applied

sciences
Article
Parameter Identification of Structures with Different
Connections Using Static Responses
Feng Xiao 1, * , Weiwei Zhu 1 , Xiangwei Meng 1 and Gang S. Chen 2

1 Department of Civil Engineering, Nanjing University of Science and Technology, Nanjing 210094, China;
[email protected] (W.Z.); [email protected] (X.M.)
2 College of IT and Engineering, Marshall University, Huntington, WV 25755, USA; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: This paper presents a parameter-identification method for rod structures with different
connections. In this method, the parameters of the structure are adjusted to match its analytical
and measured displacements. The damage identification for truss structure and rigid frame were
investigated. Previous studies often considered the cross-sectional area damage or joint damage; there
are few studies on the simultaneous existence of these two types of damage. In this study, damage
identification for a rigid frame with both cross-sectional and joint damage was performed. Based on
the measured displacements, the proposed method can accurately identify the cross-sectional and
joint damage for a rigid frame.

Keywords: parameter identification; cross-sectional and joint damage; semi-rigid connection;

displacement; optimization

1. Introduction
Damage to one or more components of the structure causes changes in the physical
Citation: Xiao, F.; Zhu, W.; Meng, X.;
Chen, G.S. Parameter Identification
properties of the structure, especially at the damaged location, which will cause the “as-is”
of Structures with Different
condition of the structure to be different from the design [1–3]. Therefore, it is becoming
Connections Using Static Responses. increasingly important to assess the condition of the existing structures. At the same time,
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 5896. https:// there is a growing need for a reliable method to monitor the performance of structures.
doi.org/10.3390/app12125896 The safety of these damaged structures can be detected using parameter identification.
It is a mathematical method that uses the error between the estimated and experimental
Academic Editor: José A.F.O. Correia
values. It correlates the changes in the test data with those in the characteristics of the
Received: 21 April 2022 structural element [4]. The purpose of parameter identification is to adjust the parameters
Accepted: 6 June 2022 of a structure to match the analytical and measured data [5]. Budipriyanto [6] introduced
Published: 9 June 2022 the application of blind-source-separation technology to identify the dynamic parameters
of a seismic-excited multi-story frame building from the measured responses. Bu et al. [7]
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
proposed an improved wavelet Galerkin method, which was applied for the simultaneous
published maps and institutional affil-
identification and excitation of the parameters of a shear frame with non-uniform stiffness
iations.
subjected to seismic excitation. Sanayei et al. [8] presented a method to identify the cross-
sectional properties of truss and frame structural elements by applying static forces and
then measuring the displacements. Furthermore, using static responses, Terlaje III et al. [9]
presented a new method and algorithm to identify damage in a truss structure and a frame
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors. structure using a limited number of simulated applied loads and measured displacements.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. Xiao et al. [10,11] proposed an optimal placement method of static strain sensors based on
This article is an open access article damage identification for truss structures and compared the recognition effects of different
distributed under the terms and optimization methods. These studies conducted considerable research on the damage
conditions of the Creative Commons identification of rod structures with different connections, including error analysis, optimal
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// placement of sensors, and comparison of various optimization methods, and the structures
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
that were investigated included truss and rigid frame structures.
4.0/).

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 5896. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12125896 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/applsci

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 5896 2 of 13

In practical engineering construction, several joints in frame structures are of semi-

rigid connection type owing to the design or damage; the characteristics of semi-rigid
connections lie fall in between those of pin and rigid connections. Notably, some studies on
structures with semi-rigid connections have been conducted [12–17]. Reyes-Salazar and
Haldar [12] evaluated and analyzed the nonlinear seismic response of steel structures with
semi-rigid and composite connections in terms of maximum interstory and maximum top
lateral displacements. Llanes-Tizoc et al. [13] carried out a numerical study on the reliability
of 3D steel structures with perfectly pinned connections and semi-rigid connections under
seismic loads. Rigi et al. [14] studied seismic performance of steel moment-resisting frames
with different degrees of moment connection rigidities.
Several methods have been presented to identify joint damage for frame structures
and to reduce the error during model updating by varying the rigidity of the element
connections. Yi et al. [18] proposed an approach to identify the joint damage in steel frame
structures using dynamic and static measurement data. Altunişik et al. [19] presented
a method for updating the finite-element model of an arch-type steel-laboratory bridge
model with semi-rigid connections. Machavaram et al. [20] presented a novel two-stage
improved radial basis function neural network technique to identify the joint damage of a
semi-rigid frame structure in frequency and time domains. Nanda et al. [21] proposed a
joint damage identification method based on modal parameters using a unified particle
swarm optimization method to identify joint damages in any frame structure. Pal et al. [22]
presented a joint damage identification technique using the numerical model of a semi-
rigid frame to quantify the level of loosening of bolted joints in a steel frame structure,
based on vibrations. Seyedpoor et al. [23] introduced a two-step method for joint damage
identification for steel frames using a support vector machine and a differential evolution
algorithm. Hou et al. [24] proposed a two-step damage-detection method for space-frame
structures with semi-rigid connections. Numerous studies have identified cross-sectional
damage in trusses and rigid frames. In addition, in some studies, joint damage was
identified for semi-rigid frame structures on the basis of static and modal data. However,
there are few studies utilizing static measurements for damage identification in rigid frame
structures having both cross-sectional and joint damage. Therefore, this paper presents
a new method to identify the damage in frame structures with both cross-sectional and
joint damage.

2. Formulation for Parameter Identification

In the parameter-identification algorithm, the difference between the analytical and
measured displacements is defined using the objective function. The unknown parameters
can be obtained by determining the global-minimum value of the objective function. In
this method, adequate excitation is imparted to the structure using the applied static forces.
The damage condition of the components of the structure was determined on the basis of
the measurement of nodal displacements of the structure.
The analytical displacements can be obtained using the stiffness method [25]. This
method is based on the force-displacement relationship for the structure, as expressed in
Equation (1):
Q = KD (1)
where Q and D represent the global forces and displacements, respectively; K is the entire-
structure stiffness matrix that can be obtained by assembling the member stiffness matrix
in global coordinates, k, where k = TT k0 T, where k0 is the member stiffness matrix in
local coordinates, and T is referred to as displacement transformation matrix. K contains P,
which is a set of unknown parameters (such as unknown cross-sectional area Au , unknown
moment of inertia Iu , unknown nodal rotational stiffness Ru ) that need to be identified.
Equation (1) can be divided to separate the known and unknown displacements as under:
    
Qk K11 K12 Du
= (2)
Qu K21 K22 Dk
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 5896 3 of 13

where Qk and Dk are the known external loads and boundary conditions of the nodal
displacements, respectively. Qu and Du are the unknown loads and boundary conditions
of the nodal displacements, respectively. By solving Equation (2), we obtain:
−1
Du = K11 (Qk − K12 Dk ) (3)

The objective function is defined as the sum of the square of the difference between
the analytical displacement Du and measured displacement Dm ; n is the total number of
measured displacements.
n
2
f = ∑ (Du i − Dm i ) (4)
i =1

The unknown parameter P of the structure can be obtained by minimizing the objective
function. Assume that the optimal value of P is P∗ , which can be determined using
Equation (5):
P∗ = argmin( f ) (5)
P

Rod structures are composed of elements and joints. The joints are used to transfer
load from one structural element to another; the joints include pin, rigid, and semi-rigid
connections. The form of member stiffness matrix k0 should be distinguished in the process
of forming the damage-identification objective function for truss structure, rigid frame, and
semi-rigid frame structures.

3. Parameter Identification for Truss

3.1. Member Stiffness Matrix of Truss
The joints of a truss are defined as pin connections. Theoretically, the pin connection
does not provide resistance to rotation, and it behaves as a hinge. A truss member can
only be displaced along its axis because loads are applied along this axis. Truss members
are either under compression or tension, or have no force. The member stiffness matrix of
truss structure is relatively simple owing to the simple stress of the truss structure. The
member stiffness matrix of truss member [25] is given by Equation (6). The terms in this
matrix represent the load-displacement relations for the corresponding member. Due to
corrosion, cracks, etc., the cross-sectional area of a truss can be damaged, and the parameter
P of the objective function is the unknown cross-sectional area Au , which is included in the
following matrix:  
A u E 1 −1
k0 = (6)
L −1 1
where E is the modulus of elasticity and L is the length of the member.

3.2. Parameter Identification for Truss Sample

A six-member truss (Figure 1) was used to demonstrate the parameter-identification
method of the truss structure using static displacements. All members have identical
cross-sectional geometric properties. The “as-built” condition of the six-member truss
has cross-sectional areas of A = 3 × 10−3 m2 and a modulus of elasticity of 206 GPa. It
is assumed that there is damage in members 1 and 4. The “as-is” cross-sectional areas of
members 1 and 4 are 2.5 × 10−3 m2 and 2.75 × 10−3 m2 , respectively. Since the “as-is”
cross-sectional areas of members 1 and 4 are the parameters that need to be identified,
therefore assuming the corresponding cross-sectional areas are A1 and A4 , forces of −100 kN
and 50 kN were applied along degrees of freedom 2 and 3 to excite the truss structure;
subsequently, displacements Dm were measured along degrees of freedom 1 and 2.
In this study, the measured displacement was determined on the basis of the structural
“as-is” condition.
The member stiffness matrix k0 of the truss member was obtained from Equation (6),
and the objective function was obtained from Equation (4). The interior-point method [26]
 and 4 are 2.5 × 10−3 m2 and 2.75 × 10−3 m2, respectively. Since the “as-is” cross-sectional
areas of members 1 and 4 are the parameters that need to be identified, therefore assuming
the corresponding cross-sectional areas are A1 and A4, forces of −100 kN and 50 kN were
applied along degrees of freedom 2 and 3 to excite the truss structure; subsequently, dis-
placements Dm were measured along degrees of freedom 1 and 2.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 5896 4 of 13
In this study, the measured displacement was determined on the basis of the struc-
tural “as-is” condition.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 5896 4 of 13

can converge quickly and solve complex problems with a large number of variables, and
this method was used to minimize the objective function to realize the damage identification
that there is damage in members 1 and 4. The “as-is” cross-sectional areas of members 1
of the truss structure. According to the “as-built” condition, the starting point of cross-
and 4 are 2.5 × 10−3 m2 and 2.75 × 10−3 m2, −respectively. Since the “as-is” cross-sectional
3 , and the constraints
sectional
areas of −
variable
members 1
A was
and 4 are
set
the
1.5 × 10 that
toparameters need to be
on A were set between 0 and
identified, therefore assuming
3 × 10 3 . After 23 iterations, the final optimal values of A and A were 2.500 × 10− 3 and
the corresponding cross-sectional areas are A1 and A4, forces of −100 1 kN 4and 50 kN were
applied 10−3degrees
2.750 ×along m2 , respectively.
of freedom Figure
2 and 3 2toshows thetruss
excite the variation of Asubsequently,
structure; 1 and A4 withdis-the number
of iterations;
placements the dotted
Dm were measured lines in degrees
along the figure represent
of freedom the2.“as-is” cross-sectional areas of
1 and
members
In this 1study,
and 4.
theFigure
measured3 shows the variation
displacement of the objective
was determined on the function with
basis of the the number
struc-
of iterations.
tural The results demonstrate that A1 and A4 converged at 23 iterations.
“as-is” condition.

Figure 1. Six-member truss.

The member stiffness matrix k’ of the truss member was obtained from Equation (6),
and the objective function was obtained from Equation (4). The interior-point method [26]
can converge quickly and solve complex problems with a large number of variables, and
this method was used to minimize the objective function to realize the damage identifica-
tion of the truss structure. According to the ‘‘as-built’’ condition, the starting point of
cross-sectional variable A was set to 1.5 × 10−3, and the constraints on A were set between
0 and 3 × 10−3. After 23 iterations, the final optimal values of A1 and A4 were 2.500 × 10−3
and 2.750 × 10−3 m2, respectively. Figure 2 shows the variation of A1 and A4 with the num-
ber of iterations; the dotted lines in the figure represent the “as-is” cross-sectional areas of
members
Figure 1 and 4. Figure
1. Six-member truss. 3 shows the variation of the objective function with the number
Figure 1. Six-member truss.
of iterations. The results demonstrate that A1 and A4 converged at 23 iterations.
The member stiffness matrix k’ of the truss member was obtained from Equation (6),
and the objective function was obtained from Equation (4). The interior-point method [26]
can converge quickly and solve complex problems with a large number of variables, and
this method was used to minimize the objective function to realize the damage identifica-
tion of the truss structure. According to the ‘‘as-built’’ condition, the starting point of
cross-sectional variable A was set to 1.5 × 10−3, and the constraints on A were set between
0 and 3 × 10−3. After 23 iterations, the final optimal values of A1 and A4 were 2.500 × 10−3
and 2.750 × 10−3 m2, respectively. Figure 2 shows the variation of A1 and A4 with the num-
ber of iterations; the dotted lines in the figure represent the “as-is” cross-sectional areas of
members 1 and 4. Figure 3 shows the variation of the objective function with the number
of iterations. The results demonstrate that A1 and A4 converged at 23 iterations.

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 5896 5 of 13

Figure 2. Cross-section area as a function of the number of iterations.
Figure 2. Cross-section area as a function of the number of iterations.

Figure 2. Cross-section area as a function of the number of iterations.

Figure 3.
Figure 3. Function
Functionvalue
valueforfor
truss damage
truss identification.
damage identification.

4. Parameter Identification for a Rigid Frame

4.1. Member Stiffness Matrix of a Rigid Frame
Various structures, such as bridges and multi-story industrial plants, are composed
of frames. A frame is a rod structure consisting of beams and columns to resist loads. In
contrast to the plane truss element, the plane frame is subjected to shear forces and bend-
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 5896 5 of 13

4. Parameter Identification for a Rigid Frame

4.1. Member Stiffness Matrix of a Rigid Frame
Various structures, such as bridges and multi-story industrial plants, are composed
of frames. A frame is a rod structure consisting of beams and columns to resist loads. In
contrast to the plane truss element, the plane frame is subjected to shear forces and bending
moments in addition to axial forces. The member stiffness matrix of the plane frame [25] is
given by Equation (7). This matrix has three degrees of freedom per joint and includes axial
effects, as well as shear force effects and principal bending moment effects [27]. To consider
the damage incurred in the structure, the cross-sectional area Au and moment of inertia Iu of
the damaged member are included in the matrix, which constitute the unknown parameter
P that needs to be identified.
 
Au E
 L 12EIu
 0 SYM

L3


 0 6EIu 4EIu 
0 L2 L

k =
 − Au E Au E
 (7)
 L 0 0 L


 0

− 12EI
L3
u
− 6EI
L2
u
0 12EIu
L3


6EIu 2EIu
0 L2 L 0 − 6EI
L2
u 4EIu
L

The terms in Equation (7) in addition to Au and Iu are the modulus of elasticity (E) and
length (L) of the member.

4.2. Parameter Identification for a Rigid Frame Sample

The one-story steel frame example is shown in Figure 4. This frame structure is
used to demonstrate the parameter-identification method for the rigid frame using static
displacements. The modulus of elasticity is 206 GPa. In “as-built” condition, the frame
has cross-sectional area A = 2.25 × 10−2 m2 and moment of inertia I = 4.21875 × 10−5 m4 .
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 5896 Let us assume that damages exist in members 1–3. The “as-is” cross-sectional areas 6 of 13
and
moment of inertia of members 1–3 are unknown and need to be determined. Forces of
100 and −100 kN were applied along degrees of freedom 4 and 5 to excite the structure, and
the displacements
displacements Dm D m were
were measured
measured along
along degrees
degrees of of freedom
freedom 1, 1,
2, 2,
4,4,5,5,7,7,and
and88(Figure
(Figure4).
4).
The “as-is” cross-sectional areas and moment of inertia are presented
presented in in Figure
Figure 5.
5.

Figure
Figure 4.
4. Three-member
Three-member rigid
rigid frame.
frame.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 5896 6 of 13

Figure 4. Three-member rigid frame.

(a) (b)
Figure 5.
Figure 5. Cross-sectional
Cross-sectionalarea
areaand
andmoment
momentofofinertia asas
inertia a function of the
a function number
of the of iterations.
number (a)
of iterations.
Cross-sectional area; (b) Moment of inertia.
(a) Cross-sectional area; (b) Moment of inertia.

The member
The memberstiffness
stiffnessmatrix
matrixk0k’ofof thethe
frameframe membermember is obtained
is obtained from from Equation
Equation (7),
(7), and
and Equation
Equation (4) is (4)
theisobjective
the objective
functionfunction
to identify to identify the damage.
the damage. In this analysis,
In this analysis, the startingthe
starting
points ofpoints of cross-sectional
cross-sectional areaAvariable
area variable and moment A and ofmoment of inertia
inertia variable variable
I are 1.1 × 10 I−
are 1.1
2 and
× 10 −
−2 and 5 2.1 × 10 −5, respectively. The constraints on A are set between 0 and
2.1 × 10 , respectively. The constraints on A are set between 0 and 2.25 × 10 and those − 2 2.25 × 10 −2

andI are
on thoseseton I are set0 between
between 0 and
and 4.21875 × 10 −5 , according
4.21875 × 10−5, according to the “as-built”
to the “as-built” condition.condition.
Figure 5
displays the changes in A1 , A2 , A3 , I1 , I2 , and 3 during the optimization processprocess
Figure 5 displays the changes in A 1 , A 2 , A 3 , I 1 , I 2 , and I 3 during the optimization based
based
on the on the interior-point
interior-point method,method,
and Figure and 6Figureshows6the shows the variation
variation of the objective
of the objective function
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 5896 function
with with theofnumber
the number of iterations.
iterations. After 256 iterations,
After 256 iterations, the final
the final optimal optimal
values and 7I were
of Avalues of
of 13
A
and I wereand
identified, identified, andwere
the results the results werewith
consistent consistentthose in with those
“as-is” in “as-is” condition.
condition.

Figure
Figure 6.
6. Function
Function value
value for
for rigid
rigid frame
frame damage
damage identification.
identification.

5. Parameter
5. Parameter Identification
Identification for
for aa Frame
Frame with
with Semi-Rigid
Semi-Rigid Connections
Connections
5.1. Member Stiffness Matrix of Semi-Rigid Frame
5.1. Member Stiffness Matrix of Semi-Rigid Frame
The connection
The connection type
type of
of joint
joint plays
plays aa key
key role
role in
in the
the structural
structural analysis. The analysis
analysis. The analysis
and design of steel frames are usually performed under the assumption that
and design of steel frames are usually performed under the assumption that the beam-the beam-
column connections are rigid or pin. In actual engineering, there are some frame structures
column connections are rigid or pin. In actual engineering, there are some frame struc-
with rigid connections, which have a certain rotational stiffness owing to damage and
tures with rigid connections, which have a certain rotational stiffness owing to damage
other factors. The effect of nodal rotational stiffness on the structural analysis should be
and other factors. The effect of nodal rotational stiffness on the structural analysis should
considered in the damage identification of frame structures. This study considers frame el-
be considered in the damage identification of frame structures. This study considers frame
ement connections, including specific nodal rotational stiffness. Semi-rigid connections are
element connections, including specific nodal rotational stiffness. Semi-rigid connections
modeled by zero-length attaching the rotational springs [28,29] with rotational stiffnesses
are modeled by zero-length attaching the rotational springs [28,29] with rotational stiff-
R1 and R2 at the ends of the member, as shown in Figure 7.
nesses R1 and R2 at the ends of the member, as shown in Figure 7.
 column connections are rigid or pin. In actual engineering, there are some frame struc-
tures with rigid connections, which have a certain rotational stiffness owing to damage
and other factors. The effect of nodal rotational stiffness on the structural analysis should
be considered in the damage identification of frame structures. This study considers frame
element connections, including specific nodal rotational stiffness. Semi-rigid connections
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 5896 7 of 13
are modeled by zero-length attaching the rotational springs [28,29] with rotational stiff-
nesses R1 and R2 at the ends of the member, as shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7. Frame element with semi-rigid connection.

Figure 7. Frame element with semi-rigid connection.
The nodal rotational stiffness represents the degree of rotation capacity between the
The nodal rotational stiffness represents the degree of rotation capacity between the
beam and the column. Parameters β 1 and β 2 are defined as the fixity factors at ends 1
beam and the column. Parameters 𝛽 and 𝛽 are defined as the fixity factors at ends 1
and 2 of the element, respectively, and are related to the corresponding rotational spring
and 2 of the element, respectively, and are related to the corresponding rotational spring
stiffnesses R1 and R2 , respectively. The member stiffness matrix of a frame element with
stiffnesses R1 and R2, respectively. The member stiffness matrix of a frame element with
semi-rigid connections at the ends is given [30,31] in Equation (8). By setting both the
semi-rigid
parameters connections at theto
β 1 and β 2 equal ends is given [30,31]
1, Equation in Equation
(8) becomes (8). By
equivalent setting
to the both stiffness
member the pa-
rameters 𝛽 and 𝛽 equal to 1, Equation (8) becomes equivalent to the member
matrix of the rigid frame element; this means that the nodal rotational stiffnesses are infinite. stiffness
matrix of the rigid frame element; this means thatarea the Anodal rotational stiffnesses are infi-
The unknown parameters, i.e., cross-sectional u and moment of inertia Iu , of the
nite. The unknown parameters, i.e., cross-sectional area Au and moment of inertia Iu, of the
damaged member are included in the following matrix. Additionally, the joint damage can
damaged member
be represented as are includedininthe
a reduction theconnection
following matrix.
rigidity Additionally,
[20,32], and this thestudy
joint damage
used the
can be represented as a reduction in the connection rigidity [20,32],
rotational stiffness Ru to indicate the joint damage condition. The rotational stiffness and this study used
Ru is
the
alsorotational
includedstiffness Ru to indicate
in the following matrix. the joint damage condition. The rotational stiffness
Ru is also included in the following matrix.
 Au 
Iu  
12 n1
 0 SYM
 
L2 n7

   
6 n2 n3
0 4
 
0 EIu 
 L n7 n7 
k = Au Au
 (8)
L − Iu
 0 0 Iu


     
n1 n1
− 12 − L6 nn72 0 − 12
 
 0 2

 L n7   L2 n7  
0 6 n6
L n7 2 nn75 0 − L6 nn76 4 nn74

where parameters n are defined using joint fixity factors β 1 and β 2 as follows:

n1 = β 1 + β 2 + β 1 β 2 , n2 = 2β 1 + β 1 β 2 , n3 = 3β 1 ,n4 = 3β 2 , n5 = 3β 1 β 2 , n6 = 2β 2 + β 1 β 2 ,n7 = 4 − β 1 β 2 (9)

Joint fixity factors β 1 and β 2 can be defined using the nodal rotational stiffness of the
end springs as follows:

1 1
β1 =   β2 =   (10)
3EIu /L 3EIu /L
1+ Ru1 1+ Ru2

where Ru1 and Ru2 are the unknown nodal rotational spring stiffnesses at different ends
of the element, and E and L are the modulus of elasticity and length of the member,
respectively.

5.2. Nodal Displacement Error Analysis Caused by Nodal Rotational Stiffness Changes
As shown in Figure 8, to compare the effect of different nodal rotational stiffnesses on
the nodal displacement of the steel frame structure, steel frame structures with different
nodal rotational stiffnesses are simulated, and the nodal displacements of the semi-rigid
frame structure with the rigid frame are compared under the same applied forces. As-
suming that the nodal rotational stiffness of the semi-rigid frame ranges from 2 × 103 to
9.8 × 104 kN·m/rad and the nodal rotational stiffness of the rigid frame is infinite, the
member stiffness matrix of the frame element with semi-rigid connections at the ends can
be obtained by using Equation (8), and the member-global stiffness matrix of the frame
can be obtained by using the member stiffness matrix. The nodal displacements of the
semi-rigid frame and rigid frame were calculated using Equation (3).
Appl.
Appl. Sci.
Sci. 2022,
2022, 12,
12, 5896
5896 99 8of
of 13
of 13
13

Figure
Figure 8.
8. Three-member
Three-member semi-rigid
Three-member semi-rigid frame
frame example.
example.

Consequently,
Consequently, the
Consequently, the nodal
thenodal displacements
displacementsofof
nodaldisplacements the
ofthe semi-rigid
thesemi-rigid
semi-rigidframeframe structure
framestructure
structure with
with
with differ-
different
differ-
ent
ent nodal
nodal rotational
rotational
nodal stiffnesses
stiffnesses
rotational are
are compared
are compared
stiffnesses with
with those
with those
compared of theof
those the
rigid
of rigid
rigid connection.
theconnection. FigureFigure
connection. 9 shows
Figure 99
shows
the the
absoluteabsolute
value value
of the of the
relativerelative
error error
for the for the
nodal nodal displacement
displacement
shows the absolute value of the relative error for the nodal displacement with different with with different
different nodal
nodal
nodal rotational
rotational stiffnesses.
stiffnesses.
rotational The
The smaller
The smaller
stiffnesses. the
the rotational
the rotational
smaller stiffness,stiffness,
rotational the greater
stiffness, the greater
thethe nodalthe
greater nodal
nodal dis-
displacement
the dis-
placement
error. error.
Therefore, Therefore,
in the in
damage the damage
identificationidentification
of rigid steel of rigid
frame steel frame
structures,
placement error. Therefore, in the damage identification of rigid steel frame structures, if structures,
the if
joints are
if
damaged,
the joints especially
are damaged, if the damage
especially is
if serious,
the damage it is
isnecessary
serious, to
it isconsider
necessary
the joints are damaged, especially if the damage is serious, it is necessary to consider the the
to impact
considerof the
damageof
impact
impact ofon the
the
the nodal displacements.
damage
damage on
on the
the nodal
nodal displacements.
displacements.

(a)
(a) (b)
(b)

(c)
(c)
Figure
Figure 9. Nodal displacement error caused by different nodal rotational stiffnesses. (a) Degree of
Figure 9.
Freedom9. Nodal
Nodaldisplacement
displacement error
errorcaused
caused bybydifferent
differentnodal
nodalrotational
rotationalstiffnesses. (a)(a)
stiffnesses. Degree of of
Degree
Freedom 1–3;
1–3; (b)
(b) Degree
Degree of
of Freedom
Freedom 4–6;
4–6; (c)
(c) Degree
Degree ofof Freedom
Freedom 7–9.
7–9.
Freedom 1–3; (b) Degree of Freedom 4–6; (c) Degree of Freedom 7–9.
 Appl.Sci.
Appl.
Appl. Sci.2022,
Sci. 2022,12,
2022, 12,5896
12, 5896
5896 1011 ofof13
9of 1314

5.3.Parameter
5.3.
5.3. ParameterIdentification
Parameter Identificationfor
Identification foraa aFrame
for FrameSample
Frame Samplewith
Sample withJoint
with JointDamage
Joint Damage
Damage
AAplane
A planeframe
plane framestructure
frame structurewith
structure withaa aone-story
with one-storyand
one-story andone-bay
and one-bayconfiguration
one-bay configurationis
configuration isisillustrated
illustratedin
illustrated inin
Figure8.
Figure
Figure 8.8.This
Thisstructure
This structureis
structure isisused
usedto
used totodemonstrate
demonstratethe
demonstrate thejoint
the jointdamage
joint damageidentification
damage identificationmethod
identification methodfor
method for
for
the
the steel
steel frame
frame structure.
structure. The
The modulus
modulus ofof elasticity
elasticity isis
the steel frame structure. The modulus of elasticity is 206 GPa. All members have the same 206
206 GPa.
GPa. AllAll members
members have
have thethe same
same
cross-sectionalgeometric
cross-sectional
cross-sectional geometricproperties.
geometric properties.In
properties. InIn“as-built”
“as-built”condition,
“as-built” condition,the
condition, theframe
the framehas
frame hascross-sectional
has cross-sectional
cross-sectional
areas
areas A A = = 2.25
2.25 × ×
10 −2−2 m
10 m 22 and
and moment
moment ofof inertia
inertia of ofI I
= = 4.21875
4.21875 × ×10 −5−5m
10 m 44,, and
and thenodal
the nodal
areas A = 2.25 × 10 m and moment of inertia of I = 4.21875 × 10 m , and the
−2 2 −5 4 nodal rota-
rotational stiffness of all joints is infinite. Let us assume
tional stiffness of all joints is infinite. Let us assume that damages existing in joints 2 and 2
rotational stiffness of all joints is infinite. that damages
damages existing
existing inin joints
joints
32 and
and
cause33 cause
cause these
thesethesetwo two two joints
joints joints to transform
to transform from from rigid
rigid connections
connections
connections tototo semi-rigid connections.
semi-rigidconnections.
semi-rigid connections.
3 3and
TheThe “as-is”
“as-is”
The “as-is” 4
nodal rotational stiffnesses of joints 2 and 3 (in the member 2) are 8×
nodal
nodal rotational
rotational stiffnesses
stiffnesses of joints
of joints 2 and
2 and 3 (in
3 (inthethemember
member 2) are
2) 8
are 8× ×10
1010 and
3 and
1.21.2×× 10
10 4 kN
kN· · m/rad,
m/rad, respectively,
respectively, which
which are
are unknown
unknown
1.2 × 10 kN·m/rad, respectively, which are unknown and need to be determined. Next, let
4 and
and need
need to tobebe determined.
determined. Next,
Next, let
let
usususeuse applied
applied forces
forces ofof 100
100 and
and −
−100100 kNkN along
along degrees
degrees
us use applied forces of 100 and −100 kN along degrees of freedom 1 and 5, respectively, of
of freedom
freedom 1 and 5,
5, respectively,
respectively,
and measured
measureddisplacements
andmeasured displacementsalong alongdegrees
degreesof freedom
freedom1, 2, 4, 5, 7, and and8, respectively.
and displacements along 0degrees ofoffreedom 1,1,2,2,4,4,5,5,7,7,and 8,8,respectively.
respectively.
The member
Themember stiffness
memberstiffness matrix
stiffnessmatrix k of
matrixk’k’ofofthe the frame
theframe member
framemembermemberwith with semi-rigid
withsemi-rigid connections
semi-rigidconnections
connectionsat atat
The
the ends
theends is obtained
endsisisobtained
obtainedfrom from Equation
fromEquation
Equation(8), (8), and
(8),and the
andthe damage
thedamage to
damagetotojoints joints 2
joints2 2andand 3
and3 3cancan be identified
canbebeidentified
identified
the
using
using Equation
Equation (4).
(4). Simplex
Simplex method
method [33]
[33] isiseasy
easy totoimplement
implement and
and hashas been
been extensively
extensively
using Equation (4). Simplex method [33] is easy to implement and has been extensively
applied
appliedto to solve
tosolve optimization
solveoptimization
optimizationproblems. problems. The
problems. Thestarting
startingpoint point of the nodal rotational stiff-
applied The starting point ofofthe the nodal
nodal rotational
rotational stiffness
stiffness
ness variable
variable R R was
was zero.zero.
Figure Figure 10 10
showsshows the the variation
variation in in
R 2Rand
2 and R 3Rwith
3 with thethenumber
numberof
variable R was zero. Figure 10 shows the variation in R2 and R3 with the number of itera-
ofiterations.
iterations.Figure Figure11 11 shows
shows the the variation
variation ofofobjective
objective function
function withwith thethe number
number of it-of
tions. Figure 11 shows the variation of objective function with the number of iterations.
3 and
erations.
iterations. After
After 212 212iterations,
iterations, the final
the finaloptimal
optimal values
values of R
of 2 Rand R
2 and R3 are
3 are 8.000
8.000 × × 1010 3 and
After 212 iterations,
4 kN·m/rad, the final optimal values of R2 and R3 are 8.000 × 10 and 1.200 × 104 3
1.200
1.200 ××1010 4 kN·m/rad, respectively.
respectively. The
The optimal
optimal values
valueswith are
are consistent
consistent with the “as-is”
kN·m/rad, respectively. The optimal values are consistent the “as-is” with values, theand “as-is”
the
values,
values, and
and thethe results
results areare all
allconvergence.
convergence.
results are all convergence.

Figure10.
Figure 10.Nodal
Nodalrotational
rotationalstiffness
stiffness as a function of the number of iterations.
as a function of the number of iterations.

Figure11.
Figure 11.Function
Functionvalue
valuefor
forsemi-rigid
semi-rigidframe
framejoint
jointdamage
damageidentification.
identification.

5.4.Parameter
5.4.
5.4. ParameterIdentification
Parameter Identificationfor
Identification foraa aFrame
for Framewith
Frame withCross-Sectional
with Cross-SectionalDamage
Cross-Sectional Damageand
Damage andJoint
and JointDamage
Joint Damage
Damage
AA plane
A plane rigid
plane rigid
rigidframeframe
framewith with a two-story
witha two-story
a two-story and
and
and one-bay
one-bay
one-bay configuration
configuration
configuration is illustrated
is illustrated
is illustrated inin
in Fig-
Figure
Figure
ure 12.shown
12.
12. As Asshown
As shown
in theinin thefigure,
the
figure, figure, thedamage
the
the damage damage identification
identification
identification foraaframe
for
for a rigid rigidframe
rigid frame
with with
with
both both
both
cross-
 sectional and joint damage using static displacements is demonstrated. Th
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 5896 elasticity is 206 GPa. All the members have the same cross-sectional geomet
10 of 13

In its “as-built” condition, the frame has cross-sectional area A = 2.25 × 10−2 m
inertia I = 4.21875 × 10−5 m4, and the nodal rotational stiffness of all the joints
cross-sectional and joint damage using static displacements is demonstrated. The modulus
us assume
of elasticity that
is 206 damages
GPa. exist have
All the members in members 2, 4, and geometric
the same cross-sectional joint 3 (in member 4);
properties.
In its “as-built” condition, the frame has cross-sectional area A = 2.25 × 10 −2 m2 , moment
known and need to −be determined. To excite the structure, forces of 100 and
of inertia I = 4.21875 × 10 5 m4 , and the nodal rotational stiffness of all the joints is infinite.
applied along degrees of freedom 4 and 11, and the damages were identifie
Let us assume that damages exist in members 2, 4, and joint 3 (in member 4); these are
of the measured
unknown and need todisplacements
be determined. To along degrees
excite the structure,of freedom
forces 1, −
of 100 and 2,100
3, kN
4, 5, 6, 1
were applied
Figure along degrees
13 shows of freedomof
the variation 4 and
A2,11,
Aand
4, I2,the
I4,damages
and R3werewithidentified on the of ite
the number
basis of the measured displacements along degrees of freedom 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 11, and 12.
on the interior-point method. Figure 14 shows the objective function value w
Figure 13 shows the variation of A2 , A4 , I2 , I4 , and R3 with the number of iterations, based
the
on thenumber of iterations.
interior-point In Figure
method. Figure 14 shows13, the dotted
the objective lines
function represent
value with respecttheto “as-is”
the number of iterations. In Figure 13, the dotted lines represent the
109 iterations, the final optimal values of A, I, and R were identified, which w“as-is” values. After
109 iterations, the final optimal values of A, I, and R were identified, which were consistent
with the “as-is” values, and the results are all convergence.
with the “as-is” values, and the results are all convergence.

Figure
Figure 12.12. Six-member
Six-member frame example.
frame example.

(a) (b)
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 5896 11 of 13

Figure 12. Six-member frame example.

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 5896 12 of 13

Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 5896 12 of 13
(a) (b)

(c)
(c)
Figure 13. Cross-sectional area, moment of inertia, and nodal rotational stiffness as a function of the
13. Cross-sectionalarea,
Figure13.
Figure area,moment
momentof ofinertia,
inertia,and
andnodal
nodalrotational
rotational stiffnessasasaafunction
functionofofthe
the
number ofCross-sectional
iterations. (a) Cross-sectional area; (b) Moment of inertia; (c)stiffness
Nodal rotational stiffness.
numberof
number ofiterations.
iterations.(a)
(a)Cross-sectional
Cross-sectionalarea;
area; (b)
(b) Moment
Moment of
of inertia;
inertia; (c)
(c) Nodal
Nodal rotational
rotational stiffness.
stiffness.

Figure 14. Function value for a frame with multiple types of damage.
Figure
Figure14.
14.Function
Functionvalue
valuefor
foraaframe
framewith
withmultiple
multipletypes
types of
of damage.
damage.
6. Conclusions
6.Conclusions
6. Conclusions
In this study, damage identification of rod structures with different connections was
Inthis
In thisstudy,
study, damage
damage identification
identification of
of rod
rod structures
structures with
with different
different connectionswas was
performed by using static-displacement measurements. This paper connections
presents a new
performed by
performed by using
using static-displacement
static-displacement measurements.
measurements. ThisThis
paperpaper
presents a new method
presents a new
method to identify damage in rigid frames that have both cross-sectional and joint dam-
to identify
method damagedamage
to identify in rigid frames
in rigidthat havethat
frames both cross-sectional and joint damage
joint issues.
age issues. The proposed method can be used have both cross-sectional
to accurately identify theand dam-
cross-sectional
The
age proposed
issues. The method
proposed can be
method usedcanto accurately
be used to identify
accurately the cross-sectional
identify the and joint
cross-sectional
and joint damage in rigid frames, simultaneously. It can also be used to evaluate the rota-
damage
and joint in rigid frames,
damage simultaneously. It can also
It canbealso
used
be to evaluate the rotational
tional stiffness forinsemi-rigid
rigid frames, simultaneously.
connections. used to evaluate the rota-
stiffness for semi-rigid connections.
tional stiffness for semi-rigid connections.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, F.X. and W.Z.; funding acquisition, F.X.; investigation,
Author Contributions:
F.X., W.Z., Conceptualization,
X.M. and G.S.C.; methodology, F.X.
F.X. and
and W.Z.;
W.Z.; funding acquisition,
supervision, F.X.; investigation,
F.X.; validation, F.X., W.Z.;
F.X.,
writing—original draft, F.X., W.Z. and X.M.; writing—review & editing, F.X., W.Z., X.M.F.X.,
W.Z., X.M. and G.S.C.; methodology, F.X. and W.Z.; supervision, F.X.; validation, and W.Z.;
G.S.C.
writing—original draft, F.X., W.Z. and X.M.; writing—review & editing, F.X.,
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. W.Z., X.M. and G.S.C.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province, China,
Funding: This research
grant number was funded by the Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province, China,
BK20200492.
grant number BK20200492.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 5896 12 of 13

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, F.X. and W.Z.; funding acquisition, F.X.; investigation,
F.X., W.Z., X.M. and G.S.C.; methodology, F.X. and W.Z.; supervision, F.X.; validation, F.X., W.Z.;
writing—original draft, F.X., W.Z. and X.M.; writing—review & editing, F.X., W.Z., X.M. and G.S.C.
All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research was funded by the Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province, China,
grant number BK20200492.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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