram of a typical automatic voltage regulator and develop
its block diagram representation. (16)
Refer Section: 3.4
14. (a) State the unit commitment problem. With the help a flow chart, explain forward
dynamic programming solution method of unit commitment problem. (16)
Refer Section: 4.10.2
Or
(b) The fuel inputs per hour of plants 1 and 2 are given as
F1  0.2 P21  40 P1  120 Rs/hr
F2  0.25 P22  30 P2  150 Rs/hr. Determine the economic operating schedule
and the corresponding cost of generation. The maximum and minimum
loading on each unit is 100 MW and 25 MW. Assume the transmission losses
are ignored and the total demand is 180 MW. Also determine the saving
obtained if the load is equally shared by both the units. (16)
Refer Example: 4.6
15. (a) (i) What is EMS? What are its major functions in power system
operation and control? (6)
Refer Section: 5.11
(ii) Draw a block diagram to show the hardware configuration of a SCADA
system for a power system and explain the application of SCADA in
monitoring and control of power system. (10)
Refer Section: 5.3
Or
(b) Explain the security monitoring using state estimation with necessary
diagrams. (16)
Refer Section: 5.6
26 Power System Operation and Control

Question Paper Code: 51449

B.E/B.Tech DEGREE EXAMINATION, MAY/JUNE 2014
Seventh Semester
Electrical and Electronics Engineering
EE 2401/EE 71/10133 EE 701 — POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND
CONTROL
(Regulation 2008/2010)
(Common to PTEE 2401 – Power System Operation and Control for B.E.
(Part-Time)
Fifth Semester - Electrical and Electronics Engineering -Regulation 2009)
Time: Three hours Maximum: 100 Marks

Answer ALL Questions

Part A – 10  2  20 Marks)
1. What is maximum demand?
Refer Page No: 1.53
2. Define plant use factor.
Refer Page No: 1.52
3. State any two necessities to put alternators in parallel.
Ans: Load growth, Maintenance
4. What are the assumptions made in dynamic response of uncontrolled case?
Refer Page No: 2.84
5. Where are synchronous condensers installed?
Refer Page No: 3.55
6. What are the different types of static VAR compensators?
Refer Page No: 3.58
7. Define Spinning Reserve.
Refer Page No: 4.65
8. Distinguish between economic dispatch and unit commitment.
Refer Page No: 4.65
9. What are the objectives of Automatic Generation control?
Refer Page No: 5.26
10. Define restorative state.
Refer Page No: 5.27
Question Paper 27

Part B – (5  16  80 Marks)
11. (a) A power supply is having the following loads.

Type of load Maximum demand (kW) Diversity factor Demand factor

Domestic 10,000 1.2 0.9
Commercial 30,000 1.3 0.9
Industrial 50,000 1.35 0.95
If the overall system diversity factor is 1.5 determine.
(i) maximum demand
(ii) Connected load of each type.
Refer Example: 1.3
Or
(b) (i) Draw the load curve and load duration curve. Explain the
Importance of these curves in connection with economic operation of power
system. (8)
Refer Section: 1.4
(ii) Explain the following terms. (8)
1. Connected load.
2. Load factor.
3. Diversity factor.
4. Average demand.
Refer Section: 1.6

12. (a) Develop the state variable model of a two area system and State the
advantages of the mode.
Refer Section: 2.9.3
Or
(b) An isolated power system has the following parameters: Turbine rated
output  300 MW, Nominal frequency  500 Hz, Governor speed regulation
 0.05 p.u, Inertia constant  5, Turbine time constant  0.5 sec. Governor
time constant  0.2 sec, Load change 60 MW. The load varies by 0.8% for
a 1% change in frequency. Determine the steady stat frequency deviation in
Hz.
Refer Example: 2.9
28 Power System Operation and Control

13. (a) The load at receiving end of a 3 phase overhead transmission line is
20 MW, 0.8 p.f lags at the line voltage of 33 KV. A synchronous compensator
is situated at receiving end and voltage at both ends of the lines is maintained
at 33 KV. Calculate the MVAR of the compensator. The line has resistance
and reactance of 5 /ph, 20 /ph
Refer Section: 3.5
Or
(b) Explain the Injection of reactive power by switched capacitors to
maintain the acceptable voltage profile and to minimize the transmission loss
in a power system.
Refer Section: 3.2
14. (a) A heat rate of 100 MW fuel fired generator is 10 Mkcal / MWhr at 25% rating
9 Mkcal / MWhr at 40% rating
8 Mkcal / MWhr at 100% rating.
Find (i) Fuel cost at 25, 40,100% loading
(ii) Incremental cost
(iii) Fuel input rate using quadratic approximation to deliver 101 M.W.
Refer Example: 4.16
Or
(b) Determine the priority list using full load average production cost for
the data given below.

Loading Units Fuel cost Parameter

Unit No. Min Max. ai bi ci Fuel cost
1. 100 400 0.006 7 600 1.1
2. 50 300 0.01 8 400 1.2
3. 150 500 0.008 6 500 1.0
Also obtain optimum unit commitment solution for the power demand of 800 MW.
Refer Example: 4.10
15. (a) Explain the hardware components and functional aspects of SCADA
system using a functional block diagram.
Refer Section: 5.3
Or
(b) Explain the various controls for secure operation.
Refer Section: 5.22
Question Paper 29

Question Paper Code: 91454

B.E/B.Tech DEGREE EXAMINATION, NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2014
Seventh Semester
Electrical and Electronics Engineering
EE 2401.10133 EE 701/EE 71 — POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND
CONTROL
(Regulation 2008/2010)
(Common to PTEE 2401/10133 EE 701 — Power System Operation and
Control for B.E. (Part - Time) Fifth Semester - Electrical and Electronics
Engineering
Regulation 2009/2010)
Time: Three hours Maximum: 100 Marks

Answer ALL Questions

Part A – 10  2  20 Marks)
1. Distinguish between load curve and load duration curve.
Refer Page No: 1.51
2. Define the term Diversity factor.
Refer Page No: 1.51
3. What is meant by Control area?
Refer Page No: 2.83
4. State the control objective of Two area load frequency control.
Refer Page No: 2.85
5. State the relation between voltage, power and reactive power at a node.
Refer Page No: 3.56
6. State the advantage of Switched capacitors in voltage control.
Refer Page No: 3.55
7. Draw the incremental cost curve of thermal unit.
Refer Page No: 4.64
8. State the different constraints in unit commitment problem.
Refer Page No: 4.65
9. What is meant by Power System Security?
Refer Page No: 5.27
10. List the applications of SCADA.
Refer Page No: 5.26
30 Power System Operation and Control

Part B – (5  16  80 Marks)

11. (a) A power station has to meet the following demand:

Group A: 200 kW between 8 A.M and 6 P.M
Group B: 100 kW between 6 A.M and 10 A.M
Group C: 50 kW between 6 A.M and 10 A.M
Group D: 100 kW between 10 A.M and 6 P.M and then between 6 P.M
and 6. A.M. Plot the daily load curve and determine (i) diversity factor
(ii) units generated per day (iii) load factor.
Refer Example: 1.4

Or
(b) Explain an overview of power system operation and control and the
role of computer in the implementation with the help of block diagram.

Refer Section: 1.1

12. (a) Explain the load frequency control of a single area system.
Refer Section: 2.5

Or
(b) (i) Explain the speed load characteristics of speed governor system.

Refer Section: 2.3

(ii) Two generators rated 200 MW and 400 MW are operating in parallel.
The droop characteristics of their governors are 4% and 5% respectively
from no load to full load. Assuming that the generators are operating at 50
Hz at no load how would a load of 600 MW be shared between them? What
will be the system frequency at this load? Assume free governor operation.
Also find the load sharing if both governors have a droop of 4%.

Refer Example: 2.6

13. (a) With the help of a block diagram explain modelling of an excitation
system. Derive the transfer function of each block.
Refer Section: 3.4

Or
(b) Explain the different methods of voltage control.

Refer Section: 3.7

Question Paper 31

14. (a) Derive the coordination equations for economic dispatch with and
without loss.
Refer Section: 4.10
Or
(b) (i) Create a unit commitment using the priority list method for the
following three units.
The fuel cost equations are as follows:
Unit 1: F1 P1  561  7.92 P1  0.001562 P21 150  P1  600
Unit 2: F2 P2  310  7.85 P2  0.00194 P222 100  P2  400
Unit 3: F3 P3  93.6  9.56 P3  0.005784 P23 50  P3  200.
Refer Example: 4.7
(ii) Explain forward dynamic programming approach for solving Unit
Commitment problem with a neat flow - chart.
Refer Section: 4.10.2
15. Explain the concept of energy control centre (or) load dispatch centre. Also
discuss its function.
Refer Section: 5.2
Or
(b) Explain the various operating states of power system. Also discuss the
state transitions and control strategies.
Refer Section: 5.22
32 Power System Operation and Control

Question Paper Code: 71515

B.E/B.Tech DEGREE EXAMINATION, APRIL/MAY 2015
Seventh Semester
Electrical and Electronics Engineering
EE 2401/10133 EE 701 — POWER SYSTEM OPERATION AND CONTROL
(Regulation 2008/2010)
(Common to PTEE 2401/10133 EE 701 - Power System Operation and
Control for
B.E. (Part/Time) Fifth Semester - Electrical and Electronics Engineering -
Regulation 2009/2010)
Time: Three hours Maximum: 100 Marks

Answer ALL Questions

Part A – 10  2  20 Marks)
1. What is the need for load forecasting in a power system?
Refer Page No: 1.52

2. What are the advantages of computer control in power system? What are
the types of computer control?
Refer Page No: 1.50

3. Find the open loop gain of an Automatic voltage regulator loop if the static
error does not exceed 2%.
Refer Page No: 2.86

4. Brief the application of secondary ALFC loop in power system networks.

Refer Page No: 2.86

5. Show that the shunt compensation improves critical voltage as well as the
power factor.
Refer Page No: 3.56

6. Distinguish between rotor angle stability and short-term voltage stability.

Refer Page No: 3.59

7. Find the incremental transmission losses for a two area power system, where
the bus voltages are kept fixed and the line power flow is a function of line
angle. Power loss is a function of generation of area B only.
Refer Page No: 4.68
Question Paper 33

8. What is spinning reserve?

Refer Page No: 4.65
9. What role SCADA plays in electrical power systems?
Refer Page No: 5.25
10. What are responsibilities of regional load dispatch centers?
Refer Page No: 5.28

Part B – (5  16  80 Marks)
11. (a) Compare various stochastical methods of load fore casting.
Refer Section: 1.10
Or
(b) Give a detailed account of online techniques for non-stationary load
prediction.
Refer Section: 1.10
12. (a) With the block diagram of speed governing system, explain the
Automatic Load Frequency Control. Also derive necessary equations.
Refer Section: 2.2
Or
(b) A sub-grid has total rated capacity 2500 MW. It encounters a load
increase of 50 MW if the normal operating load is 1000 MW. Assume inertia
constant (H) to be 5 sec and regulation of the generators in the system as
2 Hz/p.u. MW. Find (i) ALFC loop parameters (ii) Static frequency drop,
(iii) Transient response of the ALFC loop. Assume load frequency
dependency to be linear.
Refer Example: 2.10
13. (a) Derive the relation between voltage and real and reactive powers in a
transmission line. Explain the voltage profile variation along the line as the
reactive power varies.
Refer Section: 3.1
Or
(b) Discuss at length, the effect of transformer on load tap changing on
voltage stability.
Refer Section: 3.8
34 Power System Operation and Control

14. (a) Determine the economic operation point for the three thermal units
delivering a total load of 600 MW without considering generator limit as
well as with considering generator limit
Given:
Unit 1: maximum output  600 MW, minimum output  150 MW. The fuel
cost function is F1 P1  550  7.7 P1  0.00165 P21 Rs/hr
Unit 2: coal fired: maximum output  500 MW, minimum output  125 MW.
The fuel cost function is F2 P2  300  7.88 P2  0.002 P22 Rs/hr
Unit 3: coal fired: maximum output  600 MW, Minimum output  150
MW
The fuel cost function is F3 P3  80  7.99 P3  0.005 P23 Rs/hr .
Or
(b) What is priority list method of unit commitment? Explain it with an
example.
Refer Section: 4.10.1
15. (a) What is state estimation with respect to power system? Explain briefly
the method of maximum likelihood weighted least squares estimation.
Refer Section: 5.6
Or
(b) What is normal operating state of a power system? Describe in detail
the various states that a power system takes, with their operating conditions.
Refer Section: 5.22
Question Paper 35

Question Paper Code: 57327

B.E./B.Tech DEGREE EXAMINATION, MAY/JUNE 2016
Sixth Semester
Electrical and Electronics Engineering
EE 6603 – POWER SYSTEMS OPERATION AND CONTROL
(Regulations 2013)
Time: Three hours Maximum: 100 marks

Answer ALL questions

PART A – 10  2  20 marks
1. Classify the system load.
Refer Page No. 1.50
2. What is spinning reserve?
Refer Page No. 1.53
3. What is the objective of tie-line bias control?
1. Hold the frequency constant  f  0 against any load change. Each area
must contribute to absorb any load change such that frequency does not
deviate.
2. Each area must maintain the tie line power flow to its pre-specified value
4. Define area control error.
Refer Page No. 2.83
5. What is SVC?
Refer Page No. 3.58
6. How are voltage and reactive power interrelated?
Refer Page No. 3.56
7. What is meant by priority list method?
Refer Page No. 4.66
8. Define incremental transmission loss.
The ITL is defined for a bus and quantities the change in total losses produced
by an increments change in the power injected on that bus.
9. Define state estimation.
Refer Page No. 5.27
36 Power System Operation and Control

10. What are the functions of SCADA?

Refer Page No. 5.25

PART - B 5  16  80 Marks
11. (a) Consider an inductive load of type Z  R  jX
Refer Example 1.15
11. (a) (i) By how much percentage the real load drop, if the voltage is
reduced by 5%?
11. (a) (ii) How would 2% drop in frequency affect the real load, if the load
power factor is 0.8. Derive the relations used. (16)
(Or)
11. (b) A power station has to meet the following load demands:
Load A:50 kW between 10 AM and 6 PM
Load B:30 kW between 6 PM and 10 PM
Load C:20 kW between 4 PM and 10 AM
Plot the daily load curve and determine (i) diversity factor, (ii) units
generated per day, (iii) load factor. (16)

Time (hrs)/group 0-10 10-16 16-18 18-22 22-24

A – 50 kW 50 kW – –
B – – – 30 kW –
C 20 kW – 20 kW 20 kW 20 kW
Total load on Power Station 20 kW 50 kW 70 kW 50 kW 20 kW
sum of all individual maximum deyand
(i) Diverting factor 
Maximum deyand on station

50  30  20

70
Diversity factor  1.42

(ii) Units generated per day  Area under the load curve

 20  10  50  6  70  2  50  4  100  2

 200  300  140  200  200

Units generated per day  1040 kW hr

Question Paper 37

Average load
(iii) Load factor 
Maximum deyand
Units generated per day
Average load 
Hours in a day
1040
  43.33
24
43.33
Load factor 
70

Load factor  0.619 or 61.9 %

12. (a) Draw the block diagram of uncontrolled two area ALFC system and
explain the salient features under static and dynamic conditions.
Refer Section. 2.8 (16)
(Or)
12. (b) (i) Determine the steady frequency in Hz for an isolated control area(8)
having the following data. Total rated area capacity, Pr  300 MW frequency,
f  50 Hz, inertia constant, H  5 s, regulation, R  0.05 pu, turbine time
constant  0.5 sec, governor time constant  0.2 sec, load change  60 MW.
The load varies by 0.8 percent for a 1 percent in frequency.
Refer Section 2.9

12. (b) (ii) Obtain the state variable model of single area ALFC system. (8)
Refer Section. 2.6

13. (a) Develop the block diagram of AVR and obtain its transfer function
and explain the static and dynamic response. (16)
Refer Section 3.4
(Or)
13. (b) Explain the role of tap changing transformer in voltage control. (16)
Refer Section 3.8

14. (a) Write the algorithm for interactive solution of economic dispatch
without and with losses co-ordinated (16)
Refer Section 4.4
(Or)
38 Power System Operation and Control

14. (b) (i) Discuss the various constraints in unit commitment.

Refer Section 4.1.1 (8)

14. (b) (ii) Explain dynamic programming solution for unit commitment with
flowchart. (8)
Refer Section 4.10.2
15. (a) Briefly explain various functions of SCADA with a neat diagram. (16)
(Or)
15. (b) Draw a state transition diagram of a power system and explain the
different control actions. (16)
Refer Section 5.8