COMPUTER SYSTEMS 322/13/SO1

THEORY

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER SYSTEMS

At the end of the unit the student should be able to:

1.1.1 identify the major components of a computer (PC & Macintosh):
- Motherboard (ROM, RAM, Processor, Chipsets)
- Casing
- Power Supply Unit
- Peripheral Control Cards
- Monitor
- Keyboard
- Mouse
- Interconnecting Cables
- Serial, Parallel And Game Ports
- describe briefly the function of the units listed above

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1. MOTHERBOARD (ROM, RAM, PROCESSOR, CHIPSETS)

• Motherboard / Mainboard / System Board- The main circuit board of a computer. It

contains all the circuits and components that run the computer.

• Mother board is the main board of the computer system to accommodate all the
components of the computer

• The motherboard is a printed circuit board that is the foundation of a computer, located on the
backside or at the bottom of the computer chassis.
• Thus, a motherboard is the data and power infrastructure for the entire computer

Primary Functions Of The Motherboard

1. The motherboard acts as the central backbone of a computer on which other modular
parts are installed such as the CPU, RAM and hard disks.

2. The motherboard also acts as the platform on which various expansion slots are available
to install other devices / interfaces.

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3. The motherboard is also responsible to distribute power to the various components of the
computer.

4. They are also used in the coordination of the various devices in the computer and
maintain an interface among them.

Other

1. A motherboard contains a socket into which one or more processors can be attached.
2. It has slots for peripheral cards such as video cards, sound cards or networking cards.
3. It includes a chipset that acts as an interface between all of a computers subsystems.
4. It holds the ROM or permanent memory used by the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) -
- a bit of memory that doesn't get erased when the computer is turned off because it
contains the instructions that reminds the computer what to do when it gets turned back
on.
5. In addition, a motherboard includes a clock generator that is a sort of electronic
metronome that the computer uses to synchronize various operations.
6. It also holds the more active memory RAM that the machine uses when it runs software.
7. Finally, the motherboard has slots for expansion cards and power connectors which
provide power to various components (high speed graphics cards and disk drives get their
power directly from the power supply).

Major components of the motherboard are;

- Processor (CPU),
- RAM slots(SIMM,DIMM,RIMM),
- ROM BIOS,
- Chipset,
- NORTH Bridge,
- South Bridge,
- PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect)slots,
- AGP(Accelerated Graphics Port) slots,
- IDE Connector slots,
- FDD Connector slots,
- Heat Sink,
- Cooling Fan ,
- Power Connector.

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Block diagram of a modern motherboard, which supports many on-board peripheral functions as
well as several expansion slots

TYPES OF SYSTEM BOARDS

- Motherboards can be divided into different categories based on the “FORM FACTOR” of
the motherboard.

FORM FACTOR: The FORM FACTOR of the motherboard describes it`s general shape, what
sorts of cases and power supplies it can use, and it`s physical organization. The motherboard
form factor describes its general shape, the type of case and power supply it can use, and its
physical organization (layout of the motherboard). Over time, in the computer industry, we
have had a number of different motherboard form factors being developed.

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Types of system boards

MOTHERBOARD FORM FACTORS:

• Determines general layout, size and feature placement on the motherboard.
• Form factors such as physical size, shape, component placement, power supply connectors etc.
• Various form factors of motherboards are AT, Baby AT, ATX, Mini-ATX, Micro-ATX, Flex
ATX, LPX and Mini LPX and NLX.
Seven types of system board designs are listed: AT, Baby AT, ATX, BTX, LPX, NLX, and
Backplane. Each has variations.
1. AT
• AT system boards, also called full AT boards, measure 12 inches by 13.8 inches.
• They have two main connectors for power: P8 and P9.
• AT system boards have connections for -5, +5, -12, and +12 volt lines from the power
supply.
• AT boards are larger than the other styles listed here. It may be recognized by its size,
and the placement of the processor in front of the expansion bus slots, which puts it in the
way of longer cards.
• AT power supplies blow air into the system.
2. Baby AT
• The smaller version of the AT board is called the Baby AT. The board is 13 inches by
8.7 inches.
• The processor is still in the way of the expansion slots.
• A problem with this design is that devices mounted in the case often have to string cables
all the way across the motherboard to connect to it.
3. ATX
• ATX system boards measure 12 inches by 9.6 inches.
• ATX system boards have one main connector for power: P1. The originals had 20 pins,
but later models have 24. (In between, there were models that had a separate 12 volt
connector just for the processor. This was incorporated intothe 24 pin design.)
• The processor on an ATX board is beside the expansion slots, not in front of them.
• ATX system boards have connections for +3.3 volts in addition to the voltages available
on the AT board. Newer models of processors typically use less power.
• ATX power supplies blow air out of the system.
• ATX cases may fit Baby AT boards, but the reverse is not true.
• ATX boards have a soft switch. Operating systems such as Windows 98, 2000, and XP
can turn the power off when shutting down.
• Smaller versions of the ATX board are called the Mini ATX, Micro ATX, and Flex
ATX.
4. BTX
• Balanced Technology Extended (BTX) system boards focus on better airflow through
the case, eliminating the need for a fan directly on the processor.
• BTX system boards have one main connector for power, a 24 pin P1.
• BTX system boards are made to support Serial ATA, USB 2, and PCI Express.
• BTX power supplied blow air out of the system. A BTX box's main characteristic that
that all components are oriented to have air passing directly over them.
5. NLX
• The NLX form factor is for low cost, low profile computers.
• NLX system boards have only one expansion slot. It is used for a riser card, which may
contain other expansion slots, and connectors for floppy or hard drives.

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• NLX boards will have video circuits included on the board.

6. LPX and Mini-LPX
• LPX boards use a riser card, like the NLX board.
• LPX boards are low end boards, unsuited for newer processors due to heat and size.
• LPX boards are frequently changed by a manufacturer to make them proprietary. This
means that parts can only be obtained from that manufacturer.
7. Backplane Systems
• A backplane is not a motherboard. It typically only holds expansion slots, one of which
will be used for a mothercard.
• Active backplanes have some slots, buffers, and driver circuits.
• Passive backplanes have no circuits, just a slot for the mothercard.
• These systems are not for personal computers, but are used in rack systems.

Types of Motherboard Form Factors

1.AT and Baby AT (Advanced Technology)

• In the early days of the computer, the AT and baby AT form factors were the most common
motherboard form factors. These two variants differ primarily in width: the older full AT board is 12"
wide. It is an obsolete motherboard form factor only found in older machines, 386 class or earlier.
• One of the major problems with the width of this board (aside from limiting its use in smaller cases)
is that a good percentage of the board "overlaps" with the drive bays. This makes installation,
troubleshooting and upgrading more difficult.
• A Baby AT motherboard is 8.5" wide and 13" long. The reduced width means much less overlap in
most cases with the drive bays, although there usually is still some overlap at the front of the case.
• Baby AT motherboards are distinguished by their shape, and usually by the presence of a single, full-
sized keyboard connector soldered onto the board. The serial and parallel port connectors are almost
always attached using cables (ribbons) that go between the physical connectors mounted on the case,
and pin "headers" located on the motherboard. Most of the boards use AT power supplies and the
system units tend to be tower casing.

AT Motherboard

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AT motherboard. Note: at the top right hand corner of the board, we have the AT keyboard port | Source

Advantages of the Baby AT Motherboard Design

1. The size of 8.5” by 10” makes it easier to design smaller desktop PCs
2. Most of the board is easily accessible for upgrades and expansion

Disadvantages of the Baby AT design

1. CPU location- with the processor and heat sink in place, it is difficult to fit a long expansion card
into one of the expansion slots. This is the main problem encountered with the AT-style
motherboard-the CPU can get in the way of the expansion cards.
2. Motherboard mounting - some system cases are not drilled or punched to support all the
mounting holes on a Baby AT mother-board. Therefore, the front edge of the system board tends
to be left unsupported and over time this edge can warp (bend) leading to loose components and
expansion cards causing intermittent problems.

2. ATX and Mini ATX Motherboard Form Factors

Full-ATX – (12" wide x 9.6" deep) / Mini-ATX – (11.2" wide x 8.2" deep).

The ATX, Created by Intel in 1995, was developed as an evolution of the Baby AT form factor
and was defined to address four areas of improvement: -

• Enhanced ease of use

• Better support for current and future I/O
• Better support for current and future processor technology, and
• Reduced total system cost.

The ATX is basically a Baby AT rotated 90 degrees and providing a new mounting configuration
for the power supply. The processor is relocated away from the expansion slots, (unlike Baby
AT) allowing them to hold full length add-in cards.

The longer side of the board is used to host more on-board I/O ports. The ATX power supply,
rather than blowing air out of the chassis, as in most Baby AT platforms, provides air-flow
through the chassis and across the processor.

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ATX Motherboard

ATX-Motherboard

Some Improvements of the ATX Motherboard Form Factor

• Integrated I/O Port Connectors: Baby AT motherboards use headers which stick up from the
board, and a cable that goes from them to the physical serial and parallel port connectors mounted
on to the case. The ATX has these connectors soldered directly onto the motherboard.
• Integrated PS/2 Mouse Connector: ATX motherboards have the PS/2 port built into the
motherboard.
• Reduced Drive Bay Interference: Since the board is essentially "rotated" 90 degrees from the
baby AT style, there is much less "overlap" between where the board is and where the drives are
thus making it easy to access the board, and fewer cooling problems.
• Reduced Expansion Card Interference: The processor socket/slot and memory sockets are
moved from the front of the board to the back right side, near the power supply. This eliminates
the clearance problem with baby AT style motherboards and allows full length cards to be used in
most (if not all) of the system bus slots.
• Better Power Supply Connector: The ATX motherboard uses a single 20-pin connector instead
of the confusing pair of near-identical 6-pin connectors on the baby AT form factor.
• "Soft Power" Support:The ATX power supply is turned on and off using signaling from the
motherboard, not a physical toggle switch. This allows the PC to be turned on and off under
software control, allowing much improved power management.
• 3.3V Power Support: The ATX style motherboard has support for 3.3V power from the ATX
power supply.
• Improved Design for Upgradability: In part because it is the newest design, the ATX is the
choice "for the future". More than that, its design makes upgrading easier because of more
efficient access to the components on the motherboard.

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3.MicroATX Motherboard Form Factor

This form factor was developed as a natural evolution of the ATX form factor to address new
market trends and PC technologies. MicroATX supports:

• Current processor technologies

• The transition to newer processor technologies
• AGP high performance graphics solutions
• Smaller motherboard size
• Smaller power supply form factor

4.Flex ATX

This is a subset of MicroATX developed by Intel in 1999. It allows more flexible motherboard
design, component positioning and shape. Can be smaller than regular microATX.

• Supports current socketed processor technologies

• Smaller motherboard size
• ATX 2.03 I/O panel
• Same mounting holes as microATX
• Socket only processors to keep the size small

5.LPX and Mini LPX (Low Profile casing eXtended)

Note: These Motherboard Form Factors are obsolete.

The LPX motherboard form factors are designed to be used in small Slimline or "low profile"
cases typically found on low profile desktop systems. The primary design goal behind the LPX
form factor is reducing space usage (and cost).

The most distinguishing feature is the riser card that is used to hold expansion slots. The riser
card of the LPX motherboard form factor is situated at the center of the motherboard. Expansion
cards plug into the riser card; usually, a maximum of just three. This means that the expansion
cards are parallel to the plane of the motherboard.

This allows the height of the case to be greatly reduced, since the height of the expansion cards is
the main reason full-sized desktop cases are as tall as they are. The problem is that you are
limited to only two or three expansion slots!

While the LPX form factor can be used by a manufacturer to save money and space in the
construction of a custom product, these systems suffer from non-standardization, poor
expandability, poor upgradability, poor cooling and difficulty of use for the do-it-yourself.

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LPX Motherboard Form Factor

LPX Motherboard with a riser card mounted. | Source

The riser card, where adapter cards are connected

6.NLX (New Low profile eXtended) Form Factor

Note: This motherboard form factor is also obsolete.

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The need for a modern, small motherboard standard led to the development of the new NLX
form factor. In many ways, NLX is similar to LPX. Also like ATX, the NLX standard was
developed by Intel Corporation in 1998.

NLX still uses the same general design as LPX, with a smaller motherboard and a riser card for
expansion cards. The riser card is pushed to one extreme edge of the motherboard.

NLX makes the following main changes: -

• Revised design to support larger memory modules and modern DIMM memory packaging.
• Support for the newest processor technologies, including the new Pentium II using SEC
packaging.
• Support for AGP video cards.
• Better thermal characteristics, to support modern CPUs that run hotter than old ones.
• More optimal location of CPU on the board to allow easier access and better cooling.
• More flexibility in how the motherboard can be set up and configured.
• Enhanced design features, such as the ability to mount the motherboard so it can slide in or out of
the system case easily.
• Support for desktop and tower cases.

NLX Motherboard Form Factor

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THE CHIPSET
 The important component of the motherboard is the chipset
 It is formed of different integrated circuits (ICs) attached to the mother board that
control how the system interact with the CPU and the motherboard.
 A chipset is a set of electronic components in an integrated circuit that manages the data flow
between the processor, memory and peripherals.
 The chipset is embedded in the motherboard.
 Chipsets are usually designed to work with a specific family of microprocessors.
 Because it controls communications between the processor and external devices, the chipset plays
a crucial role in determining system performance.
 Because the chipset defines the types and limits of most connections between the CPU and
peripherals, it may be the most important consideration in a motherboard.

• The term chipset often refers to a specific pair of chips on the motherboard: the
northbridge and the southbridge.

THE NORTHBRIDGE CHIP

• links the CPU to very high-speed devices, especially RAM and graphics controllers.
• The northbridge connects the southbridge to the CPU and is commonly known as the
memory controller hub.
• The northbridge handles a computer's faster interaction requirements and controls
communication between the CPU, RAM, ROM, the basic input/output system (BIOS),
the accelerated graphics port (AGP) and the southbridge chip.
• The northbridge links I/O signals directly to the CPU.
• The CPU uses the northbridge frequency as a baseline for determining its operating
frequency.

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THE SOUTHBRIDGE CHIP

• connects to lower-speed peripheral buses (such as PCI or ISA).

• The southbridge, which is not directly connected to the CPU, is also known as the
input/output controller hub.
• Southbridge handles the motherboard's slower connections, including input/output (I/O)
devices and computer peripherals like expansion slots and hard disk drives.
• In many modern chipsets, the southbridge contains some on-chip integrated peripherals,
such as Ethernet, USB, and audio devices.

Functions of the chipset

• It controls the bits that flow between CPU & devices.

• It controls the system memory.
• It manages data transfers between CPU Memory & input output devices
• Provides support for expansion bus and power management features of the system
• Controls memory cache, external buses, peripherals

The 5 Most Important Things to Consider When Choosing a Motherboard

#1 CPU Socket
#2 Chipsets
#3 Form Factor/Size
#4 Integrated Add-ons
#5 Brand

CHOOSING A MOTHERBOARD

1. Form Factor. The form factor is a set of standards that include the size and shape of the
board, the arrangement of the mounting holes, the power interface, and the type and
placement of ports and connectors. Generally, you should choose the case to fit the mobo, not
vice-versa. But if there is a case that you simply must use (either because it's the one you
happen to have or because you really, really like that case), then make sure the motherboard
you choose is of a compatible form factor.
2. Processor support. You must select a mobo that supports the type and speed of processor
you want to use and has the correct type of socket for that processor.
3. RAM support. Make sure that the motherboard you select supports enough RAM of the type
(DDR-SDRAM, DDR2-SDRAM, RDRAM, etc.) that you want to use. Most motherboards
manufactured as of this writing can support at least 4 Gig of RAM, with DDR2 being the
most popular type because of its speed and relatively low cost. Most DDR motherboards also
support dual channel DDR, which can further improve performance. But to take advantage
of dual-channel, the RAM sticks must be installed in matched pairs, and the mobo must
support it.
4. Chipset. The chipset pretty much runs the show on the motherboard, and some chipsets are
better than others. The chipset cannot be replaced, so the only way to solve problems caused
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by a bad chipset is to replace the mobo. Read the reviews of other motherboards using the
same chipset as the one you are considering to see if a lot of people have reported problems
with it.
5. SATA support. There's really very little reason not to use SATA drives these days. They're
priced comparably to EIDE drives, but deliver much higher data transfer. But to use SATA,
your motherboard must have SATA support. (Well, you can actually install aftermarket
SATA expansion cards, but why do that on a new computer?)
6. Expansion Slots and Ports. How many of each type of expansion slot are included? Will
they be enough to meet your current and future needs? How about Firewire support? And
does it have enough USB slots for all the peripherals you want to dangle off of it?
7. Reputation. Search the newsgroups to see if others have found the board you are considering
to be a lemon. One excellent Web resource for motherboard research is Motherboards.org.
When choosing a motherboard, reliability is the most important factor. Replacing a failed
motherboard requires essentially disassembling the entire computer, and may also require
reinstalling the operating system and applications from scratch.
8. Compatibility. Most motherboards include drivers for all recent Windows versions, but
check the documentation just to be sure. If you plan to use the board for a computer running
another operating system (Linux, UNIX, BSD, etc.) first check the with the motherboard
manufacturer to see if it is compatible, and then search the hardware newsgroups for the OS
you will be using to see how that particular board has worked out for others.
9. On-Board Features. Do you want integrated audio or video? If you don't plan on using the
computer for graphics, multimedia, or gaming, then you may be able to save money by
buying a motherboard with less-than-spectacular integrated audio and/or video.
10. RAID Support. RAID (Redundant Array of Independent Disks) is a set of protocols for
arranging multiple hard drives into "arrays" to provide fault tolerance and/or increase the
speed of data access from the hard drives. Many motherboards have RAID controllers built-
in, saving you the cost of installing an add-on RAID controller.
11. Cost. Even if you are on a budget, the motherboard is not the place to cut corners. Try a less
fancy case, instead. A good motherboard is more important than neon lights. But at the same
time, the fact that one mobo costs twice as much as another doesn't mean it is twice as good.
By searching newsgroups and reading hardware reviews, you're likely to find some
inexpensive boards that perform as well as (or even better than) boards costing a great deal
more.

PRECAUTION MEASURES YOU WOULD CONSIDER WHEN UPGRADING THE

MOTHERBOARD

To remove the motherboard, do the following

1. If you have access to your personal data, back it up before continuing this procedure.
2. Disconnect every single cable in the back of the computer. This includes the power cord. Do not
leave anything connected.
3. Push the power button (with the power cord disconnected) This will drain any power built up in
the system. VERY IMPORTANT!!!
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4. Open computer case (you will need to consult the manual on this since there is numerous types of
cases and each have their own way of opening)
5. DO NOT BLOW ON ANY DUST YOU SEE (Your breath has moisture and electronics do not
like it)
6. Touch a metal part of the computer. Also if you have a static wrist band wear it.
7. Remove Memory
8. Remove PCI cards (you may or may not have any PCI cards. If you don't then skip to next step)
9. Remove video cards (You may not have a video card in the system. It may be built into the
motherboard. If that is the case, just skip to the next step)
10. Disconnect all IDE cables plugged into the motherboard .
11. Disconnect any SATA cables that is connected. (Your system may not have SATA cables)
12. Disconnect power cable that is plugged into the motherboard .
13. Remove the processor/CPU
14. Disconnect the control panel connector (cable that goes from the power button to the
motherboard)
15. Disconnect any other cables that are connected to the motherboard.
16. You will not have to remove the hard drive or CD-ROM from the computer unless they are in the
way. On most computer cases they are out of the way.
17. On some systems, you have to remove the power supply. If that is the case for your system, then
remove the power supply.

To install the motherboard do the following

1. Disconnect every single cable in the back of the computer. This includes the power cord. Do not
leave anything connected.
2. Push the power button (with the power cord disconnected) This will drain any power built up in
the system.
3. Open computer case (you will need to consult the manual on this since there is numerous types of
cases and each have their own way of opening)
4. DO NOT BLOW ON ANY DUST YOU SEE (Your breath has moisture and electronics do not
like it)
5. Touch a metal part of the computer. Also if you have a static wrist band wear it.
6. Install the motherboard
7. Install the processor/CPU
8. Install the power supply if you had to remove it to remove the motherboard
9. Install the power connections to the motherboard from the power supply
10. Connect the control panel connector (cable that goes from the power button to the motherboard)
11. Plug the power cord in the system
12. Turn the computer on.
13. You should see signs of life. Most systems have beep codes. If your system has beep codes, check
the beep code to see what error you are getting. You should be getting one of the following beep
codes... beeps indicating no memory installed, beeps indicating incorrect memory installed, beeps
indicating no video card detected or other memory beeps. (The exact beeps or indications vary
depending on system). Also some systems have small LED lights in the back to indicate what
step in the P.O.S.T. failed.
14. If you are getting the proper beep codes and/or LED lights, then install the memory.
15. The beeps should change or the system may stop beeping

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16. If you have an integrated video card, connect the monitor and see if you get video. If you don't
than you may have a bad monitor, processor/CPU or cable not connected properly or possible
hardware issue
17. If everything is working OK, then install one piece of hardware at a time and see if the system
works. If the system fails then you know the last item crashed the system and you will know what
that device is. If you install more than one piece than you won't know what item caused the issue.
Sometimes more than one device goes bad or a bad device will take out another device with it.
18. If all devices are connected and it is working then the computer is setup correctly.

EXPANSION SLOT

Alternatively referred to as a bus slot or expansion port, an expansion slot is a connection or

port located inside a computer on the motherboard or riser board that allows a computer
hardware expansion card to be connected. For example, if you wanted to install a new video card
in the computer, you'd purchase a video expansion card and install that card into the compatible
expansion slot.

Below is a listing of some of the expansion slots commonly found in IBM compatible computers,
as well as other brands of computers and the devices commonly associated with those slots.
Clicking on any of the links below will provide you with additional details about each expansion
slot.

Motherboard expansion slots

Research on these in detail including pictures

• AGP - Video card

• AMR - Modem, Sound card
• CNR - Modem, Network card, Sound card
• EISA - SCSI, Network card, Video card
• ISA - Network card, Sound card, Video card
• PCI - Network card, SCSI, Sound card, Video card
• PCI Express - Video card, Modem, Sound Card, Network Card
• VESA - Video card

Many of the above expansion card slots are obsolete. You're most likely only going to encounter
AGP, PCI, and PCI Express when working with computers today. In the picture below is an
example of what expansion slots may look like on a motherboard. In this picture, there are three
different types of expansion slots: PCI Express, PCI, and AGP.

 Today, AGP has been replaced by PCI Express.

 Today, AMR is no longer found or used with any modern motherboard.
 Today, this slot is no longer found on motherboards and has been replaced with PCI only
motherboards and motherboards with PCIe.

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 Although the EISA bus is backward compatible and not a proprietary bus, it never
became widely used and is no longer found in computers today.

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(CPU) PROCESSOR
• The processor is the main “brain” of a computer system.
• It performs all of the instructions and calculations that are needed and manages the flow
of information through a computer.
• It comes in different form factors, and each style requiring a particular slot on the
motherboard
• Major CPU manufacturers are: Intel, AMD, and Cyrix
• Most CPU or processor sockets today are (ZIF) Zero Insertion Force socket, the ZIF
socket was designed by Intel and included a small lever to insert and remove the computer
processor. Using the lever allows you to add and remove a computer processor without any tools
and requires no force (zero force).
• All processor sockets from the Socket 2 and higher have been a ZIF socket design.
• Processors are continually evolving and becoming faster and more powerful. The speed
of a processor is measured in megahertz (MHz) or gigahertz (GHz).

• There are two types of fundamental CPU architecture: complex instruction set computers (CISC)
and reduced instruction set computers (RISC). CISC is the most prevalent and established
microprocessor architecture, while RISC is a relative newcomer.

CISC and RISC

RISC and CISC Processors

RISC Processor

It is known as Reduced Instruction Set Computer. It is a type of microprocessor that has a limited
number of instructions. They can execute their instructions very fast because instructions are
very small and simple.

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RISC chips require fewer transistors which make them cheaper to design and produce. In RISC,
the instruction set contains simple and basic instructions from which more complex instruction
can be produced. Most instructions complete in one cycle, which allows the processor to handle
many instructions at same time.

In this instructions are register based and data transfer takes place from register to register.

CISC Processor

• It is known as Complex Instruction Set Computer.

• It was first developed by Intel.
• It contains large number of complex instructions.
• In this instructions are not register based.
• Instructions cannot be completed in one machine cycle.
• Data transfer is from memory to memory.
• Micro programmed control unit is found in CISC.
• Also they have variable instruction formats.

Difference Between CISC and RISC

Architectural Reduced Instruction Set
Complex Instruction Set Computer(CISC)
Characterstics Computer(RISC)

Instruction size and Large set of instructions with variable formats Small set of instructions with
format (16-64 bits per instruction). fixed format (32 bit).

Data transfer Memory to memory. Register to register.

Most micro coded using control memory (ROM) Mostly hardwired without
CPU control
but modern CISC use hardwired control. control memory.

Instruction type Not register based instructions. Register based instructions.

Memory access More memory access. Less memory access.

Clocks Includes multi-clocks. Includes single clock.

Instructions are reduced and

Instruction nature Instructions are complex.
simple.

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Central Processing Unit Architecture operates the capacity to work from “Instruction Set
Architecture” to where it was designed. The architectural designs of CPU are RISC (Reduced
instruction set computing) and CISC (Complex instruction set computing). CISC has the ability
to execute addressing modes or multi-step operations within one instruction set. It is the design
of the CPU where one instruction performs many low-level operations. For example, memory
storage, an arithmetic operation and loading from memory. RISC is a CPU design strategy
based on the insight that simplified instruction set gives higher performance when combined
with a microprocessor architecture which has the ability to execute the instructions by using
some microprocessor cycles per instruction.

This article discusses about the RISC and CISC architecture with suitable diagrams.

• Hardware of the Intel is termed as Complex Instruction Set Computer (CISC)

• Apple hardware is Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC).

What is RISC and CISC Architectures

Hardware designers invent numerous technologies & tools to implement the desired architecture
in order to fulfill these needs. Hardware architecture may be implemented to be either hardware
specific or software specific, but according to the application both are used in the required
quantity. As far as the processor hardware is concerned, there are 2 types of concepts to
implement the processor hardware architecture. First one is RISC and other is CISC.

CISC Architecture

The CISC approach attempts to minimize the number of instructions per program, sacrificing the
number of cycles per instruction. Computers based on the CISC architecture are designed to
decrease the memory cost. Because, the large programs need more storage, thus increasing the
memory cost and large memory becomes more expensive. To solve these problems, the number
of instructions per program can be reduced by embedding the number of operations in a single
instruction, thereby making the instructions more complex.

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CISC Architecture

• MUL loads two values from the memory into separate registers in CISC.
• CISC uses minimum possible instructions by implementing hardware and executes operations.
• Instruction Set Architecture is a medium to permit communication between the programmer and
the hardware. Data execution part, copying of data, deleting or editing is the user commands used
in the microprocessor and with this microprocessor the Instruction set architecture is operated.
• The main keywords used in the above Instruction Set Architecture are as below

Instruction Set: Group of instructions given to execute the program and they direct the
computer by manipulating the data. Instructions are in the form – Opcode (operational code) and
Operand. Where, opcode is the instruction applied to load and store data, etc. The operand is a
memory register where instruction applied.

Addressing Modes: Addressing modes are the manner in the data is accessed. Depending upon
the type of instruction applied, addressing modes are of various types such as direct mode where
straight data is accessed or indirect mode where the location of the data is accessed. Processors
having identical ISA may be very different in organization. Processors with identical ISA and
nearly identical organization is still not nearly identical.

CPU performance is given by the fundamental law

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Thus, CPU performance is dependent upon Instruction Count, CPI (Cycles per instruction) and
Clock cycle time. And all three are affected by the instruction set architecture.

Instruction Count of the CPU

This underlines the importance of the instruction set architecture. There are two prevalent
instruction set architectures

Examples of CISC PROCESSORS

IBM 370/168 – It was introduced in the year 1970. CISC design is a 32 bit processor and four
64-bit floating point registers.
VAX 11/780 – CISC design is a 32-bit processor and it supports many numbers of addressing
modes and machine instructions which is from Digital Equipment Corporation.
Intel 80486 – It was launched in the year 1989 and it is a CISC processor, which has instructions
varying lengths from 1 to 11 and it will have 235 instructions.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CISC ARCHITECTURE

• Instruction-decoding logic will be Complex.

• One instruction is required to support multiple addressing modes.
• Less chip space is enough for general purpose registers for the instructions that are 0operated
directly on memory.
• Various CISC designs are set up two special registers for the stack pointer, handling
interrupts, etc.
• MUL is referred to as a “complex instruction” and requires the programmer for storing functions.

RISC Architecture

RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) is used in portable devices due to its power efficiency.
For Example, Apple iPod and Nintendo DS. RISC is a type of microprocessor architecture that
uses highly-optimized set of instructions. RISC does the opposite, reducing the cycles per
instruction at the cost of the number of instructions per program Pipelining is one of the unique
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feature of RISC. It is performed by overlapping the execution of several instructions in a pipeline

fashion. It has a high performance advantage over CISC.

RISC Architecture

RISC processors take simple instructions and are executed within a clock cycle

RISC ARCHITECTURE CHARACTERISTICS

• Simple Instructions are used in RISC architecture.

• RISC helps and supports few simple data types and synthesize complex data types.
• RISC utilizes simple addressing modes and fixed length instructions for pipelining.
• RISC permits any register to use in any context.
• One Cycle Execution Time
• The amount of work that a computer can perform is reduced by separating “LOAD” and
“STORE” instructions.
• RISC contains Large Number of Registers in order to prevent various number of interactions with
memory.
• In RISC, Pipelining is easy as the execution of all instructions will be done in a uniform interval
of time i.e. one click.
• In RISC, more RAM is required to store assembly level instructions.
• Reduced instructions need a less number of transistors in RISC.
• RISC uses Harvard memory model means it is Harvard Architecture.
• A compiler is used to perform the conversion operation means to convert a high-level language
statement into the code of its form.

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RISC & CISC Comparison

Comparison between CISC & RISC

MUL instruction is divided into three instructions

“LOAD” – moves data from the memory bank to a register
“PROD” – finds product of two operands located within the registers
“STORE” – moves data from a register to the memory banks
The main difference between RISC and CISC is the number of instructions and its complexity.

RISC Vs CISC

SEMANTIC GAP

Both RISC and CISC architectures have been developed as an attempt to cover the semantic gap.

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Semantic Gap

With an objective of improving efficiency of software development, several powerful

programming languages have come up, viz., Ada, C, C++, Java, etc. They provide a high level of
abstraction, conciseness and power. By this evolution the semantic gap grows. To enable
efficient compilation of high level language programs, CISC and RISC designs are the two
options.

CISC designs involve very complex architectures, including a large number of instructions and
addressing modes, whereas RISC designs involve simplified instruction set and adapt it to the
real requirements of user programs.

CISC and RISC Design

Multiplication of two Numbers in Memory

If the main memory is divided into areas that are numbered from row1:column 1 to row 5
:column 4. The data is loaded into one of four registers (A, B, C, or D). To find multiplication of

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two numbers- One stored in location 1:3 and other stored in location 4:2 and store back result in
1:3.

Multiplication of Two Numbers

The Advantages and Disadvantages of RISC and CISC

The Advantages of RISC architecture

• RISC(Reduced instruction set computing)architecture has a set of instructions, so high-level

language compilers can produce more efficient code
• It allows freedom of using the space on microprocessors because of its simplicity.
• Many RISC processors use the registers for passing arguments and holding the local variables.
• RISC functions use only a few parameters, and the RISC processors cannot use the call
instructions, and therefore, use a fixed length instruction which is easy to pipeline.
• The speed of the operation can be maximized and the execution time can be minimized.
Very less number of instructional formats, a few numbers of instructions and a few addressing
modes are needed.

The Disadvantages of RISC architecture

• Mostly, the performance of the RISC processors depends on the programmer or compiler as the
knowledge of the compiler plays a vital role while changing the CISC code to a RISC code
• While rearranging the CISC code to a RISC code, termed as a code expansion, will increase the
size. And, the quality of this code expansion will again depend on the compiler, and also on the
machine’s instruction set.
• The first level cache of the RISC processors is also a disadvantage of the RISC, in which these
processors have large memory caches on the chip itself. For feeding the instructions, they require
very fast memory systems.

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Advantages of CISC architecture

• Microprogramming is easy assembly language to implement, and less expensive than hard wiring
a control unit.
• The ease of microcoding new instructions allowed designers to make CISC machines upwardly
compatible:
• As each instruction became more accomplished, fewer instructions could be used to implement a
given task.

Disadvantages of CISC architecture

• The performance of the machine slows down due to the amount of clock time taken by different
instructions will be dissimilar
• Only 20% of the existing instructions is used in a typical programming event, even though there
are various specialized instructions in reality which are not even used frequently.
• The conditional codes are set by the CISC instructions as a side effect of each instruction which
takes time for this setting – and, as the subsequent instruction changes the condition code bits –
so, the compiler has to examine the condition code bits before this happens.

Thus, this article discusses about the RISC and CISC architectures; features of the RISC and
CISC processor architecture; advantages and drawbacks of RISC and CISC, and
comparison between the RISC and CISC architectures . For more information regarding the
RISC and CISC architectures, or electrical and electronics projects please visit the link
www.edgefxkits.com. Here is a question for you, what are the latest RISC and CISC processors?

CISC RISC

Large instruction set Compact instruction set

Complex, powerful instructions Simple hard-wired machine code and control unit
Instruction sub-commands micro-coded in on board Pipelining of instructions
ROM
Compact and versatile register set Numerous registers
Numerous memory addressing options for operands Compiler and IC developed simultaneously
CISC RISC
• Emphasis on hardware • Emphasis on software
• Includes multi-clock • Single-clock
• complex instructions • reduced instruction only
• Memory-to-memory: “LOAD” and • Register to register: “LOAD” and
“STORE” incorporated in instructions “STORE” are independent instructions
• high cycles per second, Small code sizes • Low cycles per second, large code sizes
• Transistors used for storing complex • Spends more transistors on memory
instructions registers

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Factors used to rate processors:

– System bus speeds supported; e.g., 1066 MHz
– Processor core frequency in gigahertz; e.g., 3.2 GHz
– Type of RAM, motherboard, and chipset supported

There are many factors, which affect how fast your computer can process data and
instructions:

• The amount of RAM memory

• The speed and generation of your CPU (the system clock)
• The size of the Register on your CPU
• The Bus type and speed
• The amount of Cache memory

• Three basic components:

– Input/output (I/O) unit
– Control unit
– One or more arithmetic logic units (ALUs)
• Registers: high-speed memory used by ALU
• Internal cache: holds data to be processed by ALU

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RAM & ROM

Data retention

• This is the most noteworthy difference between these two forms of memory. ROM is a
form of non-volatile memory, which means that it retains information even when the
computer is shut down. RAM, on the other hand, is considered volatile memory. It holds
data as long as your computer is up and running. After that…

Working type

• You can retrieve and alter data that is stored in RAM, but you cannot do so in the case of
ROM. Data in ROM can only be read, but not altered or modified, hence the name ‘read-
only memory’.

Accessibility

• Information stored in ROM is not as easily accessible as information in RAM.

Information stored in ROM is not easily altered or reprogrammed either, whereas in the
case of RAM, data can be accessed randomly, in any order, from any location.

Speed

• RAM trumps ROM in terms of speed; it accesses data much faster than ROM, and boosts
the processing speed of the computer.

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Physical appearance

• RAM is a thin rectangular chip that you can find inserted in a slot on the motherboard,
whereas ROM is typically an optical drive made of magnetic tapes. Furthermore, RAM is
usually bigger than ROM.

Storage Capacity

• A ROM chip usually stores no more than a few megabytes of data (4 MB ROM is quite
common these days). In contrast, a RAM chip can store as much as 16 Gigabytes’ (or
more) worth of information.

Ease of writing data

• It’s easier to write data in RAM than in ROM, since the latter is a place for storing very
limited, albeit immensely important and permanent information.
• The next time you find yourself in a circle of computer geeks, make sure that you bring
this information to the table. They might already know it, but they’ll certainly be
impressed!

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RAM ROM
• Stands for Random-access Memory • Stands for Read-only memory
• Normally ROM is read only memory and
• RAM is a read and write memory it can not be overwritten. However,
EPROMs can be reprogrammed
• RAM is faster • ROM is relatively slower than RAM
• RAM is a volatile memory. It means that the • ROM is permanent memory. Data in
data in RAM will be lost if power supply is ROM will stay as it is even if we remove
cut-off the power-supply
• There are mainly two types of RAM; static • There are several types of ROM; Erasable
RAM and Dynamic RAM ROM, Programmable ROM, EPROM etc.
• ROM usually stores instructions that are
• RAM stores all the applications and data
required for starting (booting) the
when the computer is up and running
computer
• Price of RAM is comparatively high • ROM chips are comparatively cheaper
• RAM chips are bigger in size • ROM chips are smaller in size
• Content of ROM are usually first
• Processor can directly access the content of transferred to RAM and then accessed by
RAM processor. This is done in order to be able
to access ROM content at a faster speed.
• Storage capacity of ROM installed in a
• RAM is often installed with large storage.
computer is much lesser than RAM

ROM CHIP

• Located on the motherboard

• Contains instructions that can directly be accessed by the CPU.
• It contains basic instructions for booting the computer and loading the operating system.
• The contents cannot be changed or erased.
• It is non-volatile, which means, it retains information even if the computer is powered
off.
• It is sometimes called the firmware, but firmware is actually the software stored in a
ROM Chip.
• The memory from which we can only read but cannot write on it.
• This type of memory is non-volatile.
• The information is stored permanently in such memories during manufacture.
• A ROM, stores such instructions that are required to start a computer.
• This operation is referred to as bootstrap.
• ROM chips are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic items like
washing machine and microwave oven.

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Following are the various types of ROM

1. MROM (Masked ROM)

The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of
data or instructions. These kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs which are
inexpensive.

2. PROM (Programmable Read only Memory)

PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a
blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM program. Inside the PROM
chip there are small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It can be
programmed only once and is not erasable.

3. EPROM(Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of up to 40
minutes. Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming, an
electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained for more
than ten years because the charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-
violet light is passed through a quartz crystal window(lid). This exposure to ultra-violet
light dissipates the charge. During normal use the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.

4. EEPROM(Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed
about ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (milli
second). In EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and programmed.
EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence,
the process of re-programming is flexible but slow.

Advantages of ROM

• Non-volatile in nature
• These cannot be accidentally changed
• Cheaper than RAMs
• Easy to test
• More reliable than RAMs
• These are static and do not require refreshing
• Its contents are always known and can be verified

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ROM on the Mother Board

• PROM (Programmable ROM) ,
• EPROM (Erasable PROM),
• EPROM can further be classified into the following categories
1) EEPROM(Electrically Erasable PROM),
2) UVEPROM(Ultra Violet Erasable PROM),
• ROM stores information that must be constantly available and cannot be changed.
• Non Volatile: Data does not lost, when computer is switched off.
• PROM requires a special hardware called as PROM Burner to update the BIOS.
• EPROM also requires a special hardware called as PROM Burner to update the BIOS.
• EEPROM erases the data by applying high voltage than normal voltage to update the
BIOS.
• UVPROM erases the data by applying UV rays to update the BIOS.

RAM (RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY)

• Temporary storage for data and programs that are being accessed by the CPU
• It is the working memory or primary memory
• RAM(Random Access Memory) is the internal memory of the CPU for storing data,
program and program result.
• It is read/write memory which stores data until the machine is working.
• Access time in RAM is independent of the address that is, each storage location inside the
memory is as easy to reach as other locations and takes the same amount of time.
• Data in the RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very expensive.
• RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is
a power failure.
• Hence a backup uninterruptible power system(UPS) is often used with computers.
• RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.

RAM is of two types

• Static RAM (SRAM)
• Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

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Static RAM (SRAM)

• The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power is being
supplied. However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM
chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to
prevent leakage, so SRAM need not have to be refreshed on a regular basis.
• Because of the extra space in the matrix, SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the
same amount of storage space, thus making the manufacturing costs higher. So SRAM is
used as cache memory and has very fast access.
• When cache memory is located on the motherboard, it either is located on individual
chips or on a memory module called cache on a stick.
• In static RAMs data storage elements are flip-flops.
• Static RAMs are more expensive than dynamic RAMs, so static RAMs are less appears
in PCs.
• Static RAMs maintain data till the power is off.

Static RAM Technologies

• Memory caching is a method used to store data or programs in SRAM for quick retrieval.
• Memory caching relies on SRAM chips to store data, And Cache controller to manage
the storage and retrieval of data from Cache memory.

Characteristic of the Static RAM

• It has long life
• There is no need to refresh
• Faster
• Used as cache memory
• Large size

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• Expensive
• High power consumption

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

• DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order to maintain the data. This
is done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred
times per second. DRAM is used for most system memory because it is cheap and small.
All DRAMs are made up of memory cells which are composed of one capacitor and one
transistor.
Characteristics of the Dynamic RAM
• It has short data lifetime
• Need to be refreshed continuously
• Slower as compared to SRAM
• Used as RAM
• Lesser in size
• Less expensive
• Less power consumption

Dynamic RAM Technologies

• A memory bank is a location on the motherboard that contains slots for memory modules.
• Dynamic RAM (DRAM) needs to be refreshed every few milliseconds.
• DRAM is refreshed by the memory controller.
• In current PCs, DRAM is always stored in DIMM, and RIMM modules, which plug
directly into a bank on the mother board.
• Cost of DRAM is less compared to the SRAM.
• DRAM has the following types RAMs
1) SDRAM(Synchronous Dynamic RAM),
2) DDR(Double Data Rate RAM), and
3) RDRAM (Rambus Dynamic RAM).
SDRAM is further classified into following categories
1) Regular SDRAM,
2) SDRAM-II,
3) SLDRAM or SYNLNK RAM (Synchronous Link Dynamic RAM).

• FPM DRAM:

• Fast page mode dynamic random access memory was the original form of DRAM. It
waits through the entire process of locating a bit of data by column and row and then
reading the bit before it starts on the next bit. Maximum transfer rate to L2 cache is
approximately 176 MBps.

• EDO DRAM:

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• Extended data-out dynamic random access memory does not wait for all of the
processing of the first bit before continuing to the next one. As soon as the address of the
first bit is located, EDO DRAM begins looking for the next bit. It is about five percent
faster than FPM. Maximum transfer rate to L2 cache is approximately 264 MBps.

• SDRAM:

• Synchronous dynamic random access memory takes advantage of the burst mode
concept to greatly improve performance. It does this by staying on the row containing the
requested bit and moving rapidly through the columns, reading each bit as it goes. The
idea is that most of the time the data needed by the CPU will be in sequence. SDRAM is
about five percent faster than EDO RAM and is the most common form in desktops
today. Maximum transfer rate to L2 cache is approximately 528 MBps.

• DDR SDRAM:

• Double data rate synchronous dynamic RAM is just like SDRAM except that is has
higher bandwidth, meaning greater speed. Maximum transfer rate to L2 cache is
approximately 1,064 MBps (for DDR SDRAM 133 MHZ).

• RDRAM:

• Rambus dynamic random access memory is a radical departure from the previous
DRAM architecture. Designed by Rambus, RDRAM uses a Rambus in-line memory
module (RIMM), which is similar in size and pin configuration to a standard DIMM.
What makes RDRAM so different is its use of a special high-speed data bus called the
Rambus channel. RDRAM memory chips work in parallel to achieve a data rate of 800
MHz, or 1,600 MBps. Since they operate at such high speeds, they generate much more
heat than other types of chips. To help dissipate the excess heat Rambus chips are fitted
with a heat spreader, which looks like a long thin wafer. Just like there are smaller
versions of DIMMs, there are also SO-RIMMs, designed for notebook computers.

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MEMORY MODULE FORMATS

MAIN MEMORY-- SIMMS, DIMMS AND OTHER RAM TECHNOLOGIES

1. Single In-line Memory Module, SIMM:

• This type of DRAM or memory package holds up to eight nine RAM chips (8 in
Macs and 9 in PCs where the 9th chip is used for parity checking).
• Another important factor is the bus width, which for SIMMS is 32 bits.

2. Dual In-line Memory Module, DIMM:

• With the increase in data bus width, DIMMs began to replace SIMMs as the
predominant type of memory module.
• The main difference between a SIMM and a DIMM is that a DIMM has separate
electrical contacts on each side of the module, while the contacts on a SIMM are
on both sides are redundant.
• Standard SIMMs also have a 32-bit data bus, while standard DIMMs have a 64-
bit data bus.

3. Rambus In-line Memory Module, RIMM:

• This type of DRAM memory package is essentially the same as a DIMM but is
referred to as RIMMs because of their manufacturer and proprietary slot required

4. Small outline DIMM, SO-DIMM:

• This type of DRAM package is about half the size of the standard DIMM. Being
smaller they are used in small footprint PCs including laptops, netbooks, etc.,

5. Small outline RIMM, SO-RIMM:

• This type of DRAM package is a small version of the RIMM.

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SIMM Technologies

• SIMM is also called as Single Inline Memory Module.

• SIMMs was invented by JAMES CLAYTON of Wang laboratories in 1983.
• SIMMs are rated by speed, measured in nanoseconds.
• This speed is a measure of access time.
• Common SIMM speeds are 60, 70, or 80 ns.
• The smaller the speed rating is, the faster the chip.
• Available in 30pin, 72pin size.

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30 PIN SIMM

• 20 pins for Row or Column addressing.

• 8 pins for additional bus width.
• Measures 3.5 inches wide and 1 inch breadth.
• A notch on edge of package prevents you from improperly inserting a SIMM with bad
orientation.
• Two holes on either side of SIMM allow sockets to latch the module securely in the
place.
• 30 pin SIMMs can transfer 8 bits (9 bits in parity versions) of data at a time.
• 30 pin SIMM are mostly used in INTEL 286,386,486 systems.

72 PIN SIMMs

• Packs 4 bytes wide banks on a single module.

• Notch in the centre of SIMM prevent you from accidentally sliding a 30-pin SIMM into
72 pin socket.
• 72 pin SIMM won’t fit into 30 pin socket.
• Notch on left side prevent improper orientation of SIMM.

• Measures 4.25 inches wide and 0.38 inch thick Is often double-side to achieve higher
Capacities.
• 72 pin SIMMs can transfer 32 bits (36 bits in parity versions) of data at a time.
• 72 pin SIMMs are widely used in INTEL 486, PENTIUM, PENTIUM PRO&P-II
systems.
SIMMs use FPM & EDO technologies to access data.
1) FPM (Fast Page Mode): Improved on earlier memory types by sending the row
address just once for many access to memory near that row (Earlier memory types
required a complete row and column for each memory access).
2) EDO (Extended Data Out): EDO is an improvement over FPM Memory .It is faster
because it eliminates the 10ns delay while waited before it issuing the next memory
address.

DIMM Technologies

• DIMM is also called as Dual Inline Memory Module.

• A DIMM is a memory module that has pins on opposite sides of the circuit board that do
not connect and thus form two sets of contacts.
• Contain 168 or 184 pins.
• Hold between 8 MB and 2 GB of RAM.
• Newer DIMMs hold chips that use synchronous DRAM (SDRAM), which is DRAM that
runs in sync with the system clock and thus runs faster than other types of DRAM.
• 168 pins divided into 3 groups.
• First group runs from 1 to pin 10.
• Second group from 11 to pin 40.

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• Third group from pin 41 to pin 84 and,

• Pin 85 is an opposite sign.
• A symmetrical arrangement of notches prevents improper insertion into its socket.
• Measures 5.25 inch wide and one inch breadth.
• DIMM closely resembles SIMM But physically larger.

DIMM uses EDO &BEDO technologies to access data.

1) EDO (Extended Data Out): EDO is an improvement over FPM Memory .It is faster
because it eliminates the 10ns delay while waited before it issuing the next memory
address.
2) BEDO (Burst Extended Data Out): BEDO is a refined version of EDO which reduces
memory access time than EDO.BEDO is not popular because INTEL does not
support it.

RIMM Technologies

• RIMM is also called as Rambus Inline Memory Module.

• A RIMM is a memory module that houses Rambus DRAM (RDRAM) chips, which are
much faster than SDRAM.
• With RIMMs, each socket must be filled to maintain continuity throughout all sockets.
• Looks almost similar to DIMM but slightly bigger.
• Also called direct rambus memory module.
• They transfer data in 16 bit chunks along dedicated memory channel.
• Available in 168pin or 184pin and include long heat sink.

5. COOLING SYSTEM

Heat Sinks/Fans:

• As processors, graphics cards, RAM and other components in computers have increased
in speed and power consumption, the amount of heat produced by these components as a
side-effect of normal operation has also increased.

• These components need to be kept within a specified temperature range to prevent

overheating, instability, malfunction and damage leading to a shortened component
lifespan. Other devices which need to be cooled include the power supply
unit,optoelectronic devices such as higher-power lasers and light emitting diodes (LEDs)
and hard disks.

• A heat sink is a heat exchanger component attached to a device used for passive cooling.
It is designed to increase the surface area in contact with the cooling fluid surrounding it,
such as the air thus allowing it to remove more heat per unit time.

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• Other factors which improve the thermal performance of a heat sink are the approach air
velocity, choice of material – usually an aluminum alloy due to its high thermal
conductivity values (229 W/mºK), fin (or other protrusion) design and surface treatment.

• The approach air velocity depends on the attached or nearby fan. When there is no air
flow around the heat sink, energy cannot be transferred.

• A computer fan is any fan inside, or attached to, a computer case used for active
cooling, and may refer to fans that draw cooler air into the case from the outside, expel
warm air from inside, or move air across a heat sink to cool a particular component.

• A fan is needed to disperse the significant amount of heat that is generated by the
electrically powered parts in a computer. It is important for preventing overheating of the
various electronic components. Some computers will also have a heat sink (a piece of
fluted metal) located near the processor to absorb heat from the processor.

6. COMPUTER CASE

• A computer case (also known as a computer chassis, cabinet, box, tower, enclosure,
housing, system unit or simply case) is the enclosure that contains most of the
components of a computer (usually excluding the display, keyboard and mouse). If you

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are building your own computer selecting the case will be one of your first choices to
make: the type of case, its size, orientation, the number of bays you will need etc.
• A computer case is an enclosure that contains the main components of a computer.
• They are usually constructed from steel or aluminum combined with plastic, although
other materials such as wood have been used for specialized units.
• It has attachment points, slots and screws that allow these parts to be fitted onto the case.
• The basic form factors of computer include; desktop, tower
• Cases are available in different sizes and shapes; the size and shape of a computer case is
usually determined by the configuration of the motherboard that it is designed to
accommodate, since this is the largest and most central component of most computers.
• The most popular style for desktop computers is ATX, although microATX and similar
layouts became very popular for a variety of uses.

Functions

• It provides a standardized format for the installation of non-vendor-specific hardware.

• Housing for delicate internal components
• Attach internal and external components (chassis)
• It protects the motherboard circuitry and hardware from dust, spills etc
• Helps to keep the hardware cool.

As an Industry Standard
• Cases help standardize the safe installation of different vendors’ hardware. Samsung and Western
Digital each make hard drives with different capabilities, for example, but because they are a
standard size they will fit equally well into the same 3.5-inch hard drive location (or bay) within a
case. Such standardization allows for customization and lower production costs.
As Protection
• The exposed circuitry of a motherboard can malfunction if it gets bumped, something spilled on
it, or too much dust. Cases protect delicate internal components such as the motherboard from
such danger. Additionally, case fans help air flow and prevent components from overheating

Factors To Consider When Choosing A Computer Case

o The size of the motherboard

o The space available inside
o The number of external or internal components

Three varieties of case types are listed:

• Desktop - typically have four drive bays, about six expansion slots, and were meant to sit
horizontally on a desk. The text puts compact cases (low profile cases) in this category.
They are typically smaller, and meant for low cost, less powerful computers.
• Tower - typically sits vertically on a desk or on the floor (bad idea: static from the
carpet). These come in a variety of sizes, the larger ones generally for more powerful
computers and servers.

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• Notebook/Laptop - used for portable computers. These vary in thickness and weight,
number of slots and ports, and processor power. The size of the case may require that the
power supply be external, and in some cases that peripheral devices are external as well.

Case Sizes
o Cases can come in many different sizes (known as form factors).
o The size and shape of a computer case is usually determined by the form factor of
the motherboard, since it is the largest component of most computers.
o Consequently, personal computer form factors typically specify only the internal
dimensions and layout of the case.
o For example, a case designed for an ATX motherboard and power supply may
take on several external forms, such as a vertical tower (designed to sit on the
floor, height > width) or a flat desktop (height < width) or pizza box (height ≤ 2
inches, designed to sit on the desk under the computer's monitor). Full-size tower
cases are typically larger in volume than desktop cases, with more room for drive
bays and expansion slots.
• Desktop cases—and mini-tower cases designed for the reduced microATX form factor—
are popular in business environments where space is at a premium.

Major Component Locations:

1. The motherboard is usually screwed to the case along its largest face, which could be the
bottom or the side of the case depending on the form factor and orientation.
2. Form factors such as ATX provide a back panel with cut-out holes to expose I/Oports
provided by integrated peripherals, as well as expansion slots which may optionally
expose additional ports provided by expansion cards.
3. The power supply unit is often housed at the top rear of the case; it is usually attached
with four screws to support its weight.
4. Most cases include drive bays on the front of the case; a typical ATX case includes a
5.25" bay (used mainly for optical drives) and 3.5" bays used for hard drives, floppy
drives, and card readers.
5. Buttons and LEDs are typically located on the front of the case; some cases include
additional I/O ports, temperature and/or processor speed monitors in the same area
6. Vents are often found on the front, back, and sometimes on the side of the case to allow
cooling fans to be mounted via surrounding threaded screw holes.

7. POWER SUPPLY UNIT

• The power supply is used to connect all of the parts of the computer to electrical power.
• Computer power supply is the electric source of all components of a computer.

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• The rated output capacity of a PSU should usually be about 40% greater than the calculated
system power consumption needs obtained by adding up all the system components. This protects
against overloading the supply, and guards against performance degradation.

Function of computer power supply

• The function of power supply unit is to convert the electrical power (AC) comes from
wall socket to a suitable type and voltage (DC) so that each component of a computer
works properly.
• The power supply converts the alternating current (AC) from your mains (110V
input or 220V input) to the direct current (DC) needed by the computer.
• The power supply is used to connect all of the parts of the computer to electrical
power.
• Main source of power for the computer
• Supply power to the motherboard
• Converts mains AC to low-voltage regulated DC power for the internal components
of a computer.
• Regulates the voltage to eliminate spikes and surges common in most electrical
systems
• Regulates power to the required voltages needed by various computer components.

• Lack of proper supply of power will damage a computer system. The power supply
receives 120 or 230V and converts into 3.3V, 5.5V and 12V.

Why different converted power?

• That is because all components of a computer system don’t need the same power.
• Regulates power to the required voltages needed by various computer components.
• For example, motherboard and cards use 3.3V. The most power demand parts such as
Fan and drives need 12V to operate.
• Power supplies - often referred to as switching power supplies, use switcher
technology to convert the AC input to lower DC voltages. The typical voltages
produced are: •3.3 volts, •5 volts, •12 volts

Power Supply Color Codes

Voltage Color Use

+12V Yellow Disk drive, fans, cooling devices
-12V Blue Serial ports
+3.3V Orange Newer CPUs, video cards
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+5V Red Motherboard, Motherboard components

0V Black Ground, used to complete circuits with other voltages

Colour codes for the ATX power supply cables

PIN SIGNAL COLOUR
1 3.3V Orange
2 3.3V Orange
3 GROUND Black
4 5V Red
5 GROUND Black
6 5V Red
7 GROUND Black
8 POWER OK Green
9 5V Purple
10 12V yellow

ATX Main Power Supply Connector Pinout (Wire Side View)

Color Signal Pin Pin Signal Color
Orange* +3.3V 11 1 +3.3V Orange
Blue –12V 12 2 +3.3V Orange
Black GND 13 3 GND Black
Green PS_On 14 4 +5V Red
Black GND 15 5 GND Black
Black GND 16 6 +5V Red
Black GND 17 7 GND Black
White –5V 18 8 Power_Good Gray
Red +5V 19 9 +5VSB Purple
(Standby)
Red +5V 20 10 +12V Yellow

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• The 3.3-volts and 5-volts are typically used by digital circuits, while the 12-volt is used to
power fans and motors in disk drives. The main specification of a power supply is in
watts. A watt is the product of the voltage in volts and the current in amperes or amps.

The form factor of the power supply refers to its general shape and dimensions. The form factor
of the power supply must match that of the case that it is supposed to go into, and the
motherboard it is to power.

Power Supply Wattage:

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A 400-watt switching power supply will not necessarily use more power than a 250-watt supply.
A larger supply may be needed if you use every available slot on the motherboard or every
available drive bay in the personal computer case. It is not a good idea to have a 250-watt supply
if you have 250 watts total in devices, since the supply should not be loaded to 100 percent of its
capacity.

According to PC Power & Cooling, Inc., some power consumption values (in watts) for common
items in a personal computer are:

For overall power supply wattage, add the requirement for each device in your system, then
multiply by 1.5. The multiplier takes into account that today’s systems draw disproportionally on
the +12V output. Furthermore, power supplies are more efficient and reliable when loaded to
30% - 70% of maximum capacity.

Power Connectors
1. Molex connector
2. Berg connector
3. 20 pin or 24 pin
4. 4 pin or 8 pin

NB: don’t force connectors when connecting

Comparison of Power Supply Form Factors

The table below is a summary comparison of the different power supply form factors. It shows
their dimensions, the usual style of system in which they are used, and what sort of motherboard
connectors they provide. It also shows for each power supply form factor, the typical cases and
motherboards that are used with it. These lists should not be considered exhaustive. Also bear in
mind that some combinations are much more common than others. "AT/ATX Combo" refers to

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cases designed to fit either AT or ATX power supplies, and motherboards designed with both AT
and ATX style connectors.

Note: SFX and ATX power supplies can generally be interchanged in systems sized to hold them
because their 20-pin main motherboard connectors are almost identical. They are not however
exactly identical: the SFX power supply does not provide the -5 V signal that may be required
for some systems that use certain ISA bus expansion cards.

Typical
Match to
Form Dimensions Usual Motherboard Match to Case Form
Motherboard
Factor (W x D x H, Style(s) Connectors Factor
Form Factor
mm)

PC/XT 222 x 142 x 120 Desktop AT Style PC/XT PC/XT

Desktop
AT 213 x 150 x 150 AT Style AT AT, Baby AT
or Tower

Desktop Baby AT, AT, AT, Baby AT,

Baby AT 165 x 150 x 150 AT Style
or Tower AT/ATX Combo AT/ATX Combo

LPX, some Baby AT, LPX, AT, Baby AT,

LPX 150 x 140 x 86 Desktop AT Style
AT/ATX Combo AT/ATX Combo

ATX, Mini-ATX,
Extended ATX, Mini-ATX,
Desktop
ATX/NLX 150 x 140 x 86 ATX Style ATX, NLX, Extended ATX, NLX,
or Tower
microATX, AT/ATX microATX, FlexATX
Combo

microATX, FlexATX, microATX,

100 x 125 x Desktop
SFX ATX Style ATX, Mini-ATX, FlexATX, ATX,
63.5 * or Tower
NLX Mini-ATX, NLX

150 x 230 x 86
(single fan)
WTX Tower WTX Style WTX WTX
224 x 230 x 86
(double fan)

5. Expansion Slot

• An expansion slot is a socket on the motherboard that is used to insert an expansion card
(or circuit board), which provides additional features to a computer such as video, sound,
advanced graphics, Ethernet or memory.
• Alternatively referred to as a bus slot or expansion port, an expansion slot is a
connection or port located inside a computer on the motherboard or riser board that
allows a computer hardware expansion card to be connected. For example, if you wanted

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to install a new video card in the computer, you'd purchase a video expansion card and
install that card into the compatible expansion slot.
• The expansion card has an edge connector that fits precisely into the expansion slot as
well as a row of contacts that is designed to establish an electrical connection between the
motherboard and the electronics on the card, which are mostly integrated circuits.
Depending on the form factor of the case and motherboard, a computer system generally
can have anywhere from one to seven expansion slots. With a backplane system, up to 19
expansion cards can be installed.

Types of expansion slots

• AGP - Video card

• AMR - Modem, Sound card
• CNR - Modem, Network card, Sound card
• EISA - SCSI, Network card, Video card
• ISA - Network card, Sound card, Video card
• PCI - Network card, SCSI, Sound card, Video card
• PCI Express - Video card, Modem, Sound Card, Network Card
• VESA - Video card

Many of the above expansion card slots are obsolete. You're most likely only going to encounter
AGP, PCI, and PCI Express when working with computers today. In the picture below is an
example of what expansion slots may look like on a motherboard.

PCI Express
• PCI Express (or PCIe) is the newest standard for expansion cards on personal computers.
• PCI Express is meant to replace older standards like PCI and AGP, mentioned below.
• PCIe provides significantly more bandwidth, allowing for higher performance video
cards and network cards.
• Video cards in particular are the most common consumer use of these slots, since they
need high bandwidth for maximum 3D gaming and graphics performance.
• While PCI Express is meant to replace the AGP and PCI standards, many PCI cards are
still being manufactured, particularly for expansion cards which do not need the increase
in bandwidth provided.
• PCI Express is now dominating however, and motherboards are being manufactured with
fewer PCI slots and more PCIe slots.
PCI
• PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) is not to be confused with PCI Express, which
is meant to replace it.
• Unlike PCI Express, PCI is an older standard which provides less bandwidth for
expansion cards.
• In spite of the fact that the standard was created in 1993, new motherboards still ship with
PCI slots for compatibility purposes.

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• PCI cards are still very common for expansion cards that do not need high bandwidth,
such as most sound cards, network cards, USB expansion cards for additional
connections, and more.
• Since newer motherboards still tend to come with PCI slots for compatibility, PCI cards
will function on most computers.
• In contrast, PCI Express cards will only function on newer computers.
• Manufacturers can release expansion cards which function with most computers if the
cards are PCI.
AGP
• The AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port) expansion slot standard was introduced when
video cards needed more bandwidth for performance than was provided by PCI.
• As suggested by the title, AGP slots are used for video cards.
• However, AGP has been largely phased out in favour of the PCI Express expansion slot
standard.
• Unlike AGP, PCI Express provides higher bandwidth for other types of expansion cards
that could use it, such as some newer, high-performance sound and network cards.
ExpressCard & PC Card (or PCMCIA)
• These standards are designed to be used with portable computers such as laptops.
• ExpressCard is the successor to PC Card (also known as PCMCIA), and, like PCIe over
PCI, has more bandwidth.
• Unlike PCI, these types of cards are hot-pluggable (which means you can plug them in
while your laptop is running, without shutting it down first).
ISA
• ISA (Industry Standard Architecture) is another type of expansion slot you may have
heard of.
• It was the predecessor to PCI and you'll only find it on much older computers.

6. PERIPHERAL CONTROL CARDS

• A controller card can be an electronic integrated chip, an expansion card or a stand-

alone device that works as a crossing point with peripheral devices. The basic purpose of
the controller card is to provide additional features to the motherboard in managing all
the connected internal and external devices.

Typically, all devices require a controller card to work efficiently. In the event of an
absence of an internal controller slot, an external controller card is installed. A controller
card may include a memory controller, storage controller, input device controller and
many others, each of which serves its distinct device type.

• This term is used to describe important tools that allow your computer to connect and
communicate with various input and output devices. The term “card” is used because
these items are relatively flat in order to fit into the slots provided in the computer case.
A computer will probably have a sound card, a video card, a network card and a
mo``dem.
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Expansion cards

• Most computers have expansion slots on the motherboard that allow you to add various
types of expansion cards. These are sometimes called PCI (peripheral component
interconnect) cards. You may never need to add any PCI cards because most
motherboards have built-in video, sound, network, and other capabilities.
• However, if you want to boost the performance of your computer or update the
capabilities of an older computer, you can always add one or more cards. Below are some
of the most common types of expansion cards.

Video card

• The video card is responsible for what you see on the monitor. Most computers have a
GPU (graphics processing unit) built into the motherboard instead of having a separate
video card. If you like playing graphics-intensive games, you can add a faster video card
to one of the expansion slots to get better performance.

Sound card

• The sound card—also called an audio card—is responsible for what you hear in the
speakers or headphones. Most motherboards have integrated sound, but you can upgrade
to a dedicated sound card for higher-quality sound.

Network card

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• The network card allows your computer to communicate over a network and access the
Internet. It can either connect with an Ethernet cable or through a wireless connection
(often called Wi-Fi). Many motherboards have built-in network connections, and a
network card can also be added to an expansion slot.

Expansion cards can provide various functions including:

• Sound
• Modems
• Network
• Interface adapters
• TV and radio tuning
• Video processing
• Host adapting such as redundant array of independent disks or small computer system interface
• Solid-state drive
• Power-on self-test
• Advanced multirate codec
• Basic input/output system (BIOS)
• Expansion read-only memory (ROM)
• Security devices
• RAM memory

Older expansion cards also included memory expansion cards, clock/calendar cards, hard disk
cards, compatibility cards for hardware emulation, and disk controller cards. The Altair 8800 was
the first slot-type expansion card bus added to a microcomputer. It was developed in 1974-1975
by IBM Corp.

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The expansion slot opening is generally located on the back of a PC and provides an electrical
connection to the motherboard for an expansion card. Screws are then used to attach the card to
the slot for added security.

7. MONITOR

• A visual display unit, computer monitor or just display, is a piece of electrical equipment, usually
separate from the computer case, which displays visual images without producing a permanent
computer record. A display device was usually either a CRT in the 1980s, but by the 2000s, flat
panel displays such as a TFT LCD had largely replaced the bulkier, heavier CRT screens. Multi-
monitor setups are quite common in the 2010s, as they enable a user to display multiple programs
at the same time (e.g., an email inbox and a word processing program). The display unit houses
an electronic circuitry that generates its picture from signals received from the computer. Within
the computer, either integral to the motherboard or plugged into it as an expansion card, there is
pre-processing circuitry to convert the microprocessor's output data to a format compatible with
the display unit's circuitry. The images from computer monitors originally contained only text,
but as graphical user interfaces emerged and became common, they began to display more images
and multimedia content. The term "monitor" is also used, particularly by technicians in
broadcasting television, where a picture of the broadcast data is displayed to a highly
standardized reference monitor for confidence checking purposes.

8. KEYBOARD

• A keyboard is an arrangement of buttons that each correspond to a function, letter, or number.

They are the primary devices used for inputting text. In most cases, they contain an array of keys
specifically organized with the corresponding letters, numbers, and functions printed or engraved
on the button. They are generally designed around an operators language, and many different
versions for different languages exist. In English, the most common layout is the QWERTY
layout, which was originally used in typewriters. They have evolved over time, and have been
modified for use in computers with the addition of function keys, number keys, arrow keys, and
keys specific to an operating system. Often, specific functions can be achieved by pressing
multiple keys at once or in succession, such as inputting characters with accents or opening a task
manager. Programs use keyboard shortcuts very differently and all use different keyboard
shortcuts for different program specific operations, such as refreshing a web page in a web
browser or selecting all text in a word processor. In addition to the alphabetic keys found on a
typewriter, computer keyboards typically have a numeric keyboard and a row of function keys
and special keys, such as CNTRL, ALT, DEL and Esc.

9. MOUSE

• A computer mouse is a small handheld device that users hold and slide across a flat surface,
pointing at various elements of a graphical user interface with an on-screen cursor, and selecting
and moving objects using the mouse buttons. Almost all modern personal computers include a
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mouse; it may be plugged into a computer's rear mouse socket, or as a USB device, or, more
recently, may be connected wirelessly via an USB dongle or Bluetooth link. In the past, mice had
a single button that users could press down on the device to "click" on whatever the pointer on the
screen was hovering over. Modern mice have two, three or more buttons, providing a "right click"
function button on the mouse, which performs a secondary action on a selected object, and a
scroll wheel, which users can rotate using their fingers to "scroll" up or down. The scroll wheel
can also be pressed down, and therefore be used as a third button. Some mouse wheels may be
tilted from side to side to allow sideways scrolling. Different programs make use of these
functions differently, and may scroll horizontally by default with the scroll wheel, open different
menus with different buttons, etc. These functions may be also user-defined through software
utilities. Mice traditionally detected movement and communicated with the computer with an
internal "mouse ball", and used optical encoders to detect rotation of the ball and tell the
computer where the mouse has moved. However, these systems were subject to low durability,
accuracy and required internal cleaning. Modern mice use optical technology to directly trace
movement of the surface under the mouse and are much more accurate, durable and almost
maintenance free. They work on a wider variety of surfaces and can even operate on walls,
ceilings or other non-horizontal surfaces.

10. DOCKING STATION

• Alternatively referred to as a universal port replicator, a docking station is a hardware

device that allows portable computers to connect with other devices with little or no
effort. Docking stations enable users with a laptop computer to convert it into a desktop
computer when at the office or at home.
• For example, a user could use their laptop on the road, and then back at the office they
could connect the laptop to the docking station to use their monitor, speakers, and office
printer.

• Dock - Term used to describe the process of connecting a portable computer to a docking station.
• Undock (cold dock) - Term used to describe the process of disconnecting a portable computer
from a docking station after it has been shut down.

• A docking station is a hardware frame and set of electrical connection interfaces that
enable a notebook computer to effectively serve as a desktop computer . The interfaces
typically allow the notebook to communicate with a local printer, larger storage or
backup drives, and possibly other devices that are not usually taken along with a
notebook computer. A docking station can also include a network interface card ( NIC )
that attaches the notebook to a local area network ( LAN ).
• Variations include the port replicator , an attachment on a notebook computer that
expands the number of ports it can use, and the expansion base , which might hold a CD-
ROM drive, a floppy disk drive, and additional storage.
• There is a difference between docking station and port replicator.
• I use the term docking station for a box which contains slots to put some interface cards
in, and space to put a harddisk, etc. in. This box can be permanently connected to a PC. A
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port replicator is just a copy of the laptop ports which may be connected permanently to
a PC.

11. SERIAL, PARALLEL AND GAME PORTS

Computer Ports
• The peripheral hardware mentioned above must attach to the computer so that it can
transmit information from the user to the computer (or vice versa). There are a variety of
ports present on a computer for these attachments. These ports have gradually changed
over time as computers have changed to become faster and easier to work with. Ports
also vary with the type of equipment that connects to the ports. A computer lab manager
should become familiar with the most common ports (and their uses), as described below.

Serial Port.

• This port for use with 9 pin connectors is no longer commonly used, but is found on
many older computers. It was used for printers, mice, modems and a variety of other
digital devices.

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Parallel Port. This long and slender port is also no

longer commonly used, but was the most common way
of attaching a printer to a computer until the
introduction of USB ports (see below). The most Serial Port (left)
common parallel port has holes for 25 pins, but other Parallel Port (right)
models were also manufactured.
VGA. The Video Graphics Array port is found on most
PS/2 Ports
computers today and is used to connect video display
devices such as monitors and projectors. It has three
rows of holes, for a 15 pin connector.
PS/2. Until recently, this type of port was commonly USB Ports
used to connect keyboards and mice to computers.
Most desktop computers have two of these round ports VGA Port
for six pin connectors, one for the mouse and one for
the keyboard. TRS (mini-jack)
Ports
USB. The Universal Serial Bus is now the most Phone/Modem Jacks (top)
common type of port on a computer. It was developed Ethernet Port (bottom)
in the late 1990s as a way to replace the variety of ports
described above. It can be used to connect mice, USB Ports
keyboards, printers, and external storage devices such
as DVD-RW drives and flash drives. It has gone Figure 1 - Back of Desktop Computer Showing Ports
through three different models (USB 1.0, USB 2.0 and
USB 3.0), with USB 3.0 being the fastest at sending and receiving information. Older USB
devices can be used in newer model USB ports.
TRS. TRS (tip, ring and sleeve) ports are also known as ports for mini-jacks or audio jacks.
They are commonly used to connect audio devices such as headphones and microphones to
computers.
Ethernet. This port, which looks like a slightly wider version of a port for a phone jack, is used
to network computers via category 5 (CAT5) network cable. Although many computers now
connect wirelessly, this port is still the standard for wired networked computers. Some
computers also have the narrower port for an actual phone jack. These are used for modem
connections over telephone lines.

HDMI - Allows you to connect your computer a High Definition display or TV.

eSATA - These ports allow you to connect an external SATA hard drive to your computer.

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Back side connectors of PC

• SMPS. Switch Mode Power Supply uses electronics circuitry that converts the AC input
voltage to different values of regulated DC supply which is fed into various color-coded
wires fixed to connectors.
• SMPS FAN. The fan is fixed inside the SMPS and is used to radiate the internal heat of
SMPS to outside.
• Power In Socket. This socket is used to input 220V AC to the PC from mains supply
when the computer switch on the front side is pressed.
• PS-2 Port. You can see two different colored 6-pin round shaped connectors. These
connectors are used to connect input devices, keyboard and mouse. Color Coding defines
the connector type. The purple connector is dedicated to connect Keyboard and Green
color is used for Mouse.
• USB Port. The full form is Universal Serial Bus and is used to connect various input and
output devices like Mouse,Keyboard, Printers, Webcams etc. USB 3.0 is the latest
version which offers high data transfer speed.
• DVI Port. Digital Video Interface is a high-speed serial link for connecting output
display Devices.
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• HDMI Port.HDMI stands for high definition multimedia interface. This is a latest
interface that helps to get high definition video and multi channel sound. You can
connect HDMI enabled blue ray devices, LED’s etc.
• 15-pin Female VGA Port. This is used to connect display devices like Monitor / LCD /
LED Display.
• LAN Port. The LAN or network port is used to connect to other devices and computers
in a network.
• Audio Ports.Generally there are 3 number of audio ports on the back side of a PC. These
parts are either aligned vertically or in horizontal position. Green color port is dedicated
for headphones or speakers, a blue colored port is marked as Line-in and Mic can be
inserted in a pink port.
• Expansion Slots: These expansion slots are used to connect add-on cards to increase the
capabilities of the motherboard.

Front Side buttons on PC

• DVD-Writer. Top slot of the cabinet is reserved to fix CD-ROM or DVD-writer.

• Power-LED: The LED glows and indicates that the Input Power is ON
• HDD LED: When we are working on the computer, the hard disk is in use , this LED
glows and is the indication that the hard disk drive is in use.
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• Reset Switch: This computer switch is quite handy when the computer is stuck-up and
you are not able to work on the computer . Just press this switch, the computer will Re-
Boot.
• Front USB. Cabinet provides a facility for you to connect USB devices from front-side
as it is quite awkward to get to the back side of the computer again and again.
• Front Audio Ports: The ports for MIC and HeadPhone at the front are for user quite easy
to approach.
• Power Switch. It is used to switch-ON the computer.

HARD DISK INTERFACE(S)

• There are variants of each interface, and this article will not do justice to the different
types of ATA, SATA and SCSI interfaces. Thus, it will only highlight the more common
interfaces as used by the home user.
• SAS Serial Attached SCSI.
• SCSI Small Computer Systems Interface.
• SATA Serial ATA or Serial Advanced Technology Attachment.
• IDE Integrated/Intelligent Drive/Device Electronics.

ATA (IDE, ATAPI, PATA)

ATA is a common interface used in many personal computers before the emergence of SATA. It
is the least expensive of the interfaces.
Disadvantages
• Older ATA adapters will limit transfer rates according to the slower attached device
(debatable)
• Only ONE device on the ATA cable is able to read/write at one time
• Limited standard for cable length (up to 18inches/46cm)
Advantages
• Low costs
• Large capacity

SATA

SATA is basically an advancement of ATA.

Disadvantages
• Slower transfer rates compared to SCSI
• Not supported in older systems without the use of additional components
Advantages
• Low costs
• Large capacity
• Faster transfer rates compared to ATA (difference is marginal at times though)
• Smaller cables for better heat dissipation

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SCSI

SCSI is commonly used in servers, and more in industrial applications than home uses.
Disadvantages
• Costs
• Not widely supported
• Many, many different kinds of SCSI interfaces
• SCSI drives have a higher RPM, creating more noise and heat
Advantages
• Faster
• Wide range of applications
• Better scalability and flexibility in Arrays (RAID)
• Backward compatible with older SCSI devices
• Better for storing and moving large amounts of data
• Tailor made for 24/7 operations
• Reliability

Identify the components of the following portable systems and their unique ports

- laptop
- palmtop
- notebook
- docking station

TROUBLE SHOOTING EQUIPMENT

• Measuring and testing equipment as tools used in trouble shooting or diagnosing computer

1. DIGITAL MULTIMETERS

• A digital multimeter (DMM) is a test tool used to measure two or more electrical
values—principally voltage (volts), current (amps) and resistance (ohms). It is a standard
diagnostic tool for technicians in the electrical/electronic industries.
• Digital multimeters combine the testing capabilities of single-task meters—the voltmeter
(for measuring volts), ammeter (amps) and ohmmeter (ohms). Often they include a
number of additional specialized features or advanced options. Technicians with specific
needs, therefore, can seek out a model targeted for particular tasks.

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• It can be used to measure AC and DC voltage, AC and DC current, and resistance by

changing the settings and range of the multimeter.
• It combines the functions of a voltmeter, ammeter, and ohmmeter.
• Some also have additional features like diode testing, continuity testing, transistor testing
and capacitance testing. The measuring range can be set by changing the range setting of
the meter.
• By having this tool, one will be able to measure the resistance of a component, the
capacitance of a capacitor, open or short circuit of a component, current that flows
through the circuit, the differential voltage between two points, type of transistors
whether it is PNP or NPN, and a host of other applications.
• There are two types of meter i.e. digital and analog type. The digital type has a LCD
display whereas the analog type has a needle with a linear/non linear display at its
background, which is used depending on its setting.

DMM facilities

While the facilities that a digital multimeter can offer are much greater than their analogue
predecessors, the cost of DMMs is relatively low. DMMs are able to offer as standard the basic
measurements that would typically include:

• Current (DC)
• Current (AC)
• Voltage (DC)
• Voltage (AC)
• Resistance

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However, using integrated circuit technology, most DMMs are able to offer additional test
capabilities. These may include some of the following:

• Capacitance
• Temperature
• Frequency
• Transistor test - hfe, etc
• Continuity (buzzer)

Pre-caution

1) Disconnect it before adjusting the range switch.

2) Check the setting of the range switch before connecting to the circuit.
3) When not in used, do not leave the meter set to a current range because the meter has a
low resistance and can be damaged easily at the setting.
4) Do not use the meter if the meter or the test leads look damaged.
5) Do not measure resistance in a circuit when power is applied to the circuit.
6) Do not apply more than the rated voltage between any input jack and the common point.
7) When making measurements, Keep your fingers behind the finger guards on the test
probes.

2. LOGIC PROBES

• Logic probes test for the presence or absence of low-voltage signals that represent digital data.
These data, symbolized by the binary numbers 0 and 1, are electrically defined in many circuits as
0 and 5 volts, respectively—though in practice, the actual voltages of the 0 and 1 values depend
entirely on the circuit.
• A logic probe tester is used for probing and analyzing logic circuits.
• Logic probe: This is a very simple instrument used to detect logic states, or give a very
basic indication of a changing logic state. It typically has a single LED to indicate the
logic state. However it gives no real indication whether any logic pattern is correct.

Logic probe basics

A logic probe is able to give an indication of the logic state of a line carrying a digital signal The
logic probe indicates whether there is a logic state "1" or "0", normally using an LED as the
indicator. Often the LED on the logic probe will use different colours to indicate different states.

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A logic probe normally may be capable of indicating up to four different states:

• Logic high : If the logic circuit is at a logic or digital high voltage, the logic probe will
indicate this on its interface - typically this will be a colour red.
• Logic low: Again the logic probe will indicate a logic or digital low. The most common
colour for this is green.
• Pulses: The logic probe is likely to incorporate a pulse detection circuit. When the line
is active a third colour, possibly amber will be indicated. The logic probe may well
incorporate circuitry to detect very short pulses and in this way indicate when the line is
active. Sometimes the length of te pulses may be indicated by the brightness of the LED.
• Line tri-stated : Often it is possible for lines to be tri-stated, i.e. the output device has its
output turned off and no real state is defined. Many logic probes are able to indicate this
state by having all indicators turned off.

Some logic probes may have a control to select the logic family being tested - different logic
families have slightly different high and low voltage levels.

Another facility that some logic probes may include is an audible indication of the logic state.
This feature is particularly useful when using a probe as eyes may need to be trained on the
circuit and not on the logic probe itself.

Logic probe advantages -

• Low cost: A logic probe does not contain much circuitry, and the display is very
rudimentary. Therefore the cost of manufacture is very low.
• Ease of use : To use a logic probe typically requires the connection of power leads and
then connecting the probe to the required point on the circuit.

Logic probe disadvantages -

• Very rough measurement: The nature of the logic probe means that only an indication
of the presence of a logic signal can be detected.
• Poor display: A logic probe only uses a few LEDs to indicate the nature of the logic
signal. As a result, little information can eb displayed about the nature of the logic signal
that is detected.

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A logic probe tester is a cheap and relatively simple item of test equipment. It is versatile and
very transportable, and it also is able to provide a quick test for many circuits. However it is not
nearly as flexible as an oscilloscope or a logic analyzer. A logic probe can be used for quick
testing, whereas for more in-depth testing more sophisticated test equipment is needed.

• Logic probes, as shown ,are extremely simple and useful devices that are designed to help
you detect the logic state of an IC.
• Logic probes can show you immediately whether a specific point in the circuit is low,
high, open, or pulsing.
• A high is indicated when the light at the end of the probe is lit and a low is indicated
when the light is extinguished.
• Some probes have a feature that detects and displays high-speed transient pulses as small
as 5 nanoseconds wide.
• These probes are usually connected directly to the power supply of the device being
tested, although a few also have internal batteries.
• Since most IC failures show up as a point in the circuit stuck either at a high or low level,
these probes provide a quick, inexpensive way for you to locate the fault.
• They can also display that single, short-duration pulse that is so hard to catch on an
oscilloscope.

The ideal logic probe will have the following characteristics:

1. Be able to detect a steady logic level

2. Be able to detect a train of logic levels
3. Be able to detect an open circuit
4. Be able to detect a high-speed transient pulse
5. Have overvoltage protection
6. Be small, light, and easy to handle
7. Have a high input impedance to protect against circuit loading

3. LOGIC PULSER

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• Another extremely useful device for troubleshooting logic circuits is the logic pulser.
• It is similar in shape to the logic probe and is designed to inject a logic pulse into the circuit
under test.
• Logic pursers are generally used in conjunction with a logic clip or a logic probe to help you trace
the pulse through the circuit under test or verify the proper operation of an IC.
• Some logic pulsers have a feature that allows a single pulse injection or a train of pulses.
• Logic pursers are usually powered by an external dc power supply but may, in some cases, be
connected directly to the power supply of the device under test.

• Is a handheld logic generator used for injecting controlled pulses into digital logic circuits
such as microprocessors
• A probe utilized to pulse, or change the logic state, of a logic circuit. Such an instrument may be
used in conjunction with a logic probe, to trace a pulse throughout a circuit being tested. Usually
used for inspection and troubleshooting.
• It is used to stimulate a node in the system of logic integrated circuits
• It is also used to measure continuity of base lines
• It may be used in conjunction with a logic probe
• It may be tested by pulsing the gates
• It inputs with a logic pulser while monitoring the output with a logic probe

• This LOGIC PULSER capable of delivering pulses of various compositions, to any type
of circuit you wish to test.
• Basically it is designed to complement the LOGIC PROBE and can be used in situations
where the LOGIC PROBE is not so effective.
• It is an improvement over a multimeter in that it has an audible output and is NOT
triggered when measuring across a diode.

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The pulser is simple instrument. It has a probe body equipped with a needle-point electrode. When
touched to a conductor, circuit node or device terminal, it injects a single pulse or pulse train which can
be seen at the output (if it is present) by the logic probe, multimeter or oscilloscope. So we see that while
the pulser is used somewhat less frequently than the logic probe, it is nevertheless quite essential when an
input is needed.

Logic pulser

4. LOGIC ANALYZER

A logic analyser is used for verifying and debugging the operation of digital designs
looking at logic states and timings.

A logic analyzer is the ultimate tool for analyzing logic patterns.

• In the process of debugging and doing validation in a digital system, one of the common
task a designer need to do is the acquisition of digital waveform.
• The basic problem that a logic analyzer solves is that a digital circuit is too fast to be
observed by a human being, and has too many channels to be examined with an
oscilloscope.
• It has an oscilloscope display that displays the digital states of the system under test. It is
a tool that allows numerous digital waveform to be acquired simultaneously. The
acquisition can be clocked internally, or the test system can provide the sample clock.
• It would trigger on a complicated sequence of digital events, and then copy a large
amount of digital data from the system under test. The captured data will enable the user
to locate failure of the digital system.

Typical digital oscilloscopes have up to four signal inputs. Logic analyzers, have
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channels range from 34 to 136. Each channel inputs one digital signal. It measures and
analyzes signals differently than an oscilloscope.
• It doesn’t measure analog details. Instead, it detects logic threshold levels. When you
connect an analyzer to a digital circuit, you’re only concerned with the logic state of the
signal.

Functions

• Debug and verify digital system operation

• Trace and correlate many digital signals simultaneously
• Detect and analyze timing violations and transients on buses
• Trace embedded software execution

Oscilloscope vs Logic Analyzer-Difference between Oscilloscope and Logic

Analyzer

• Both Oscilloscope and Logic analyzer are both used to trouble shoot the electronic
circuits. They have their own specific niche applications of use.
Oscilloscope

• Oscilloscope taps the analog signals from the board and displays the voltage variation of
the signal over time on the screen. There are two types of oscilloscopes based on their
measurement and display methodology. Analog Oscilloscope directly plots the signal.
Digital Oscilloscope first converts the analog signal to digital signal and then plots it.
• Analog Oscilloscope does not store past samples. Digital Oscilloscope stores long
duration waveform data for analysis.

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Logic Analyzer

• Unlike Oscilloscopes, logic analyzer is designed to analyze the data flow over multiple
buses of the microprocessor or microcontroller systems. This will help in analyzing many
aspects of embedded hardware and software.
• In order to analyze multiple channels, logic analyzers are used along with multichannel
probes. It analyzes digital signals.

Following steps are performed by logic analyzer for test and measurement:

• Make connection using probe with SUT (System Under Test)

• Setup clock mode and triggering as required.
• Acquire the digital logic states (in 1's and 0's) from the multiple channels.
• Analyze the logic signals and displays the same for further study.

Following table summarizes difference between oscilloscope and logic analyzer.

Oscilloscope Logic Analyzer

• It will have more input channels compare to

• It will have fewer input channels , maximum upto 4. oscilloscope, usually 34 and 136 channels are
available.
• It does not measure analog details. It detects logic
• Oscilloscope measures analog signals. threshold levels. It looks for just two logic levels
when interfaced with digital circuit.
• It traces embedded software execution with specific
• It does not troubleshoot software execution.
hardware activities on the circuit.
• It uses multi channel probe to acquire the large
• It uses single channel probe at a time.
number of signals simultaneously.
• Logic Analyzer analyzes both software and
• Oscilloscope analyzes only hardware.
hardware.
• Oscilloscope analyzes analog signal only. • Logic Analyzer analyzes digital signal only.

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Oscilloscope Logic Analyzer

Oscilloscope is used for measuring analogue waveforms: A logic analyser is used for verifying and debugging the
amplitude, phase values, or edge measurements such as operation of digital designs looking at logic states and
rise times, etc timings.
Typical oscilloscope applications: Typical logic analyser applications:
• Investigating waveform shapes, ringing, rise • Investigate the system operation.
time, etc.
• Characterise aspects like waveform jitter and • Correlate a large number of digital signals
stability.
• Measure signal amplitudes. • Detect timing violations
• Detect transients, and unwanted pulses. • Trace embedded software operation.

5. MULTI-CHANNEL OSCILLOSCOPE

Oscilloscopes

• Oscilloscopes (or scopes) test and display voltage signals as waveforms, visual representations of
the variation of voltage over time. The signals are plotted on a graph, which shows how the signal
changes. The vertical (Y) access represents the voltage measurement and the horizontal (X) axis
represents time.
• It is a graph displaying device, that display the electrical signal based on the input to its
probes. It shows in real time how signals change over time. Usually the Y axis represents
the voltage and the X axis time.

Most oscilloscopes have intensity or brightness that can be adjusted. The display is caused by the
spot that periodically sweeps the display from left to right. In the design of electronics project,
the osc. is one of the most handy equipment that is worth investing.

Its functions are :

1. Shows and calculate the frequency and amplitude of an oscillating signal.

2. Shows the voltage and time of a particular signal. This function is the main used of all the
functions described here.
3. Helps to troubleshoot any malfunction components of a project by looking at the
expected output after a particular component.
4. Shows the content of the AC voltage or DC voltage in a signal.

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When there is a change in the height of the waveform, it means that the voltage has changed. If
the line is horizontal it means that there is no change in voltage for that period of time. Some of
the common waveform that are measured using an osc. are as shown below.

There are basically 2 types of osc. namely analog or digital type. Analog uses continuously
variable voltages. Digital uses discrete binary numbers that represent voltage samples.

• Analog osc. works by directly applying a voltage being measured to an electron beam
moving across the osc. screen. The voltage deflects the beam up and down
proportionally, tracing the waveform on the screen.
• Digital osc. samples the waveform and uses an analog to digital converter to convert the
voltage measured into digital format. It then uses this digital format to display the
waveform. It enables one to capture and view events that may happen only once.

They can process the digital waveform data or send the data to a computer for processing. Also,
they can store the digital waveform data for later viewing and printing.

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6. CURRENT TRACER

• It detects current flow.

• Detects the magnetic field that surrounds a conductor (or trace) through which current
is flowing.
• It does not matter even if the conductor is insulated
• A device that can be attached to any accessible point in the circuit to physically trace circuit
wiring current flow
• To work properly, the current tracer must be held vertically above the conductor.
• Current tracing is a way of troubleshooting on electronics
• They are jumpers on electronic boards
• You disconnect it and connect an ammeter to measure the current
• If measuring current is lower or higher than rated value, there is trouble on that part.
• Current tracer is a sensitive instrument, can trace current underground or hidden wall

The current tracer is responsive to current over a wide range, typically from 1 mA to 1 A. A
prominent indicator lamp resides at the probe tip and its brightness varies with the amount of
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current. A control can be used to adjust sensitivity. Then, the procedure is to move along a
conductor or trace, taking note of the current. An abrupt change signals that a current sink or
source has been located.

5. SIGNATURE ANALYZER

• The signature analyzer was an item of test equipment that was used for fault finding
digital / logic electronic circuits.
• In view of the significant increase in complexity of logic circuits the signature analyzer is
little used these days.
• Signature analyzer: Signature analyzers are able detect digital waveform patterns.
These are typically indicated by their hex value making it easy to define the pattern at a
given point in the circuit under given conditions. These analyzers are idea for field repair
and other similar applications where simple analysis of complex waveforms is required.

Options for digital / logic analysis

• When testing and analysing digital or logic circuits there are several options that are
available. Each of these has its own advantages and limitations and a choice can be made
dependent upon these.
• The signature analyser forms an ideal form of test instrument for analysing digital or
logic patterns in a circuit in some circumstances. It is often ideal for field repair and
applications where it can detect logic patterns in a circuit under given conditions, thereby
enabling detection of correct or incorrect operation of a circuit or board.

Signature analyzer basics

• A signature analyzer is normally used for checking data on given nodes within a logic
system such as a microprocessor board. A known operational scenario is set up, e.g. a test
mode, and the data on various nodes may be monitored. The signature analyzer converts
the serial data into a hexadecimal equivalent of the data pattern - this is the signature.
Typically this signature is four digits long, although different signature analyzers may
have different lengths.
• The basic signature analyser takes in the input from the node under test and using a clock
from the system. Start and stop pulses are captured to start and end the sample. The
pulses from the node under test are then passed into a shift register to provide the
hexadecimal equivalent of the waveform.

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Basic block
diagram of a typical signature analyzer

• If the signature captured by the signature analyzer aligns with that of the same node on a
known good board, then this indicates this area is operating correctly.
• By probing different areas of a board with the signature analyzer, and comparing the
results with expected values, often detailed in a repair and service manual, it is possible
to locate the problem area.

Signature analyser instrument

A typical signature analyser will consist of the basic instrument with a number of switches,
inputs, outputs and a display like the image shown below.

Typical Signature Analyzer Front Panel

On the front panel are several different items:

• Gate: This indicates the input gate of the signature analyser is open and samples are
being taken.
• Display: The display indicates the signature taken, and in this case it shows the value
'832A' corresponding to the hex value of the signature of the data being sampled.
• Unstable signature: As the name implies, this indicates that the signature is unstable,
i.e. varying and the data is not satisfactory.
• Probe test: This is a connection and it is used for testing the probe to ensure the correct
operation of the probe and the system.
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• Line: This is the power On / Off switch

• Start: This is used to select which edge is required to initiate the sampling period -
positive or negative going edge.
• Stop: Like the start, this is used to select which edge is required to terminate the
sampling period - positive or negative going edge.
• Clock: This is used for selecting which edge of the clock pulse is used for sampling the
line state.
• Hold: This is used to hold a single signature regardless of any changes in the incoming
date, for example if the input conditions change, etc..
• Self-Test: This is used to put the test instrument into a self-test mode for checking he
operation of the instrument as well as the probes.

In addition to the test instrument itself, a special test pod may also be used. This enables active
circuitry of the analyser to be placed closer to the circuit under test to remove or reduce the
effects of loading and long leads on rise times, etc..

The test pod will include the test probe for the point to be monitored as well as the clock input

STATIC CHARGE / STATIC ELECTRICITY

• It is the accumulation of electrical charges in an object

• Static electricity is often generated through tribocharging.
• Tribocharging is a contact electrification process that enables buildup of static electricity due to
touching or rubbing of surfaces in specific combinations of two dissimilar materials.
• Two dissimilar materials' surfaces just have to touch and then separate for an electric charge to
develop.
• When there is physical contact, a chemical bond is produced between the surfaces to some extent,
and charges are transferred from one surface to another.
• Examples of tribocharging include walking on a rug, rubbing a plastic comb against dry hair,
rubbing a balloon against a sweater, or removing some types of plastic packaging.
• In all these cases, the breaking of contact between two materials results in tribocharging
• This causes a charge imbalance between those dissimilar objects, thus creating a difference of
electrical potential that can lead to an ESD event.

• Electrostatic Discharge (ESD) is the term used to describe the transfer of static electricity from
one object to another.

• Electrostatic discharge (ESD) is the sudden flow of electricity between two electrically charged
objects caused by contact, an electrical short, or dielectric breakdown.
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• A buildup of static electricity can be caused by tribocharging or by electrostatic induction.

• The ESD occurs when differently-charged objects are brought close together or when the
dielectric between them breaks down, often creating a visible spark.

CHARGE ACCUMULATION

• Whenever two dissimilar materials come in contact, electrons move from one surface to
the other. As these materials are separated and more electrons remain on one surface
than the other,one material takes on a positive charge and the other a negative charge.
• Mechanisms for Charge Accumulation:
 Contact and Frictional
 Double layer
 Induction
 Transport

CAUSES OF STATIC CHARGE/ ELECTRICITY

• Triboelectrification
o When a person’s fingertips touch a computer keyboard, they exchange electrons,
with one object becoming electrically positive and the other negative.
o When that person’s fingertips touch another object that has an opposite charge,
this causes electrons to flow back and forth.
• Low humidity, Cold, dry areas.
o These conditions make air much less likely to conduct electrical charges.
o In moist air, a charge dissipates without notice because water conducts electricity.
o Dry air lacks this conductivity, so a charge continues to build up on objects until it
is intense enough to overcome the natural resistance of air over short distances.
o Static is not just a small charge. The most visually striking display of static
electricity is lightning, which reaches for miles from clouds to the ground. A
charge can be either positive or negative, but electrons, the negatively charged
particles, are what flow from one place to another.

SOURCES/ CAUSES OF ESD

• Static electricity.

Static electricity is often generated through tribocharging, the separation of electric

charges that occurs when two materials are brought into contact and then separated.
Examples of tribocharging include walking on a rug, rubbing a plastic comb against dry
hair, rubbing a balloon against a sweater, ascending from a fabric car seat, or removing
some types of plastic packaging. In all these cases, the breaking of contact between two
materials results in tribocharging, thus creating a difference of electrical potential that can
lead to an ESD event.

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• Electrostatic induction.

This occurs when an electrically charged object is placed near a conductive object
isolated from the ground. The presence of the charged object creates an electrostatic field
that causes electrical charges on the surface of the other object to redistribute. Even
though the net electrostatic charge of the object has not changed, it now has regions of
excess positive and negative charges. An ESD event may occur when the object comes
into contact with a conductive path. For example, charged regions on the surfaces of
styrofoam cups or bags can induce potential on nearby ESD sensitive components via
electrostatic induction and an ESD event may occur if the component is touched with a
metallic tool.

• Energetic charged particles impinging on an object.

This causes increasing surface and deep charging. This is a known hazard for most
spacecraft.

• All materials (insulators and conductors alike)

They are lumped together in what is known as the triboelectric series, which defines the
materials associated with positive or negative charges. Positive charges accumulate
predominantly on human skin or animal fur. Negative charges are more common to
synthetic materials such as Styrofoam or plastic cups. The amount of electrostatic charge
that can accumulate on any item is dependent on its capacity to store a charge. For
example, the human body can store a charge equal to 250 picofarads. This correlates into
a stored charge that can be as high as 25,000V.

HOW DOES ESD OCCUR?

• ESD can occur in a variety of forms. One of the most common is through human contact
with sensitive devices. Human touch is only sensitive on ESD levels that exceed 4,000V.
• A recent investigation found the human body and its clothing capable of storing between
500V and 2,500V electrostatic during the normal workday. This is far above the level that
damages circuits yet below the human perception threshold. Other sources of ESD
damage to equipment include:
• Troubleshooting electronic equipment or handling of printed circuit boards without using
an electrostatic wrist strap;
• Placement of synthetic materials (i.e. plastic, Styrofoam, etc.) on or near electronic
equipment; and
• Rapid movement of air near electronic equipment (including using compressed air to
blow dirt off printed circuit boards, circulating fans blowing on electronic equipment, or
using an electronic device close to an air handling system).

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• In all of these scenarios, the accumulation of static charges may occur, but you may never
know. Furthermore, a charged object does not necessarily have to contact the item for an
ESD event to occur.

WAYS IN WHICH STATIC ELECTRICITY CAN DAMAGE COMPONENTS

• Static electricity can be dangerous to delicate circuits such as a computer motherboard.

This is why people working with computers ground themselves before touching any of
the internal parts. By touching a metal surface, the person dissipates any built up, excess
charge.

• Your sensitive computer components such as the Processor (CPU), hard drive, memory, main
board chips and expansion cards could be severely damaged.

• Whenever you open your computer and expose your components, you run the risk of
damaging your computer system with static electricity which has been built up by your
body.
• Your computer components inside your case (especially your hard drive) are prone to
being affected by ElectroStatic Discharge.
• It is very possible for you to be damaging your sensitve electronic components inside
your case from ElectroSatic Discharge without knowing it.
• If you felt a discharge, it possibly was more than 2,000 volts. A discharge as low as 200
volts can destroy your computer chip.
• It is possible that this damage might not be noticeable immediately. Your components
might just start a degradation process that slowly kills your computer parts. You could
(for example) start getting intermittent breakdowns until your computer stops functioning
properly.

CMOS Chips

• According to PCComputerNotes.com, newer integrated computer circuits known as

complimentary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS) chips are more susceptible to ESD
than older chips. Most central processing units and system memory cards are CMOS
chips.

Immediate Failure

• A common result of ESD damage is that it causes an immediate failure of a chip. This
may occur when the computer owner installs a new RAM card into the computer without
using an anti-static strap or some other grounding method. The static discharge destroys
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the new RAM card and when the computer is turned on, it will not boot up properly,
according to PCComputerNotes.com. This type of problem usually can be resolved only
by replacing the damaged memory card.

Delayed Failure

• Another common occurrence with ESD is that a chip is damaged by static discharge, but
it may take weeks or sometimes months for the chip to completely fail, according to
PCComputerNotes.com. In this case, the computer may experience occasional failures
that can be hard to diagnose to a damaged chip.

How does ESD damage electronic circuitry?

• ESD is a tiny version of lightning. As the current dissipates through an object, it's seeking
a low impedance path to ground to equalize potentials. In most cases, ESD currents will
travel to ground via the metal chassis frame of a device. However, it's well known that
current will travel on every available path. In some cases, one path may be between the
PN junctions on integrated circuits to reach ground. This current flow will burn holes
visible to the naked eye in an integrated circuit, with evidence of heat damage to the
surrounding area. One ESD event will not disrupt equipment operation. However,
repeated events will degrade equipment's internal components over time.

STATIC CHARGE PRECAUTIONS

To prevent damage to your sensitive electronic components in your system from ElectroStatic
Discharge, you should:

 Shut down your computer and turn off the switch on your surge protector leaving the
surge protector plugged in so that it will be grounded.
 Before touching any of the components inside your case, you should ground yourself to
discharge any static buildup.
 Make sure to discharge the static electricity by touching the metal chassis whilst wearing
an antistatic wrist strap.
 Antistatic Wrist Strap - Worn to protect your delicate computer components from static
electricity damage.
 Any static electrical charge that builds up on your body is then immediately transferred to
ground.
 Handle your expansion cards by their edges.
 Do not do any work inside your computer while standing on carpet.
 You should leave your components in their antistatic bags that you purchased them in
until you are ready to use them since, placing them outside of their bags, make them
susceptible to ESD..

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 COMPUTER SYSTEMS 322/13/SO1

 Do not work on your computer in cold, dry conditions since this encourages static
electricity. You should try to raise the humidity to between 50 to 60%.
 Do not wear woolen or nylon clothing while working on or repairing your computer.
 Keep your clothing away from drives, boards, memory, etc. Clothing could possibly be
electrically charged, especially when it is dry and cold.
 Leave your PC plugged into an AC outlet with the power switch turned off. This places
ground on the metal case.

You would then have to work with one hand always touching a metal part of the case.
ElectroStatic Discharge buildup would then be immediately grounded just like it would
with an antistatic wrist strap.

I would not recommend this method since it is very impractical; instead, protect your
computer components from static electricity by using an antistatic wrist strap.

Antistatic Wrist Strap:

When working inside a computer case, one of the most important tools that you should have
available is an antistatic wrist strap.

Damage to your computer can be prevented if you use an antistatic wrist strap. This strap fits on
your wrist (See Diagram A) while working on your computer components and has a wire
attachment with an alligator clip which is connected to your case.

A CPU Heat Sink being installed

Antistatic Bag:
If you are removing a component for an extended period of time while you are building your
computer, you should store the component in an antistatic bag.

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