15.

1 INTRODUCTION

After collecting information about the state of some process, the next consideration is how
to present it in a form where it can be readily used and analysed. This chapter, therefore,
starts by covering the techniques available to either display measurement data for current
use or record it for future use. Following this, standards of good practice for presenting
data in either graphical or tabular form are covered, using either paper or a computer
monitor screen as the display medium.
Nowadays, a wide variety of recorders are used in industry, laboratory and various
fields Covering all these in a chapter is a formidable task. An attempt has therefore been
made to classify the more common types of chart recorders. The definition of a chart
recorder is “a device for producing, as a permanent record in analog form, the change of
a variable signal (x) against time (t) (whether this be continuous or intermittent)”. In this
section, only electrically actuated recorders will be considered, although in many
applications, such as the recording of pressure, mechanically actuated devices are used.
However, with the increasing requirement for display as well as recording at a remote
central point, where the information is also required to be passed for data processing, there
is a greater tendency nowadays to use electrical methods employing suitable transducers.
Many techniques now exist for recording measurement data in a form that permits
subsequent analysis, particularly for looking at the historical behaviour of measured
parameters in fault diagnosis procedures. The earliest recording instruments used were
various forms of mechanical chart recorders. Whilst many of these remain in use, most
modern forms of chart recorder exist in hybrid forms in which microprocessors are
incorporated to improve performance. The sections below discuss these, along with other
methods of recording signals including digital recorders, magnetic tape recorders, digital
(storage) oscilloscopes and hard-copy devices such as dot-matrix, inkjet and laser printers,
X-Y recorders, ultraviolet recorders and thermal array recorders.
Classification of Recorders
There are many ways for classifying recorders; the popular one is according to the type of
signal to be recorded, which is as follows:
1. Analog recorders
a. Graphic recorder
i. Strip chart recorder
• Galvanometer type
 • Null type
• Potentiometric recorders
• Bridge recorders
• LVDT recorders
ii. Circular chart recorders
iii. X-Y Recorders
b. Magnetic tape recorders
c. Oscillographic recorders
d. Others [hybrid, paperless, ultraviolet and thermal dot matrix recorder]
2. Digital recorders

15.2 ANALOG RECORDERS

These kinds of recorders are used to record analog signals in the form of a chart paper for
keeping the record permanently. Despite the present emphasis by the electronics industry
on digital instrumentation, the use of analog recorders is still popular. As they present an
instantaneous visual indication of the data being recorded, they it it in an analog way,
which is often more meaningful than digital indication to people in the laboratory or on
the production line. There are basically three types of analog recorders available: graphic,
oscillographic and magnetic tape recorders.
15.2.1 Graphic Recorders
A graphic recorder is basically a measuring device which is able to produce in real time a
hard copy of a set of time functions with the purpose of immediate and/or later visual
inspection. The curves/lines are mostly drawn on a (long) strip of paper (from a roll), often
called strip chart recorder. When the curves are drawn on a circular paper, it is called a
circular chart recorder, and when two independent variables are to be recorded on a piece
of paper with respect to each other, it is called an X-Y recorder.
1. Strip Chart Recorder
A strip chart recorder records physical variable with respect to the independent variable
time on a long paper kept in the form of a roll. The independent variable time (t) then
corresponds to the strip-length axis and the physical variables measured (y) are related to
the chart width. Tracings are obtained by a writing process at sites on the chart short axis
(y) corresponding to the physical variables magnitudes with the strip being moved at
constant velocity to generate the time axis. Graphs cannot be interpreted if essential
information is absent; scales and reference levels for each physical variable recorded and
for time are all necessities. Additional information concerning the experimental conditions
of the recording is also necessary and is preferably printed by the apparatus (data,
investigated item, type of experiment, etc.). Figure 15.1 shows different components of a
strip chart recorder. A typical industrial strip chart recorder is shown in Figure 15.2
Strip chart recorders consist of a roll or strip of paper that is passed linearly beneath one
or more pens. As the signal changes, the pens deflect producing the resultant chart. Strip
chart recorders are well suited for recording of continuous processes.

Figure 15.1 Strip chart recorder

Figure 15.2 Industrial strip chart recorder [Manf: Omega Corporation]

A strip chart consists of the following:

(a) Chart/PaperLong graph paper kept on two rollers, lower roller drags the paper vertically
with the help of a motor.
Controls the speed of the roller at some specified speed selected by
(b) Chart Speed Selector
the operator and hence controls the time scale.
(c) Range Selector Amplifier or attenuator which is to be adjusted according to the
amplitude level of physical variable. If the physical variable to be recorded is of very low
amplitude then it needs to be amplified with proper gain. The gain value is adjusted by
selecting proper range.
(d) Stylus Driving System Moves the stylus in proportion to the physical variable to be
recorded, in most recorders, a synchronous motor is used for driving the paper.
(e) Stylus Create marking/impression on the moving graph paper [most recorders use a
pointer attached to the stylus, which (pointer) moves over a calibrated scale thus showing
instantaneous value of the quantity being measured].
The most commonly used mechanisms employed for making marks on the papers are
 (i) Pen and ink: Marking with ink-filled stylus

Thermal type: Marking with heated stylus on temperature sensitive paper (e.g. fax
(ii)
paper)

(iii) Impact type: Marking with pressure sensitive paper (e.g. carbon paper)

(iv) Electrostatic stylus: Marking with charged stylus on plain paper

(v) Optical type: Marking with light ray on photosensitive paper

Strip chart recorders are commonly used in laboratory as well as process measurement
applications. Modern strip chart recorders have the facility of

(i) Simultaneous recording and display of multipoint data

Universal input: The recorders accept wide range of dc voltage, all common
(ii)
thermocouple and RTD. Often these ranges can be programmed for each channel.

(iii) Universal power voltage of 100 V ac to 240 V ac, 50/60 Hz

(iv) Alarm Display/Printings

Chart illumination convenient to confirm printed signal in the night or in dark

(v)
places.

There are various kinds of strip chart recorders. According to their working principles,
these are divided in mainly two categories. One works on the principle of the
galvanometer and other is called null type.
(a) Galvanometric Type Galvanometric instruments usually use a d’Arsonval galvanometer
as the basic movement. This galvanometer consists of a moving coil (shown in Figure
15.3) suspended either on pivots or a taut ligament. The coil is then able to rotate in the
field produced by a permanent magnet. When a small current is applied to the coil, a field
is created which reacts with that of the permanent magnet, and the coil rotates. A control
spring in a pivoted instrument and the ligament with a taut suspension provide an
opposing torque. Thus, depending on the current applied, equilibrium will be established.
A pointer shows the deflection. In practice, this principle is applied in several ways. In
direct-writing moving-coil instruments, an arm with a pen attached, which is fed from an
ink reservoir, is directly connected to the moving coil. The pen then writes in sympathy
with the coil movement on a chart, which may be either in strip form or circular from.
Such instruments are capable of recording full-scale deflections from upwards of l00 mV
dc and 500 mV ac. Corresponding currents are 500 mA dc and 1 mA ac. Direct-writing
instruments can be fitted with a variety of chart-drive mechanisms ranging from an
alternating-current synchronous motor, with or without spring wound reserve (which
enables the recorder to continue to operate for a reasonable period), to a completely
mechanically driven clock mechanism. This latter feature, of course, makes the
instruments portable and for suitable for field use. There are many possible variations.
Some manufacturers offer up to as many as six movements writing independently on one
chart. With the use of shunts and current and voltage transformers, ranges may be
extended for higher values. On some types, control facilities for high and low alarms are
also fitted.
(b) Potentiometric Type With the development of ac amplifier techniques in the mid 1930s,
the requirement for increased sensitivity in process control could be satisfied by the use of
a closed-loop recorder. In addition, the mechanism, though more complicated, could be
made much less susceptible to vibration. The self-balancing potentiometer type of
instrument consists of a bridge circuit. Across one arm of the bridge is a reference voltage,
and across the other arm is a feedback network (shown in Figure 15.4). Initially, the bridge
is adjusted so that the servo amplifier and its motor are in balance and stationary. When a
signal is fed to the amplifier, the output causes the servomotor to drive a balancing
potentiometer, which in turn refers a feedback voltage to the amplifier input. When the
two signals are equal and opposite, the system balances and the servomotor stops. If a pen
unit is attached to the motor/ potentiometer mechanised drive, at the point of balance, the
pen will show the proportional value of the input signal. As with galvanometric
instruments, this principle may be applied in various ways.

Figure 15.3 Galvanometer type recorder

Figure 15.4 Potentiometric type recorder

This kind of recorders having very high input impedance, infinity at balance conditions,
and a high sensitivity.
The most common application of potentiometric recorder is for recording and control of
process temperatures. Self-balancing potentiometers are unduly used in industry because
of the following reasons:

(i)
 Their action is automatic and thus eliminates the constant operation of an operator.

They draw a curve of the quantity of being measured with the help of a recording
(ii)
mechanism.

They can be mounted on the switchboard or panel and thus act as mounting devices
(iii)
for the quantity under measurement.

(c) Single-Point and Multi-point Recorders Instruments that record changes of only one
measured variable are called single-point recorders.
A multi-point recorder may have as many as 24 inputs, with traces displaced in six
colours.
2. Circular Chart Recorder
A circular chart recorder records data in a circular format. The paper is spun beneath one
or more pens as shown in Figure 15.5. The pens are deflected in proportion to the varying
signal resulting in a circular chart. Circular chart recorders are ideal for batch processes
where a set process time is known. The charts are normally designed to rotate in standard
time periods, such as 1 hour, 24 hours, 7 days, etc., although many recorders are flexible
enough to accommodate non-standard time periods.
These recorders were developed mainly to take advantage of the availability and
convenience of a spring-wound clock and synchronous motor movements to drive the
chart in a circular direction. The circular chart used here has concentric circles ruled on it
to form its scales as shown in Figure 15.5. In addition, there are printed arcs extending
from the centre of the chart to the paper’s edge. As the pen of the recorder is moved, it
swings along these arcs; these arcs are called the ‘time arcs’. The speed of the rotation of
the chart is usually one revolution per 24 hours or per seven days or any other speed,
which can be conveniently obtained by using a synchronous motor with suitable gear
assembly. The radial position of the pen at any time indicates the instantaneous value of
the quantity under measurement. A typical industrial circular recorder is shown in Figure
15.6.

Figure 15.5 Circular chart recorder

 Figure 15.6 Industrial circular chart recorder [Manf: Omega]

Chart diameter is limited to a maximum of 0.3 m. Speed of the chart is also limited,
resolution along the scale length is usually non-uniform and the charts do not run for a
long period. Magnitude of several variables can be recorded on a single chart which makes
it easy and convenient to analyse the interrelationship of various measurements and also
saves the panel mounting space.
The various drives for circular charts are classified as follows:
(a) Mechanical (spring clock drive)
(b) Pneumatic (air lock drive)
(c) Electric (synchronous regulated dc motor or motor wound spring)
(d) Dual powered drive (duplex), i.e. a synchronous motor and spring clock mechanical
drive
(e) Externally controlled drives
Circular chart recorders are particularly suitable for direct actuation by a number of
mechanical sensors such as bellows, bourdon tubes, etc.
3. X-Y Recorder
With the development of the potentiometric principle, users were aware that a record was
often required as the resultant of two varying signals, and thus the X-Y plotter was
introduced (Figure 15.7). Today, X-Y plotters are as flexible as conventional
potentiometric instruments, except that they have two completely independent servo-
systems to operate the X and Y channels. The two most popular sizes are A4 and A3 (297
mm × 210 mm, 420 mm × 297 mm, respectively). Sensitivities similar to those obtainable
with Y-t instruments are achieved, and, often, the more comprehensive instruments are
also fitted with a time axis t, which provides single or repetitive time sweeps against the Y
axis.
XY recorders accept two inputs and create a chart or graph of one input versus the other.
They are commonly used to determine the relationship between the two inputs. For
example, in a chemical process, an XY recorder might be used to monitor the effect
temperature has on the pressure of the process. A typical industrial XY recorder is shown
in Figure 15.7.

Figure 15.7 Industrial XY recorder [Manf: Omega]

This system has a pen which can be positioned along the two axes with the writing
paper remaining stationary. There are two amplifier units, one amplifier actuates the pen in
the Y-direction as the input signal is applied, while the second amplifier actuates the pen in
the X-direction. The movements of the pen in X-and Y-directions are automatically
controlled by means of a motor, pulleys and a linear potentiometer. Obviously, trace of the
marking pen will be due to the combined effects of two signals applied simultaneously. In
these recorders, an emf is plotted as a function of another emf There are many variations
of X-Y recorders. With the help of these recorders and appropriate transducers, a physical
quantity may be plotted against another physical quantity. Figure 15.8 shows a block
diagram of a typical analog X-Y recorder.
A signal enters in each of the two channels.
The signals are attenuated to the inherent full-scale range of the recorder (often 0.5
mA). The signal then passes to a balance circuit where it is compared with an internal
reference voltage.
The error signal (i.e. the difference between the input signal voltage and the reference
voltage) is fed to a “chopper” which converts dc signal to an ac signal.
The signal is then amplified in order to actuate a servomotor which is used to balance
the system and hold it in balance as the value of the quantity being recorded changes.
The action described above takes place in both the axes simultaneously. Thus, we get a
record of one variable with respect of another.
 Figure 15.8 Different components of an XY recorder

Advantages
1. The instantaneous relationship between two physical quantities can be recorded.
2. The relationship between either electrical or non-electrical quantities can be recorded.
3. In modem types of recorders, zero offset adjustments are available.
Applications A few examples in which use of X-Y recorders are used are as under:
1. Plotting of stress-strain curves, hysteresis curves and vibrations amplitude against
swept frequency
2. Pressure-volume diagrams for LC engines
3. Pressure-flow studies for lungs
4. Lift drag wind tunnel tests
5. Electrical characteristics of materials such as resistance versus temperature
6. Plotting the output from electronic calculators and computers
7. Speed-torque characteristics of motor
8. Regulation curves of power supplies
9. Plotting of characteristics of vacuum tubes, zener diodes, rectifiers and transistors,
etc.
4. Hybrid Recorders
Hybrid chart recorders represent the latest generation of chart recorder and basically
consist of a potentiometric chart recorder with an added microprocessor. The
microprocessor provides for selection of range and chart speed, and also allows
specification of alarm modes and levels to detect when measured variables go outside
acceptable limits. Additional information can also be printed on charts, such as names,
times and dates of variables recorded. Microprocessor-based, hybrid versions of circular
chart recorders also now exist. A typical industrial hybrid recorder is shown in Figure
15.9.
A hybrid recorder can function as a recorder or data logger. Like a standard recorder, the
hybrid recorder can generate a chart of the inputs. However, it can also produce a digital
stamp of the data similar to a data logger. They are commonly available in multichannel
designs although one print head normally handles all channels. This makes the hybrid
recorder a cost-effective solution for multichannel systems although the response time is
not as fast as recorders which have a unique pen for each channel.
5. Paperless Recorders
Paperless recorders are one of the latest types of recorders to emerge on the market.
Paperless recorders display the chart on the recorders’ graphic display rather than print the
chart on paper. The data can normally be recorded in internal memory or to a memory card
for later transfer to a computer. The major benefit of paperless recorders is conservation of
paper and easy transfer to a computer. A typical industrial paperless recorder is shown in
Figure 15.10.

Figure 15.9 Industrial hybrid recorder [Manf: Omega]

Figure 15.10 Industrial paperless recorder [Manf: Omega]

6. Ultraviolet Recorders
The limited bandwidth problem of galvanometric recorders are due to system moment of
inertia and spring constants can be reduced limited to the maximum bandwidth to about
100 Hz. Ultraviolet recorders work on very similar principles to standard galvanometric
chart recorders, but achieve a very significant reduction in system inertia and spring
constants by mounting a narrow mirror rather than a pen system on the moving coil. This
mirror reflects a beam of ultraviolet light onto ultraviolet sensitive paper. It is usual to find
several of these mirror-galvanometer systems mounted in parallel within one instrument to
provide a multi-channel recording capability, as illustrated in Figure 15.11. This
arrangement enables signals at frequencies up to 13 kHz to be recorded with a typical
inaccuracy of ±2% full scale, while it is possible to obtain satisfactory permanent signal
recordings by this method. Special precautions are necessary to protect the ultraviolet-
sensitive paper from light before use and to spray a fixing lacquer on it after recording.
Such instruments must also be handled with extreme care, because the mirror
galvanometers and their delicate mounting systems are easily damaged by relatively small
shocks. In addition, ultraviolet recorders are significantly more expensive than standard
chart recorders.

Figure 15.11 Internal recording components of UV recorder

7. Thermal Dot Array Recorders

Thermal dot array recorders have the advantage of not having any moving parts. The
writing mechanism is an array of equidistant writing points which covers the total width of
the paper. For writing, medium thermo-sensitive papers are generally used. In this array
the writing system consists of miniature electrically heated coils. Maximum writing
frequency is determined by thermal properties of the coils which are in close contact with
the chart paper and the electric activating pulse. Heating of the thermo-sensitive paper
results in a black dot with good long-term stability. The heating pulse is controlled in
relation to the chart velocity in order to obtain sufficient blackness at high velocities.
Tracing blackness or line thickness is seldom used for curve identification; and
alphanumeric annotation is mostly applied. Different types of grid patterns can be selected
by the user. Moreover, alphanumeric information can be printed for indicating
experimental conditions. Ordinate axis resolution is determined by the dot array:
primarily, 8 dots/mm; exceptionally, 12 dots/mm (as in standard laser printers). Most of
the dot array instruments are intended for high-signal-frequency applications: per channel
sampling frequencies of 100, 200, and even 500 kHz are used in real time. These sampling
frequencies largely exceed the writing frequencies; during the writing cycle, data are
stored in memory and for each channel within each writing interval, a dotted vertical line
is printed between the minimal and the maximal value. For example, a sine wave with a
frequency largely exceeding the writing frequency is represented as a black band with a
width equal to the sine amplitude. In this way, the graphs indicate the presence of a
phenomenon with a frequency content exceeding the writing frequency.
15.2.2 Magnetic Disk and Tape Type Recorder
At present, magnetic recording technology dominates the recording industry. It is used in
the forms of hard disk, floppy disk, removable disk, and tape with either digital or analog
mode. In its simplest form, it consists of a magnetic head and a magnetic medium, as
shown in Figure15.12. The head is made of a piece of magnetic material in a ring shape
(core), with a small gap facing the medium and a coil away from the medium. The head
records (writes) and reproduces (reads) information, while the medium stores the
information. The recording process is based on the phenomenon that an electric current i
generates a magnetic flux f as described by Ampere’s law. The flux f leaks out of the head
core at the gap, and magnetises the magnetic medium which moves from left to right with
a velocity V under the head gap. Depending on the direction of the electric current i, the
medium is magnetised with magnetisation M pointing either left or right. This pattern of
magnetisation is retained in the memory of the medium even after the head moves away.
Magnetic tapes are still popular in several areas such as
1. Medical research
2. Patient monitoring
3. Surveillance
4. Spying
5. Production control

Figure 15.12 Magnetic tape recording

1. The Magnetic Tape

Before actually going into the details of the magnetic tape recorder, it is better to know
about the tape which is used for this purpose. Actually, the tape is made out of a special
type of plastic material which is stable and can withstand continuous rubbing against the
head. Normally, this material is either PVC or Mylar which are quite resistant to wear and
stretching is necessary for the tape to remain useful for a long period of time. On top of
this plastic base, there is a thin layer of magnetic material, usually iron oxide. The
particles of this magnetic material are shaped in the form of tiny needles and occupy the
top portion of the plastic base. The typical thickness of the tape is of the order of 25
micrometres.
During recording, an electrical signal causes current to flow through the coil producing
a magnetic field in the gap, as shown by the blue lines of force in Figure 15.12. As the
electrical signal varies in amplitude and frequency, so does the magnetic field. The tape
consists of a plastic film coated with a material that is magnetised by the field as it passes
over the gap. As the magnetic field varies in strength, so does the magnetism stored on the
tape. During playback, the tape passes over the same head (it is called the record/playback
head). This time the magnetism stored on the tape induces a voltage in the head coil. This
voltage is amplified and used for retrieval of the recorded signal.
(a) Principle behind Magnetic Recording—Hysteresis Loop Those of you who have
studied physics must surely remember that there are two magnet types, namely permanent
magnet and temporary magnet. In a temporary magnet, the magnetism is induced as a
result of some force which aligns the magnetic particles along a specifi c axis. This force
could be due to rubbing of another magnetic material or an electromagnetic fi eld applied
using a varying current.
Take a look at the typical magnetisation curve in Figure 15.13, which shows the graph
of the magnetising force H against the flux density B. When a material is in purely non-
magnetised state and a magnetising force is applied, the fl ux density rises along the dotted
line OAC. But now if the current is brought to zero, the fl ux does not reduce to zero but a
residual fl ux remains and the current has to be extended into the negative region (opposite
direction) to bring B to zero again.
Hence, a loop is formed of the overall process as can be seen from the diagram and this
is known as the magnetisation curve for the material or is also known as the hysteresis
loop. Now this property may be undesirable in several situations but here you can
intuitively imagine a great use for the same. Once the signal is applied to the magnetic
tape via the recording head, the section of the tape gets magnetised in accordance with the
signal which leaves a residual flux on the tape. This acts to store that signal on the tape
which can be played back using the playback head.

Figure 15.13 Hysteresis loop

(b) The Basic Arrangement The basic circuit of a magnetic recording and playback
system is quite simple and can be understood by seeing Figure 15.14, which shows the
entire arrangement. Of course, this is a highly simplified sketch without the inside nuts
and bolts, yet it is useful to take a broad view of the system.
As you can see, the entire system consists of two portions—a mechanical arrangement
to make the magnetic tape move across two points, and an electrical system which does
the real job. The mechanical movement is achieved with the help of motor drive and a
combination of rollers and belts. The electrical part is taken care of by appropriate circuits
which do the work of recording, playback and amplification of sound. There are two heads
which are used for recording and playback of the signals respectively.
(c) Recording and Playback The basic principle of operation is quite simple. As the
tape rubs against the recording head, it applies a magnetic field which is proportional to
the input signal. This signal orients the magnetic particles in a specific format which acts
as indicators to the pattern of signal stored. When the playback head rubs against the tape,
the signal is reproduced since now the particles induce similar magnetic patterns in the
head. If you want to read more technical details about this process you can refer to the
next article on this topic (coming soon and will be linked here).

Figure 15.14 Magnetic tape recording mechanism

There are several types of recording techniques which are used for recording on
magnetic tapes and these can be
Direct recording
Frequency modulation recording
Pulse duration modulation recording
Digital recording
We will take a look at all these methods of recording on magnetic tapes
2. Direct Recording
If the signals are recorded in an analog manner in a way so that the amplitude and
frequency of the signal is recorded linearly as a variation of the amplitude, magnetisation
and wavelength on the magnetic tape, such a system of recording is known as direct
recording. Since low distortion is required on the playback signal, this is achieved by
adding a high-frequency ac bias signal to the signal being recorded.
This method of recording is most suited for audio signals rather than any other purpose.
This is so because the human ear has an in-built mechanism which averages the amplitude
variation errors.
3. FM Recording
We have learnt about frequency modulation in a previous article and know that frequency
modulation is all about using a sine wave carrier signal and modulating or modifying it as
per the signal to be loaded on that carrier signal. Similarly, in case of FM recording in
magnetic tapes, a frequency modulator is used to feed the input signal onto the carrier
signal. This signal is then recorded onto the magnetic tape either with or without the ac
bias signal as described in the previous section of direct recording.
Figure 15.15 shows a simplified view of such a recording system without showing the
internal details. As you can see, when the signal is now reproduced using the playback
head, it needs to be passed through a demodulator which separates the sine carrier wave
from the recorded signal and then reproduced.

Figure 15.15 FM recording mechanism

This system is more complicated in its construction and expensive to build because of
the various extra circuitries involved in it. Hence, normally it is only used in situations
where amplitude-variation errors are not acceptable, such as instrumentation where the
parameters of some delicate industrial process are recorded. Despite this advantage, this
system has a poor high-frequency response and requires a higher tape speed which needs
to be precisely controlled.
4. PDM Recording
In this type of magnetic tape-recording system, the input signal is converted into a pulse
signal. The duration of the pulse is in tune with the amplitude of the signal; hence the
name pulse duration modulation since the duration of the pulse varies with the input
signal.
Obviously, since the continuous input signal is divided into discrete pulses, this type of
recording system is even more complicated and expensive than the FDM system described
previously. Yet it is used in situations which require special quality recording such as
situations where a large number of variables are monitored and they change very slowly.
The advantages of such a system are
(a) Multi channel recording
(b) Great degree of accuracy
(c) Very low signal/noise ratio
5. Benefits of Magnetic Recording
Now we will take a look at some of the advantages and drawbacks of the magnetic tape
systems.
(a) The frequency range of the signals stored on the tape has a very wide range and
spectrum, and an equally good dynamic range.
 (b) here is very less distortion of signals stored on the tape. This is specifically useful
for audio/ video purposes
(c) Tapes can be used to store multiple signals along the same length, thus increasing
efficiency.
(d) Even though you might think that electronic memories are getting cheaper, the tape
still is a winner in terms of cost per bit of storage. This is mainly due to large
surface area of the tape and very high data density.
(e) Time base of the stored signal data can be varied as per requirement. This means
that signals recorded at fast speed can be played back at slower speed and vice
versa, which is useful in several applications
15.2.3 Oscillographic Recorders
Although, strictly speaking, oscillographs are direct-writing instruments, they also employ
a moving coil, but the writing element uses much more power and is fed from an ac
amplifier feeding a driver power amplifier. The writing element, usually referred to as a
“pen motor”, can consume more than 100 W. The angular deflection of the motor is often
restricted to as little as 17° with the result that response times of up to 150 Hz can be
obtained. Oscillographs are suitable for recording high transient signals such as occurring
in strain-gauge measurements and in medical applications such as measuring heartbeat and
brain-response (ECGs and EEGs). The recording is usually made on inkless paper using a
heated stylus.
Used primarily for applications in the test and research fields, the capabilities of
oscillographic recorders and the newer digital oscilloscopes have expanded greatly over
the past several years. An oscillograph is a device for determining waveforms by plotting
instantaneous values of a quantity such as voltage as a function of time. A decade ago, this
implied either a recording galvanometer or a CRT recorder—analog instruments that
afforded the needed bandwidths in excess of 20 kHz.
As in other recorder developments, however, digital is the buzzword today and Digital
Storage Oscilloscopes (DSOs) or simply digital oscilloscopes have proliferated. These
may be defined as oscilloscopes that digitise an input signal for storage in memory for
later display or analysis. It is a logical and relatively simple step to use the stored data to
provide a chart record, and many DSOs do just that, essentially acting as data loggers.
A recent survey lists some 30 different suppliers of DSOs, many of them PC-based.
They cover a range of bandwidths—some around 40 to 50 MHz while others go as high as
350 MHz. These are sophisticated electronic instruments that have capabilities far beyond
traditional analog CRT-based oscilloscopes, which have been around for many decades.

15.3 DIGITAL RECORDERS

Digital recorder record the data in the form of ‘1’ and ‘0’. There are several types of
digital recorders. The following section discusses data loggers and magnetic-type digital
recorders.
15.3.1 Data Logger
Data loggers are is a stand-alone devices that can record information electronically from
internal or external sensors or other equipment that provide digital or serial outputs.
1. Key Features of Data Loggers
(a) Stand-alone Operation Most data loggers are normally configured with a PC, some
models can be configured from the front panel provided by the manufacturer. Once the
data loggers are configured, they don’t need the PC to operate.
(b) Support for Multiple Sensor Types Data loggers often have universal input type
which can accept input from common sensors like thermocouple, RTD, humidity, voltage,
etc.
(c) Local Data Storage All data loggers have local data storage or internal memory unit,
so all the measured data is stored within the logger for later transfer to a PC.
(d) Automatic Data Collection Data loggers are designed to collect data at regular
intervals, 24 hours a day and 365 days a year if necessary, and the collection mode is often
configurable.
Data logging and recording are both analog terms in the field of measurement. Data
logging is basically measuring and recording of any physical phenomena or electrical
parameter over a period of time. The physical phenomena can be temperature, strain,
displacement, flow, pressure, voltage, current, resistance, power, and many other
parameters. Typical industrial data loggers are shown in Figure 15.16.

Figure 15.16 Typical data loggers [Manf: National Instrument and Omega Corp.]

The data logger collects information about the state of any physical system from the
sensors. Then the data logger converts this signal into a digital form with the help of an
A/D converter. This digital signal is then stored in some electronic storage unit, which can
be easily transferred to the computer for further the analysis, the schematic diagram of a
data-logging application in industrial environment is shown in Figure 15.17.

Figure 15.17 Industrial data logging and display

 A few basic components that every data logger must have are shown in Figure 15.17,
which are:
1. Hardware components like sensors, signal conditioning, and analog-to-digital
converter, etc.
2. Long-term data storage, typically onboard memory or a PC
3. Software for collecting data, analysing and viewing
2. Functions of Data Loggers
Beyond the acquiring and storing data, a data logger often performs various kinds of other
jobs like offline and online analysis, display, sharing data with other devices connected
with the network, reporting events and providing alarm whenever some critical situation
arises. A complete data-logging application typically requires most of the elements shown
in Figure 15.18.

Figure 15.18 Different components of data loggers

15.3.2 Digital Tape Recording

The very mention of the name digital tape recording brings the picture of hard drives,
flash memories, etc. to our mind, but this also refers to another method of recording on the
good old magnetic tape as well. Figure 15.19 shows the digital tape recording mechanism.

Figure 15.19 Digital tape recording mechanism

The only difference is that the signals are recorded in the form of 0s and1s which are
typical of the digital world. Obviously, it would require modulation of some form or the
other, to convert analog to digital signals and hence there are several methods of magnetic
tape recording which fall under the category of digital recording.
Some of these methods are
1. Return-to-bias method
2. Return-to-zero method
3. Non-Return-to-zero method
The detailed description of these methods would be a bit too complicated here so we
will just go through the basics of one of these, let us say the Return-to-Bias (RB) method.
Figure (15.19) schematically shows the digital recording/reproducing process. First, all
user data are encoded into a binary format—a serial of 1s and 0s. Then a write current i is
sent to the coil. This current changes its direction whenever a 1 is being written.
Correspondingly, a change of magnetisation, termed a transition, is recorded in the
medium for each 1 in the encoded data. During the reproducing process, the electric
voltage induced in the head coil reaches a peak whenever there is a transition in the
medium. A pulse detector generates a pulse for each transition. These pulses are decoded
to yield the user data. The minimum distance between two transitions in the medium is the
flux change length B, and the distance between two adjacent signal tracks is the track pitch
W, which is wider than the signal track width w. The flux change length can be directly
converted into bit length with the proper code information. The reciprocal of the bit length
is called linear density, and the reciprocal of the track pitch is termed track density. The
information storage area density in the medium is the product of the linear density and the
track density. This area density roughly determines how much information a user can store
in a unit surface area of storage medium, and is a figure of merit for a recording technique.
Much effort has been expended to increase the areal density. For example, it has been
increased 50 times during 90’s.

15.4 DISPLAY SYSTEM

The display system acts as a final link between the measuring process and the user. If the
display is not easy to see and easy to understand then that process is compromised. The
user’s sensory capabilities and cognitive characteristics, therefore, must both be addressed
in display-system selection. Furthermore, display technologies and performance
capabilities are easier to evaluate in the context of their intended application. The
following section discusses various kind of commonly used display system.
15.4.1 Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
The Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) was developed for television in the 40s. Now it has wide
range of applications in oscilloscopes, radar and monitors, etc.
It consists of a glass envelope made from a neck and cone. All air has been extracted so
that it contains a vacuum. At the narrow end are pins which make connection with an
internal electron gun, as shown in Figure 15.20. Voltages are applied to this gun to
produce a beam of electrons. This electron beam is projected towards the inside face of the
screen.
Different basic component of CRTs are electron gun, electron accelerating anode,
horizontal and vertical electric field coils, electron beam and a screen coated with
phosphor. The electron gun generates a narrow beam of electrons. The anodes accelerate
the electrons. Deflecting coils produce an extremely low-frequency electric field that
allows for constant adjustment of the direction of the electron beam. There are two sets of
deflecting coils: horizontal and vertical. (In the figure, only one set of coils is shown for
simplicity). The intensity of the beam can be varied. The electron beam produces a tiny,
bright visible spot when it strikes the phosphor-coated screen. The screen is covered with
a fine layer of phosphorescent elements, called phosphors, which emit light by excitation
when electrons strike them, creating a lit-up dot called a pixel.

Figure 15.20 Internal components of a CRT

To produce an image on the screen, complex signals are applied to the deflecting coils,
and also to the apparatus that controls the intensity of the electron beam. This causes the
spot to race across the screen from right to left, and from top to bottom, in a sequence of
horizontal lines called the raster. As viewed from the front of the CRT, the spot moves in
a pattern similar to the way your eyes move when you read a single-column page of text.
But the scanning takes place at such a rapid rate that your eye sees a constant image over
the entire screen.
The illustration shows only one electron gun. This is typical of a monochrome, or
single-colour CRTs. However, virtually all CRTs today render colour images. These
devices have three electron guns, one for the primary colour red, one for the primary
colour green, and one for the primary colour blue. The CRT thus produces three
overlapping images: one in red (R), one in green (G), and one in blue (B). This is the so-
called RGB colour model.
In computer systems, there are several display modes, or sets of specifications
according to which the CRT operates. The most common specification for CRT displays is
known as SVGA (Super Video Graphics Array). Notebook computers typically use liquid
crystal display. The technology for these displays is much different than that for CRTs.
Cold Cathode Display
A cathode is any electrode that emits electrons as discussed in the section on CRT display.
Generally, the cathode is heated so that electron emission occur at lower potential
difference these cathode are called hot cathode and are widely used in vacuum tube CRT
monitor oscilloscope, etc. By taking advantage of thermionic emission, electrons can
overcome the work function of the cathode with lower electric field. But in the case of
cold cathode, sufficient voltage is provided so that electrons can overcome the work
function and come out from the cathode at ambient temperature. Because it is not
deliberately heated, such a cathode is referred to as a cold cathode. Although several
mechanisms may eventually cause the cathode to become quite hot once it is operating.
Most cold cathode devices are filled with a gas which can be ionised. A few cold cathode
devices contain a vacuum.
15.4.2 Light Emitting Diode (LED)
One of the cheapest and convenient ways to display information electronically is by using
Light-Emitting Diodes ( LEDs). It is basically a p-n junction photodiode when excited at
forward-bias condition emits light (basic theory of LEDs are discussed in chapter on
“Fibre Optic Measurements”). It can be easily interfaced with a simple electronic circuit
and is durable and reliable. These LEDs are often arranged in different formats to display
information. Among these, the seven segments configuration and dot matrix display are
very common and widely used. The seven-segment configuration of an LED arranged in
the form of the digit 8 can be restrictive in that it does not adequately allow the display of
some alphanumeric characters. By contrast, the versatility of a dot-matrix arrangement
allows an LED unit to display more complicated shapes. The following sections discuss
the about seven-segment and dot-matrix LED display.
1. The Seven Segment Display
One common requirement for many different digital devices is a visual display. Individual
LEDs can of course display the binary states, i.e. ‘ON’ or OFF’. But when some numbers
or characters are to be displayed then some arrangement of the LEDs are required. One
possibility is a matrix of LEDs in a 7 × 5 array. However, if only numbers are to be
displayed then this becomes a bit expensive. A much better way is to arrange the
minimum possible number of LEDs in such a way that it can represent a number requiring
only 7 LEDs. A common technique is to use a shaped piece of translucent plastic to
operate as a specialised optical fibre, to distribute the light from the LED evenly over a
fixed bar shape. The seven bars are laid out as a squared-off figure “8”. The result is
known as a seven-segment LED.
Seven-segment displays having a wide range of applications. They used in clocks,
watches, digital instruments, digital balances and many household appliances already have
such displays.
There are basically two type of seven-segment displays—common cathode and
common anode. The common-anode type is shown in Figure 15.21, where ‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’, ‘d’,
‘e’, ‘f’ and ‘g’ represent individual LEDs which are arranged as shown in the figure. In
order to display numbers often decimal point have to be displayed. For that, another LED
has been added, which is represented by ‘dp’ (decimal point).
 Figure 15.21 Common anode connection of seven segment display unit

A typical seven-segment display unit is shown in Figure 15.22. Figure 15.23 shows the
pin diagram of a common anode type seven-segment display. That means that the positive
leg of each LED is connected to a common point which is the Pin 3 in this case. Each
LED has a negative leg that is connected to one of the pins of the device. To make it work,
you need to connect the pin 3 to 5 volts. Then to make each segment light up, connect the
ground pin for that LED to ground. A resistor is required to limit the current. Rather than
using a resistor from each LED to ground, you can just use one resistor from Vcc to the
pin 3 to limit the current.

Figure 15.22 Typical seven segment display unit

Figure 15.23 Pin diagram of seven segment display unit

Table 15.1 shows how to form the numbers 0 to 9 and the letters A, B, C, d, E, and F.
‘0’ means that pin is connected to ground. ‘1’ means that pin is connected to Vcc.
Table 15.1 Forming numbers and letters.
2. Dot Matrix Display
LEDs are arranged in matrix form—common configurations are 5 × 7, 5 × 8 and 8 × 8, as
shown in Figure 15.4. Based on the electrode connections, two kinds of LED matrices are
possible, one is common anode. All the LEDs in a row having the anode are connected
together. The other one is common cathode, having all LEDs in a row, the common
cathode or cathodes are shorted. It is easier to understand the construction and interface
capabilities of an LED matrix using an illustration. Figure 15.24 depicts a matrix
construction of the common-anode type. A single matrix is formed by thirty-five LEDs
arranged in five columns and seven rows (5 × 7). The anodes of the fi ve LEDs forming
one row are connected together. Similarly, the cathodes of the seven LEDs of a column are
connected together. In this arrangement of LEDs, the cathodes are switched to turn the
LEDs of a row on or off.
The matrix (unit) illustrated in Figure 15.25 can be used to display a single
alphanumeric character. Several such units can be placed next to each other to form a
larger panel to display a string of characters.
 Figure 15.24 LED Matrix with common-anode arrangement

Figure 15.25 5×7 and 8×8 dot matrix display

3. Display of Information using LED Matrix

From Figure15.26 it is clear that switching/multiplexing of rows is required to display a
character on the matrix unit. These are often done by using external hardware like latches.
Each row of the LED is driven for a brief period before switching to the next row. As the
human eye retains a visual impression of an object for a short duration after the object is
removed. Retention time depends on the brightness of the image. Due to this visual
phenomenon termed persistence of vision, the human eye considers that the LEDs are
glowing continuously and can visualise the characters.
Rapid switching between rows produces the illusion that all the rows are ON at the
same time. To function as intended, two additional requirements must be met:
1. The LEDs must be overdriven proportionately or they can appear dim. The dimness
occurs because a row is ON for only a fraction of time.
2. The rows must be updated often enough (e.g. each row is scanned about 30–40 times
per second), to avoid display flicker. For actual character display, it is necessary to
map the shape of the character to the 5x7 LED matrix. Figure 15.26 illustrates the
characters A and B.
 Figure 15.26 Illustration of the Characters A and B

For any given character, a corresponding pattern of LED ON and LED OFF must be
generated, for example, the character A, as displayed in the figure, is formed with the
pattern shown in Table 15.2.
Table 15.2 Display Pattern for the Character A

Other characters/objects can be developed in a similar manner and stored in the memory
to be used while displaying. By frequently switching the rows or columns with the proper
selection of LED ON/ OFF patterns, the human eye perceives the display as continuous.
15.4.3 Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
The Liquid Crystal Display ( LCD) has been one of the enabling technologies of the
current electronic revolution. It is an essential part of every mobile phone, every laptop
and every personal organiser. Liquid crystal is an organic compound that polarises any
light that passes through it. A liquid crystal also responds to an applied electric field by
changing the alignment of its molecules, and in so doing changing the direction of the
light polarisation that it introduces. Liquid crystals can be trapped between two parallel
sheets of glass, with a matching pattern of transparent electrode on each sheet. Figure
15.27 shows different layers of a typical LCD display. When a voltage is applied to the
electrodes, the optical character of the crystal changes and the electrode pattern appears in
the crystal. A huge range of LCDs has been developed, including those based on seven-
segment digits or dot matrix formats, as well as a variety of graphical forms. Many
general-purpose displays are available commercially.
The liquid crystal fluid is the active medium that is used to create an image. It consists
of a very large number of elongated crystals suspended in a fluid. This reservoir is
sandwiched between two thin sheets of glass. Each piece of glass has a transparent
conductive pattern bonded to it. The crystals are aligned in a spiral pattern until an electric
field is impressed on the conductors.
 Figure 15.27 Different layers of a typical LCD display

A sheet of polarising material is bonded to the outside surfaces of both the front and
rear glass covers. As incident light of random polarisation enters the top polarizer, it is
stopped except for that which is polarised in the proper direction. With no electric field
applied, the light is twisted or its polarisation is changed by the spiral pattern of the
crystals. The bottom polariser is aligned opposite of the top one but the “twisted” light is
now aligned with the bottom polariser and passes through. The display is now transparent
and appears light.
A simple black-or-white LCD display works by either allowing daylight to be reflected
back out at the viewer or preventing it from doing so—in which case the viewer sees a
black area. The liquid crystal is the part of the system that either prevents light from
passing through it or not.
The crystal is placed between two polarising filters that are at right angles to each other
and together block light. When there is no electric current applied to the crystal, it twists
light by 90°, which allows the light to pass through the second polariser and be reflected
back. But when the voltage is applied, the crystal molecules align themselves, and light
cannot pass through the polariser: the segment turns black, this phenomena is shown in
Figure 15.28.
Many other types of LCD displays are being developed for the laptop and CRT
replacement market including full colour versions. These include double and Triple
Twisted Nematic (DSTN and TSTN) displays and the Active-matrix Thin-film Twisted
Nematic and Metal-Insulated-Metal Twisted Nematic (TFT-TN and MIM-TN) displays.
Unfortunately, these advanced display are too expensive for most of the calculator market.
TN LCDs almost completely dominate today’s calculator market due to their extremely
low power requirements, thin size and low cost.
 Figure 15.28 Working principle of LCD
Table 15.3 Comparison of CRT and LCD

Cathode Ray Tubes Liquid Crystal Displays

Advantages
Small in size
Light weight (typ. 1/5 of CRT)
Low power consumption (typ. 1/4 of
Advantages
CRT)
Fast response and high resolution possible Completely fl at screen—no
Full colour (large modulation depth of E-beam) geometrical errors
Saturated and natural colors Crisp pictures—digital and uniform
Inexpensive, matured technology colours
Wide angle, high contrast and brightness No electromagnetic emission
Fully digital, signal processing
possible
Large screens (>20 inch) on
desktops

Disadvantages
Disadvantages
High price (presently 3 × CRT)
Large and heavy (typ. 70 × 70 cm, 15 kg)
Poor viewing angle (typ. +/– 50
High power consumption (typ. 140W)
degrees)
Harmful dc and ac electric and magnetic fi elds
Low contrast and luminance (typ.
Flickering at 50–80 Hz (no memory effect)
1:100)
Geometrical errors at edges
Low luminance (typ. 200 cd/m2)

15.4.4 Flat Panel Display

Flat-screen monitors, often termed Flat Panel Displays (FPDs), are becoming more and
more popular, as they take up less space and are less heavy than traditional CRT monitors.
Other greater advantages of FPDs are they consume less energy when compared to CRT
monitors, and also have less electromagnetic radiation. There are basically two types of
Flat Panel Display (FPD)—the popular one is Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) and the other
one is Plasma Display Panel (PDP).
The theory of Liquid Crystal Displays was discussed in the LCD section. Here, Plasma
Display Panel (PDP) will be discussed in brief.
Plasma Display Panel (PDP)
A Plasma Display Panel ( PDP) is a type of flat panel display now commonly used for
large TV displays (typically above 32 ¢¢). It is often used in the home environment and is
becoming increasingly popular in modern cultures.

Figure 15.29 Working principle of plasma display

A plasma display panel is based on emitting light by exciting gases. The gas used in
plasma screens is a mixture of argon (90%) and xenon (10%). Gas is contained within
cells, each one corresponding to a pixel that corresponds to a row electrode and column
electrode, which excite the gas within the cell. A typical green colour cell is shown in
Figure 15.29, where red and blue colour cells are located nearby. By modulating the
voltage applied across the top and bottom electrodes and by changing the frequency of
excitation, the inert gas can be excited. The gas excited this way produces ultraviolet
radiation (which is invisible to the human eye). With blue, green, and red phosphors
distributed among the cells, the ultraviolet radiation is converted into visible light, so that
pixels (made up of 3 cells) can be displayed in up to 16 million colors (256 × 256 × 256).
Plasma technology can be used to create large-scale high-contrast screens, but plasma
screens are still expensive. What’s more, power consumption is more than 30 times higher
than for an LCD screen. A typical plasma TV of SAMSUNG Corp. is shown in Figure
15.30.
 Figure 15.30 Plasma TV [Manf. SAMSUNG Corp.]

15.4.5 Nixie Tube

Nixie tubes are nonplanar electronic devices that use the principles of glow discharge for
displaying numerals or other information. These are actually gaseous glow tubes made of
glass that contain two electrodes. The anode is in the form of a wire mesh and multiple
cathodes that are shaped as numerals or other symbols that are to be displayed. When the
cathode corresponding to the numeral to be displayed is activated, it gets surrounded by an
orange gaseous glow discharge. The glass tube is generally filled with neon gas at low
pressure, with a little mercury. The photograph of a Nixie tube is shown in Figure 15.31.
When a sufficient potential of around 170 volts is applied between the selected cathode
and the anode plate, the gas surrounding the selected cathode gets ionised and emits an
orange glow. A Nixie tube should not be confused with a vacuum tube since operation of
the Nixie tube does not depend on thermionic emissions of electrons from a heated
cathode. The operating temperature of Nixie tube rarely exceeds 40°C. Nixie tubes are
thus also called cold-cathode tube.
The most commonly available Nixie tube has ten cathodes in the shapes of the numerals
0 to 9, and may be a decimal point. These cathodes displaying different numbers are
arranged one behind another. Thus, when the characters glow one at a time, each character
appears at a different depth.
 Figure 15.31 Nixie tube (Courtesy, www.123rf.com)

Nixie tubes were used in earlier days as display units in voltmeters, ammeters and other
electrical and electronic measuring instruments.

EXERCISE
Objective-type Questions
1. A strip chart recorder is a/an
(a) analog recorder
(b) magnetic tape recorder
(c) oscillographic recorder
(d) none of the above
2. Printing mechanism of a FAX machine is of
(a) thermal type
(b) impact type
(c) electrostatic type
(d) optical type
3. Which is not the function of data loggers?
(a) Display
(b) Online analysis
(c) Reporting
(d) Control
4. The bandwidth of a magnetic tape recorder is
(a) higher than electronic recorder
(b) higher than strip chart recorder
(c) lower than strip chart recorder
(d) higher than ultraviolet recorder
5. Power consumption of an LED display is
(a) higher than LCD display
(b) lower than LCD display
 (c) almost equal to LCD display
(d) Approximately two lines higher than same size LCD
6. In a CRT, the electron beam is deflected by
(a) electric field
(b) magnetic field
(c) both magnetic and electric field
(d) gravitational field
7. Servo mechanism is used in
(a) potentiometric type recorder
(b) galvanometric type recorder
(c) magnetic tape type recorder
(d) ultraviolet recorder
8. The response time of CRT display is
(a) higher that LCD display
(b) lower than LCD display
(c) higher than plasma display
(d) lower than plasma display
9. The gas used in plasma screens is a mixture of
(a) nitrogen and oxygen
(b) nitrogen and xenon
(c) argon and nitrogen
(d) argon and xenon
10. Time scale of a strip chart recorder is controlled by
(a) controlling speed of the chart paper
(b) controlling the stylus drive mechanism
(c) controlling the range selector
(d) controlling the stylus

Short-answer Questions
1. Classify different types of recorders.
2. What are the different components of a strip chart recorder? Briefly discuss those.
3. Compare a potentiometric with galvanometric recorder.
4. State the working principle of ultraviolet recorders.
5. What are the advantages of a magnetic tape recorder over the other recording system?
6. Draw a functional block diagram of a data logger. Also discuss about each element.
7. Compare cold cathode display with hot cathode display.
8. How Does a simple black-and-white LCD display work?
9. State the working principle of plasma display.
10. How are characters displayed in an LED dot matrix display unit?