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Unit 1- INTRODUCTION

VELAMMAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
CS8601 MOBILE COMPUTING

UNIT I – INTRODUCTION
Introduction to Mobile Computing – Applications of Mobile Computing- Generations of Mobile
Communication Technologies-- Multiplexing – Spread spectrum -MAC Protocols – SDMA-
TDMA- FDMA- CDMA

1.1 Introduction to Mobile Computing:

The rapidly expanding technology of cellular communication, wireless LANs, and
satellite services will make information accessible anywhere and at any time. Regardless
of size, most mobile computers will be equipped with a wireless connection to the fixed
part of the network, and, perhaps, to other mobile computers.
The resulting computing environment, which is often referred to as mobile or
nomadic computing, no longer requires users to maintain a fixed and universally known
position in the network and enables almost unrestricted mobility.
Mobile Computing is an umbrella term used to describe technologies that
enable people to access network services anyplace, anytime, and anywhere
There are two different kinds of mobility: user mobility and device portability.

User mobility refers to a user who has access to the same or similar telecommunication
services at different places, i.e., users communicate (wireless) “anytime, anywhere, with
anyone”

With device portability,1 the communication device moves (with or without a user).
Many mechanisms in the network and inside the device have to make sure that
communication is still possible while the device is moving. devices can be connected
anytime, anywhere to the network

A communication device can exhibit any one of the following characteristics:

 Fixed and wired: This configuration describes the typical desktop computer in an
office. Neither weight nor power consumption of the devices allow for mobile
usage. The devices use fixed networks for performance reasons.
 Mobile and wired: Many of today’s laptops fall into this category; users carry the

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laptop from one hotel to the next, reconnecting to the company’s network via the
telephone network and a modem.
 Fixed and wireless: This mode is used for installing networks, e.g., in historical
buildings to avoid damage by installing wires, or at trade shows to ensure fast
network setup.
 Mobile and wireless: This is the most interesting case. No cable restricts the user,
who can roam between different wireless networks. Most technologies discussed
in this book deal with this type of device and the networks supporting them.
Today’s most successful example for this category is GSM with more than 800
million users.

1.2 Applications of Mobile Computing:

In many fields of work, the ability to keep on the move is vital in order to utilise time
efficiently. The importance of Mobile Computers has been highlighted in many fields of
which a few are described below:
a. Vehicles:
 Music, news, road conditions, weather reports, and other broadcast information
are received via digital audio broadcasting (DAB) with 1.5 Mbit/s.
 For personal communication, GSM, universal mobile telecommunications
system (UMTS) phone might be available offering voice and data connectivity
with 384 kbit/s.
 The current position of the car is determined via the global positioning system
(GPS). Cars driving in the same area build a local ad-hoc network for the fast
exchange of information in emergency situations or to help each other keep a safe
distance. In case of an accident, not only will the airbag be triggered, but the police
and ambulance service will be informed via an emergency call to a service
provider.
 Buses, trucks, and trains are already transmitting maintenance and logistic
information to their home base, which helps to improve organization (fleet
management), and saves time and money.
b. Emergencies:
• An ambulance with a high-quality wireless connection to a hospital can carry
vital information about injured persons to the hospital from the scene of the

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accident.
• All the necessary steps for this particular type of accident can be prepared and
specialists can be consulted for an early diagnosis.
• Wireless networks are the only means of communication in the case of natural
disasters such as hurricanes or earthquakes. In the worst cases, only
decentralized, wireless ad-hoc networks survive.
c. Business:
 Managers can use mobile computers say, critical presentations to major
customers. They can access the latest market share information. At a small
recess, they can revise the presentation to take advantage of this information.
 They can communicate with the office about possible new offers and call
meetings for discussing responds to the new proposals. Therefore, mobile
computers can leverage competitive advantages.
 A travelling salesman today needs instant access to the company’s database:
to ensure that files on his or her laptop reflect the current situation, to enable the
company to keep track of all activities of their travelling employees, to keep
databases consistent etc.
 With wireless access, the laptop can be turned into a true mobile office, but
efficient and powerful synchronization mechanisms are needed to ensure data
consistency.
d. Credit Card Verification:
 At Point of Sale (POS) terminals in shops and supermarkets, when customers
use credit cards for transactions, the intercommunication required between the
bank central computer and the POS terminal, in order to effect verification of the
card usage, can take place quickly and securely over cellular channels using a
mobile computer unit.
 This can speed up the transaction process and relieve congestion at the POS
terminals.
e. Replacement of Wired Networks:
 wireless networks can also be used to replace wired networks, e.g., remote
sensors, for tradeshows, or in historic buildings.

 Due to economic reasons, it is often impossible to wire remote sensors for

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weather forecasts, earthquake detection, or to provide environmental

information.
 Wireless connections, e.g., via satellite, can help in this situation. Other
examples for wireless networks are computers, sensors, or information displays
in historical buildings, where excess cabling may destroy valuable walls or floors.
f. Infotainment:
 Wireless networks can provide up-to-date information at any appropriate
location.
 The travel guide might tell you something about the history of a building
(knowing via GPS, contact to a local base station, or triangulation where you are)
downloading information about a concert in the building at the same evening via
a local wireless network.
 Another growing field of wireless network applications lies in entertainment and
games to enable, e.g., ad-hoc gaming networks as soon as people meet to play
together.
g. Location dependent services
 It is important for an application to ‘know’ something about the location or
the user might need location information for further activities
• Location aware services
• what services, e.g., printer, fax, phone, server etc. exist in the local
environment
• Follow-on services
• automatic call-forwarding, transmission of the actual workspace to
the current location
• Information services
• “push”: e.g., current special offers in the supermarket
• “pull”: e.g., where is the Black Forrest Cheese Cake?
• Support services
• caches, intermediate results, state information etc. “follow” the
mobile device through the fixed network
• Privacy
• who should gain knowledge about the location
1.3 Limitations of Mobile Computing

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 Resource constraints: Battery

 Interference: Radio transmission cannot be protected against interference using
shielding and result in higher loss rates for transmitted data or higher bit error
rates respectively
 Bandwidth: Although they are continuously increasing, transmission rates are
still very low for wireless devices compared to desktop systems. Researchers look
for more efficient communication protocols with low overhead.
 Dynamic changes in communication environment: variations in signal power
within a region, thus link delays and connection losses
 Network Issues: discovery of the connection-service to destination and
connection stability
 Interoperability issues: the varying protocol standards
 Security constraints: Not only can portable devices be stolen more easily, but the
radio interface is also prone to the dangers of eavesdropping. Wireless access
must always include encryption, authentication, and other security mechanisms
that must be efficient and simple to use.
Wireless networks in comparison to fixed networks

Higher loss-rates due to interference

• emissions of, e.g., engines, lightning
Restrictive regulations of frequencies
• frequencies have to be coordinated, useful frequencies are almost all
occupied
Lower transmission rates
• local some Mbit/s, regional sometimes only, e.g., 53kbit/s with GSM/GPRS
or about 150 kbit/s using EDGE – some Mbit/s with LTE
Higher delays, higher jitter
• connection setup time with GSM in the second range, several hundred
milliseconds for other wireless systems –in ms range with LTE
Lower security, simpler active attacking
• radio interface accessible for everyone, base station can be simulated, thus
attracting calls from mobile phones
Always shared medium

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• secure access mechanisms important

1.4 A simplified reference model
The figure shows the protocol stack implemented in the system according to the
reference model. End-systems, such as the PDA and computer in the example, need a full
protocol stack comprising the application layer, transport layer, network layer, data link
layer, and physical layer. Applications on the end-systems communicate with each other
using the lower layer services. Intermediate systems, such as the interworking unit, do
not necessarily need all of the layers.

Physical layer: This is the lowest layer in a communication system and is responsible for
the conversion of a stream of bits into signals that can be transmitted on the sender
side. The physical layer of the receiver then transforms the signals back into a bit stream.
For wireless communication, the physical layer is responsible for frequency
selection, generation of the carrier frequency, signal detection (although heavy
interference may disturb the signal), modulation of data onto a carrier frequency and
(depending on the transmission scheme) encryption.

Data link layer: The main tasks of this layer include accessing the medium,
multiplexing of different data streams, correction of transmission errors, and
synchronization (i.e., detection of a data frame).

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Altogether, the data link layer is responsible for a reliable point-to-point connection
between two devices or a point-to-multipoint connection between one sender and
several receivers.
Network layer: This third layer is responsible for routing packets through a network
or establishing a connection between two entities over many other intermediate systems.
Important functions are addressing, routing, device location, and handover between
different networks.
Transport layer: This layer is used in the reference model to establish an end-to-end
connection
Application layer: Finally, the applications (complemented by additional layers that can
support applications) are situated on top of all transmission oriented layers. Functions
are service location, support for multimedia applications, adaptive applications
that can handle the large variations in transmission characteristics, and wireless access
to the world-wide web using a portable device.

1.5 Generations of Mobile Communication Technologies

Mobile communication has become more popular in last few years due to fast reform
from 1G to 5G in mobile technology. This reform is due to requirement of service
compatible transmission technology and very high increase in telecoms customers.
Generation refers change in nature of service compatible transmission technology and
new frequency bands. In 1980 the mobile cellular era had started, and since then mobile
communications have undergone considerable changes and experienced massive
growth.
A. First Generation
 1G These phones were the first mobile phones to be used, which was
introduced in 1982 and completed in early 1990.
 It was used for voice services and was based on technology called as Advanced
Mobile Phone System (AMPS). The AMPS system was frequency modulated and
used frequency division multiple access (FDMA) with a channel capacity of 30
KHz and frequency band of 824- 894MHz. .

Its basic features are:

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 It introduces mobile technologies such as Mobile Telephone System (MTS),

Advanced Mobile Telephone System (AMTS), Improved Mobile Telephone
Service (IMTS), and Push to Talk (PTT).
 It has low capacity, unreliable handoff, poor voice links, and no security at all
since voice calls were played back in radio towers, making these calls susceptible
to unwanted eavesdropping by third parties.

Architecture of Advanced mobile phone system

B. Second Generation (2G)

 2G refers to the second generation based on GSM and was emerged in late
1980s.
 It uses digital signals for voice transmission. Main focus of this technology was
on digital signals and provides services to deliver text and picture message at
low speed (in kbps).
 It use the bandwidth of 30 to 200KHz.
 Next to 2G, 2.5G system uses packet switched and circuit switched domain
and provide data rate up to 144 kbps.
e.g. GPRS, CDMA and EDGE.
The main features of 2G and 2.5G are :
 Data speed was upto 64kbps
 Use digital signals
 Enables services such as text messages, picture messages and MMS(Multimedia
message)
 Provides better quality and capacity
 Unable to handle complex data such as videos.
 Required strong digital signals to help mobile phones work. If there is no network
coverage in any specific area, digital signals would weak.
2.5 G :

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 The GSM technology was continuously improved to provide better services which
led to development of advanced Technology between 2g and 3g
 Provides phone calls
 Send/receive e-mail messages
 Web browsing
 Speed : 64-144 kbps
 Camera phones
 Take a time of 6-9 mins. to download a 3 mins. MP3 song.

C. Third Generation (3G)

 3G is based on GSM and was launched in 2000. The aim of this technology was
to offer high speed data. The original technology was improved to allow data up
to 14 Mbps and more using packet switching.
 It uses Wide Band Wireless Network with which clarity is increased. It also offers
data services, access to television/video, new services like Global Roaming.
 It operates at a range of 2100MHz and has a bandwidth of 15-20MHz used for
High-speed internet service, video chatting.
The main features of 3G are:
 Speed 2 Mbps
 Typically called smart phones
 Increased bandwidth and data transfer rates to accommodate web-based
applications and audio and video files.
 Provides faster communication
 Send/receive large email messages
 High speed web/more security/video conferencing/3D gaming

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 Large capacities and broadband capabilities

 TV streaming/mobile TV/Phone calls
 To download a 3 minute MP3 song only 11 sec-1.5 mins time required.
 Expensive fees for 3G licenses services
 It was challenge to build the infrastructure for 3G
 High bandwidth requirement
 Expensive 3G phones
 Large cell phones
3G mobile system was called as UMTS(Universal Mobile Telecommunication
System) in Europe,while CDMA2000 is the name of American 3G variant. Also the
IMT2000 has accepted a new 3G standard from China, i.e TD-SCDMA. WCDMA is the air-
interface technology for UMTS.

WCDMA Network

D. Fourth Generation (4G)

 4G offers a downloading speed of 100Mbps.
 4G provides same feature as 3G and additional services like Multi-Media
Newspapers, to watch T.V programs with more clarity and send Data much
faster than previous generations .
 LTE (Long Term Evolution) is considered as 4G technology.
 4G is being developed to accommodate the QoS and rate requirements set by
forthcoming applications like wireless broadband access, Multimedia Messaging
Service (MMS), video chat, mobile TV, HDTV content, Digital Video
Broadcasting (DVB), minimal services like voice and data, and other services

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that utilize bandwidth.

The main features of 4G are :
 Capable of provide 10Mbps-1Gbps speed
 High quality streaming video
 Combination of Wi-Fi and Wi-Max
 High security
 Provide any kind of service at any time as per user requirements anywhere
 Expanded multimedia services
 Low cost per-bit
 Battery use is more
 Hard to implement
 Need complicated hardware
 Expensive equipment required to implement next generation network

E. Fifth Generation (5G)

 5G refer to Fifth Generation which was started from late 2010s.
 Facilities that might be seen with 5G technology includes far better levels of
connectivity and coverage.
 The main focus of 5G will be on world-Wireless World Wide Web (WWWW).
 It is a complete wireless communication with no limitations.
The main features of 5G are :
 It is highly supportable to WWWW (wireless World Wide Web)
 High speed, high capacity
 Provides large broadcasting of data in Gbps.
 Multi-media newspapers, watch TV programs with the clarity(HD Clarity)
 Faster data transmission that of the previous generation
 Large phone memory, dialing speed, clarity in audio/video
 Support interactive multimedia, voice, streaming video, internet and other
 More effective and attractive

Comparison of all generations of mobile Technologies:

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1.6 Multiplexing
• Multiplexing describes how several users can share a medium with minimum
or no interference
• It is concerned with sharing the frequency range amongst the users
• Bands are split into channels
• Four main ways of assigning channels
• Space Division Multiplexing (SDM) : allocate according to location
• Time Division Multiplexing (TDM): allocate according to units of time
• Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM): allocate according to the
frequencies
• Code Division Multiplexing (CDM) : allocate according to access codes
• Guard Space: gaps between allocations

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A. Space division multiplexing

 This is the basis of frequency reuse
 Each physical space is assigned channels
 Spaces that don’t overlap can have the same channels assigned
to them
 Example: FM radio stations in different countries
This multiplexing scheme is used, for example, at FM radio
stations where the transmission range is limited to a certain region,
many radio stations around the world can use the same frequency
without interference
Below figure shows six channels ki and introduces a three dimensional coordinate
system. This system shows the dimensions of code c, time t and frequency f. For this first
type of multiplexing, space division multiplexing (SDM), the (three dimensional) space
si is also shown. Here space is represented via circles indicating the interference range

For the remaining channels (k4 to k6) three additional spaces would be needed. In our
highway example this would imply that each driver had his or her own lane.
Drawback
Although this procedure clearly represents a waste of space, this is exactly the principle
used by the old analog telephone system: each subscriber is given a separate pair of

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copper wires to the local exchange. In wireless transmission, SDM implies a separate
sender for each communication channel with a wide enough distance between
senders.
B. Frequency division multiplexing
 Separation of the whole spectrum into smaller non overlapping
frequency bands (guard spaces are needed)
 A channel gets a certain band of the spectrum for the whole time –
receiver has to tune to the sender frequency

Again, guard spaces are needed to avoid frequency band overlapping (also called
adjacent channel interference).
This scheme is used for radio stations within the same region, where each radio station
has its own frequency. This very simple multiplexing scheme does not need complex
coordination between sender and receiver: the receiver only has to tune in to the specific
sender.

• Advantages
 No dynamic coordination necessary
 Works also for analog signal
Disadvantages:
 While radio stations broadcast 24 hours a day, mobile communication typically
takes place for only a few minutes at a time. Assigning a separate frequency for

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each possible communication scenario would be a tremendous waste of (scarce)

frequency resources.
 Additionally, the fixed assignment of a frequency to a sender makes the
scheme very inflexible and limits the number of senders.

C. Time division multiplexing

Here a channel ki is given the whole bandwidth for a certain amount of time, i.e., all
senders use the same frequency but at different points in time.
Again, guard spaces, which now represent time gaps, have to separate the different
periods when the senders use the medium. In our highway example, this would refer to
the gap between two cars.
If two transmissions overlap in time, this is called co-channel interference. (In the
highway example, interference between two cars results in an accident.)
To avoid this type of interference, precise synchronization between different senders
is necessary.
Advantages:
 Only one carrier in the medium at any time
 Throughput high even for many users
Disadvantages
 Precise clock synchronization necessary

Frequency and time division multiplexing

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Frequency and time division multiplexing can be combined, i.e., a channel

• A channel gets a certain frequency band for a certain amount of time
. Now guard spaces are needed both in the time and in the frequency
dimension.
• Example: GSM
• Advantages
• Better protection against tapping
• Protection against frequency selective interference
Disadvantages
Precise clock synchronization necessary

D. Code division multiplexing

 Below figure shows how all channels ki use the same frequency at the same time
for transmission.
 Separation is now achieved by assigning each channel its own ‘code’,
 guard spaces are realized by using codes with the necessary ‘distance’ in
code space, e.g., orthogonal codes.
 Implemented using spread spectrum technology

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 The typical everyday example of CDM is a party with many participants from
different countries around the world who establish communication channels, i.e.,
they talk to each other, using the same frequency range (approx. 300–6000 Hz
depending on a person’s voice) at the same time. If everybody speaks the same
language, SDM is needed to be able to communicate (i.e., standing in groups,
talking with limited transmit power).

 But as soon as another code, i.e., another language, is used, one can tune in to this
language and clearly separate communication in this language from all the other
languages. (The other languages appear as background noise.)

 This explains why CDM has built-in security: if the language is unknown, the
signals can still be received, but they are useless. By using a secret code (or
language), a secure channel can be established in a ‘hostile’ environment. (At
parties this may cause some confusion.). Guard spaces are also of importance in
this illustrative example. Using, e.g., Swedish and Norwegian does not really work;
the languages are too close. But Swedish and Finnish are ‘orthogonal’ enough to
separate the communication channels.
Advantages
Bandwidth efficient
No coordination and synchronization necessary

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Good protection against interference and tapping

Disadvantages
Precise power control required
More complex signal regeneration
1.7 Spread spectrum
• Problem of radio transmission: frequency dependent fading can wipe out narrow
band signals for duration of the interference
• Solution: spread the narrow band signal into a broad band signal using a
special code
• protection against narrow band interference
• Figure shows i) shows an idealized narrowband signal from a sender of user data
(here power density dP/df versus frequency f).
• The sender now spreads the signal in step ii), i.e., converts the narrowband
signal into a broadband signal. The energy needed to transmit the signal (the
area shown in the diagram) is the same, but it is now spread over a larger
frequency range. The power level of the spread signal can be much lower than
that of the original narrowband signal without losing data.

step iii). During transmission, narrowband and broadband interference add to the signal
The sum of interference and user signal is received. The receiver now knows how to
despread the signal, converting the spread user signal into a narrowband signal again,
while spreading the narrowband interference and leaving the broadband interference.
In step v) the receiver applies a bandpass filter to cut off frequencies left and right of the
narrowband signal. Finally, the receiver can reconstruct the original data because the
power level of the user signal is high enough, i.e., the signal is much stronger than the
remaining interference.
Drawbacks:
(i) Increased complexity of receivers that have to despread a signal.

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(ii) Large frequency band that is needed due to the spreading of the signal.
Although spread signals appear more like noise, they still raise the background noise level
and may interfere with other transmissions if no special precautions are taken.
• Spreading the spectrum can be achieved in two different ways as shown in
the following two sections
1.7.1 Direct sequence spread spectrum
Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS) systems take a user bit stream and
perform an (XOR) with a so-called chipping sequence as shown in below figure.
The example shows that the result is either the sequence 0110101 (if the user bit
equals 0) or its complement 1001010 (if the user bit equals 1). While each user bit has a
duration tb, the chipping sequence consists of smaller pulses, called chips, with a duration
tc.
If the chipping sequence is generated properly it appears as random noise: this
sequence is also sometimes called pseudo-noise sequence.
The spreading factor s = tb/tc determines the bandwidth of the resulting signal.
If the original signal needs a bandwidth w, the resulting signal needs s·w after spreading.

DSSS need additional components as shown in the simplified block diagrams in below
figure
The first step in a DSSS transmitter, the spreading of the user data with the
chipping sequence (digital modulation).
Assuming for example a user signal with a bandwidth of 1 MHz. Spreading with the
above 11-chip Barker code would result in a signal with 11 MHz bandwidth. The
radio carrier then shifts this signal to the carrier frequency (e.g., 2.4 GHz in the ISM band).

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This signal is then transmitted.

The DSSS receiver is more complex than the transmitter. The receiver only
has to perform the inverse functions of the two transmitter modulation steps. However,
noise and multi-path propagation require additional mechanisms to reconstruct the
original data.
The first step in the receiver involves demodulating the received signal. This
is achieved using the same carrier as the transmitter reversing the modulation and
results in a signal with approximately the same bandwidth as the original spread
spectrum signal. Additional filtering can be applied to generate this signal.
If transmitter and receiver are perfectly synchronized and the signal is not too
distorted by noise or multi-path propagation, DSSS works perfectly well according to the
simple scheme shown. Sending the user data 01 and applying the 11-chip Barker code
10110111000 results in the spread ‘signal’ 1011011100001001000111. On the receiver
side, this ‘signal’ is XORed bit-wise after demodulation with the same Barker code as
chipping sequence. This results in the sum of products equal to 0 for the first bit and to
11 for the second bit. The decision unit can now map the first sum (=0) to a binary 0, the
second sum (=11) to a binary 1 – this constitutes the original user data.
1.7.2 Frequency hopping spread spectrum
For frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) systems, the total available
bandwidth is split into many channels of smaller bandwidth plus guard spaces
between the channels.
Transmitter and receiver stay on one of these channels for a certain time and then

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hop to another channel. This system implements FDM and TDM.

The pattern of channel usage is called the hopping sequence, the time spend on
a channel with a certain frequency is called the dwell time. FHSS comes in two variants,
slow and fast hopping

In slow hopping, the transmitter uses one frequency for several bit periods.
Above figure shows five user bits with a bit period tb. Performing slow hopping, the
transmitter uses the frequency f2 for transmitting the first three bits during the dwell
time td. Then, the transmitter hops to the next frequency f3. Slow hopping systems are
typically cheaper and have relaxed tolerances, but they are not as immune to narrowband
interference as fast hopping systems.
For fast hopping systems, the transmitter changes the frequency several times
during the transmission of a single bit. In the above figure, the transmitter hops three
times during a bit period. Fast hopping systems are more complex to implement because
the transmitter and receiver have to stay synchronized within smaller tolerances to
perform hopping at more or less the same points in time. However, these systems are
much better at overcoming the effects of narrowband interference and frequency
selective fading as they only stick to one frequency for a very short time.
The below Figures show simplified block diagrams of FHSS transmitters and
receivers respectively.
The first step in an FHSS transmitter is the modulation of user data according
to one of the digital-to analog modulation schemes, e.g., FSK or BPSK. This results in
a narrowband signal, if FSK is used with a frequency f0 for a binary 0 and f1 for a binary
1. In the next step, frequency hopping is performed, based on a hopping sequence.
The hopping sequence is fed into a frequency synthesizer generating the

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carrier frequencies fi.

A second modulation uses the modulated narrowband signal and the carrier
frequency to generate a new spread signal with frequency of fi+f0 for a 0 and fi+f1 for a 1
respectively. If different FHSS transmitters use hopping sequences that never overlap, i.e.,
if two transmitters never use the same frequency fi at the same time, then these two
transmissions do not interfere.
This requires the coordination of all transmitters and their hopping sequences. As
for DSSS systems, pseudo-random hopping sequences can also be used without
coordination.
The receiver of an FHSS system has to know the hopping sequence and must
stay synchronized. It then performs the inverse operations of the modulation to
reconstruct user data. Several filters are also needed (these are not shown in the
simplified diagram in Figure 2.40

Compared to DSSS, spreading is simpler using FHSS systems. FHSS systems only use a
portion of the total band at any time, while DSSS systems always use the total bandwidth
available. DSSS systems on the other hand are more resistant to fading and multi-path
effects. DSSS signals are much harder to detect – without knowing the spreading code,
detection is virtually impossible. If each sender has its own pseudo-random number
sequence for spreading the signal (DSSS or FHSS), the system implements CDM.

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Medium access control(MAC)

Motivation
• Can we apply media access methods from fixed networks?
• Example CSMA/CD Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Detection
• send as soon as the medium is free, listen into the medium if a
collision occurs (legacy method in IEEE 802.3)
Why CSMA/CD not suit for wireless networks?
• signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the distance
• the sender would apply CS and CD, but the collisions happen at the receiver
• it might be the case that a sender cannot “hear” the collision, i.e., CD does
not work
• furthermore, CS might not work if, e.g., a terminal is “hidden”
Hidden and exposed terminals
• Hidden terminals (cause collision)
• A sends to B, C cannot receive A
• C wants to send to B, C senses a “free” medium (CS fails)
• collision at B, A cannot receive the collision (CD fails)
• A is “hidden” for C

• Exposed terminals(unnecessary delay)

• B sends to A, C wants to send to another terminal (not A or B)
• C has to wait, CS signals a medium in use
• but A is outside the radio range of C, therefore waiting is not necessary
• C is “exposed” to B
Near and far terminals
• Terminals A and B send, C receives
• signal strength decreases proportional to the square of the distance

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• the signal of terminal B therefore drowns out A’s signal

• C cannot receive A
• If C for example was an arbiter for sending rights, terminal B would drown
out terminal A already on the physical layer
• Also severe problem for CDMA-networks - precise power control needed!

Access methods SDMA/FDMA/TDMA

• SDMA (Space Division Multiple Access)
• segment space into sectors, use directed antennas
• cell structure
• FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
• assign a certain frequency to a transmission channel between a
sender and a receiver
• permanent (e.g., radio broadcast), slow hopping (e.g., GSM), fast
hopping (FHSS, Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum)
• TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
• assign the fixed sending frequency to a transmission channel between
a sender and a receiver for a certain amount of time
1.SDMA
 Space Division Multiple Access (SDMA) is used for allocating a separated space
to users in wireless networks.
 A typical application involves assigning an optimal base station to a mobile
phone user. The mobile phone may receive several base stations with different
quality.
 A MAC algorithm could now decide which base station is best, taking into
account which frequencies (FDM), time slots (TDM) or code (CDM) are still
available.
 The basis for the SDMA algorithm is formed by cells and sectorized antennas

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which constitute the infrastructure implementing space division multiplexing

(SDM).
 SDM has the unique advantage of not requiring any multiplexing equipment.
 It is usually combined with other multiplexing techniques to better utilize the
individual physical channels.
2.FDMA
Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) describes schemes to subdivide the frequency
dimension into several non-overlapping frequency bands.

 Frequency Division Multiple Access is a method employed to permit several

users to transmit simultaneously on one satellite transponder by assigning
a specific frequency within the channel to each user.
 Each conversation gets its own, unique, radio channel. The channels are
relatively narrow, usually 30 KHz or less and are defined as either transmit or
receive channels.
 A full duplex conversation requires a transmit & receive channel pair.
 FDM is often used for simultaneous access to the medium by base station and
mobile station in cellular networks establishing a duplex channel.
 A scheme called frequency division duplexing (FDD) in which the two
directions, mobile station to base station and vice versa are now separated using
different frequencies.

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The two frequencies are also known as uplink, i.e., from mobile station to base station or
from ground control to satellite, and as downlink, i.e., from base station to mobile station
or from satellite to ground control.
The basic frequency allocation scheme for GSM is fixed and regulated by national
authorities.
All uplinks use the band between 890.2 and 915 MHz,
All downlinks use 935.2 to 960 MHz.
 According to FDMA, the base station, shown on the right side, allocates a certain
frequency for up- and downlink to establish a duplex channel with a mobile phone.
Up- and downlink have a fixed relation. If the uplink frequency is fu = 890 MHz +
n·0.2 MHz, the downlink frequency is fd = fu + 45 MHz,
 i.e., fd = 935 MHz + n·0.2 MHz for a certain channel n.
 The base station selects the channel. Each channel (uplink and downlink) has a
bandwidth of 200 kHz.
 This scheme also has disadvantages. While radio stations broadcast 24 hours
a day, mobile communication typically takes place for only a few minutes at a time.
Assigning a separate frequency for each possible communication scenario would
be a tremendous waste of (scarce) frequency resources.
 Additionally, the fixed assignment of a frequency to a sender makes the scheme
very inflexible and limits the number of senders.

3.TDMA
A more flexible multiplexing scheme for typical mobile communications is time division
multiplexing (TDM). Compared to FDMA, time division multiple access (TDMA) offers
a much more flexible scheme, which comprises all technologies that allocate certain
time slots for communication.
Now synchronization between sender and receiver has to be achieved in the time
domain. Again this can be done by using a fixed pattern similar to FDMA techniques, i.e.,
allocating a certain time slot for a channel, or by using a dynamic allocation scheme.

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Listening to different frequencies at the same time is quite difficult, but listening to
many channels separated in time at the same frequency is simple. Fixed schemes do not
need identification, but are not as flexible considering varying bandwidth requirements.
3.1 Fixed TDM
 The simplest algorithm for using TDM is allocating time slots for channels in a
fixed pattern. This results in a fixed bandwidth and is the typical solution for
wireless phone systems.
 MAC is quite simple, as the only crucial factor is accessing the reserved time slot
at the right moment.
 If this synchronization is assured, each mobile station knows its turn and no
interference will happen.
 The fixed pattern can be assigned by the base station, where competition
between different mobile stations that want to access the medium is solved.

 The above figure shows how these fixed TDM patterns are used to implement
multiple access and a duplex channel between a base station and mobile station.
 Assigning different slots for uplink and downlink using the same frequency
is called time division duplex (TDD).

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 As shown in the figure, the base station uses one out of 12 slots for the downlink,
whereas the mobile station uses one out of 12 different slots for the uplink. Uplink
and downlink are separated in time. Up to 12 different mobile stations can use the
same frequency without interference using this scheme. Each connection is
allotted its own up- and downlink pair.
 This general scheme still wastes a lot of bandwidth.
 It is too static, too inflexible for data communication. In this case,
connectionless, demand-oriented TDMA schemes can be used

3.2 Classical Aloha

 In this scheme, TDM is applied without controlling medium access.
Here each station can access the medium at any time as shown below:

 This is a random access scheme, without a central arbiter controlling access and
without coordination among the stations.
 If two or more stations access the medium at the same time, a collision occurs and
the transmitted data is destroyed.
 Resolving this problem is left to higher layers (e.g., retransmission of data). The
simple Aloha works fine for a light load and does not require any complicated
access mechanisms.

3.3Slotted Aloha
 The first refinement of the classical Aloha scheme is provided by the introduction
of time slots (slotted Aloha).
 In this case, all senders have to be synchronized, transmission can only start at
the beginning of a time slot as shown below.
 If a station misses the time-slot, the station must wait until the beginning of the

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next time-slot

The introduction of slots raises the throughput from 18 per cent to 36 per cent, i.e.,
slotting doubles the throughput. Both basic Aloha principles occur in many systems that
implement distributed access to a medium. Aloha systems work perfectly well under a
light load, but they cannot give any hard transmission guarantees, such as maximum
delay before accessing the medium or minimum throughput.

3.4 Carrier sense multiple access

• CSMA was developed to minimize the chance of collision and, therefore,
increase the performance.
• CSMA is based on the principle “sense before transmit” or “listen before
talk.”
• Here is how it works:
1) Each station checks the state of the medium: idle or busy.
2) i) If the medium is idle, the station sends the data.

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1) 1-Persistent
• Before sending a frame, a station senses the line (Figure 12.10a).
i) If the line is idle, the station sends immediately (with probability = 1).
ii) If the line is busy, the station continues sensing the line.
• This method has the highest chance of collision because 2 or more stations:
→ may find the line idle and
→ send the frames immediately.
2) Non-persistent
• Before sending a frame, a station senses the line (Figure 12.10b).
i) If the line is idle, the station sends immediately.
ii) If the line is busy, the station waits a random amount of time and then
senses the line again.
• This method reduces the chance of collision because 2 or more stations:
→ will not wait for the same amount of time and
→ will not retry to send simultaneously.
3) P-Persistent
• This method is used if the channel has time-slots with a slot-duration equal to or
greater than the maximum propagation time (Figure 12.10c).
• Advantages:
i)It combines the advantages of the other 2 methods.
ii) It reduces the chance of collision and improves efficiency.
• After the station finds the line idle, it follows these steps:
1) With probability p, the station sends the frame.
2) With probability q=1-p, the station waits for the beginning of the next
time-slot and checks the line again.
i) If line is idle, it goes to step 1.
ii) If line is busy, it assumes that collision has occurred and uses the
back off procedure.
3.5 Reservation algorithms
1. DAMA - Demand Assigned Multiple Access
• Channel efficiency only 18% for Aloha, 36% for Slotted Aloha (assuming
Poisson distribution for packet arrival and packet length)

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• Reservation can increase efficiency to 80%

• a sender reserves a future time-slot
• sending within this reserved time-slot is possible without collision
• reservation also causes higher delays
• typical scheme for satellite links
• Examples for reservation algorithms:
• Explicit Reservation according to Roberts (Reservation-ALOHA)-DAMA
• Implicit Reservation (PRMA)
• Reservation-TDMA
Access method DAMA: Explicit Reservation
• two modes:
• ALOHA mode for reservation
• competition for small reservation slots, collisions possible
• reserved mode for data transmission within successful
reserved slots (no collisions possible)
• it is important for all stations to keep the reservation list consistent
at any point in time and, therefore, all stations have to synchronize
from time to time

2. PRMA packet reservation multiple access

Implicit reservation scheme is packet reservation multiple access (PRMA).
A certain number of slots forms a frame
The frame is repeated in time (forming frames one to five in the example),
A base station, which could be a satellite, now broadcasts the status of each
slot to all mobile stations.
All stations receiving this vector will then know which slot is occupied and which
slot is currently free.

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 In the illustration, a successful transmission of data is indicated by the

station’s name (A to F).
 In the example, the base station broadcasts the reservation status
‘ACDABA-F’ to all stations, here A to F. This means that slots one to six and
eight are occupied, but slot seven is free in the following transmission.
 All stations wishing to transmit can now compete for this free slot in Aloha
fashion. The already occupied slots are not touched.
 In the example shown, more than one station wants to access this slot, so a
collision occurs.
 The base station returns the reservation status ‘ACDABA-F’, indicating that
the reservation of slot seven failed (still indicated as free) and that nothing
has changed for the other slots. Again, stations can compete for this slot.
 Additionally, station D has stopped sending in slot three and station F in
slot eight. This is noticed by the base station after the second frame.
 Before the third frame starts, the base station indicates that slots three and
eight are now idle. Station F has succeeded in reserving slot seven as also
indicated by the base station.
3. Reservation TDMA
 An even more fixed pattern that still allows some random access is exhibited by
reservation TDMA

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 In a fixed TDM scheme N mini-slots followed by N·k data-slots form a frame that
is repeated.
 Each station is allotted its own mini-slot and can use it to reserve up to k data-
slots. This guarantees each station a certain bandwidth and a fixed delay. Other
stations can now send data in unused data-slots as shown.
 Using these free slots can be based on a simple round-robin scheme or can be
uncoordinated using an Aloha scheme.
 This scheme allows for the combination of, e.g., isochronous traffic with fixed
bitrates and best-effort traffic without any guarantees.
3.5 MACA - collision avoidance
• MACA (Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance) uses short signaling
packets for collision avoidance
• RTS (request to send): a sender request the right to send from a
receiver with a short RTS packet before it sends a data packet
• CTS (clear to send): the receiver grants the right to send as soon as it
is ready to receive
• Signaling packets contain
• sender address
• receiver address
• packet size
• MACA avoids the problem of hidden terminals

A and C wants to send to B

A sends RTS first
C waits after receiving CTS from B
• MACA avoids the problem of exposed terminals
B wants to send to A,
C wants to send to another terminal
Now C does not have to wait for it, cannot receive CTS from A

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4.CDMA
 Code division multiple access systems apply codes with certain characteristics
to the transmission to separate different users in code space and to enable access
to a shared medium without interference.

 All terminals send on the same frequency probably at the same time and can
use the whole bandwidth of the transmission channel.
 Each sender has a unique random number, the sender XORs the signal with
this random number.
 The receiver can “tune” into this signal if it knows the pseudo random
number, tuning is done via a correlation function
Disadvantages:
 higher complexity of a receiver (receiver cannot just listen into the medium and
start receiving if there is a signal)
 all signals should have the same strength at a receiver
Advantages:
 all terminals can use the same frequency, no planning needed
 huge code space (e.g. 232) compared to frequency space
 interferences (e.g. white noise) is not coded
 forward error correction and encryption can be easily integrated
Example:

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The following figure shows a sender A that wants to transmit the bits 101. The key of A is
shown as signal and binary sequence Ak. The binary “0” is assigned a positive signal value,
the binary “1” a negative signal value. After spreading, i.e., XORing Ad and Ak, the
resulting signal is As.

The same happens with data from sender B with bits 100. The result is Bs. As and Bs now
superimpose during transmission. The resulting signal is simply the sum As + Bs as
shown above. A now tries to reconstruct the original data from Ad. The receiver applies
A’s key, Ak, to the received signal and feeds the result into an integrator. The integrator
adds the products, a comparator then has to decide if the result is a 0 or a 1 as shown
below. As clearly seen, although the original signal form is distorted by B’s signal, the
result is quite clear. The same happens if a receiver wants to receive B’s data.

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Soft handover or soft handoff refers to a feature used by the CDMA and WCDMA
standards, where a cell phone is simultaneously connected to two or more cells (or cell
sectors) during a call. If the sectors are from the same physical cell site (a sectorised site),
it is referred to as softer handoff. This technique is a form of mobile-assisted handover,
for IS-95/CDMA2000 CDMA cell phones continuously make power measurements of a
list of neighboring cell sites, and determine whether or not to request or end soft
handover with the cell sectors on the list.
Soft handoff is different from the traditional hard-handoff process.
With hard handoff, a definite decision is made on whether to hand off or not. The
handoff is initiated and executed without the user attempting to have simultaneous
traffic channel communications with the two base stations. With soft handoff, a
conditional decision is made on whether to hand off. Depending on the changes in pilot
signal strength from the two or more base stations involved, a hard decision will
eventually be made to communicate with only one. This normally happens after it is
evident that the signal from one base station is considerably stronger than those from the
others. In the interim period, the user has simultaneous traffic channel communication
with all candidate base stations. It is desirable to implement soft handoff in power-
controlled CDMA systems because implementing hard handoff is potentially difficult in
such systems.

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