Lecture 1: Introduction to vectors

1.1 Lecture overview

Various quantities in real life can be described in terms of either size or direction. At other
times they are described by both size and direction. In view of this I introduce you to method
of expressing quantities in vector or scalar form. This enables you to be able to describe a
given quantity and its characteristics.

1.3 Definition of terms

We are going to define some terms which are important in this course as well as your future
related work.
1.3.1 A scalar is defined as a physical quantity, which has only magnitude and no specified
direction. Examples of scalar quantities are distance, speed, time, work and mass.

1.3.2 We define a vector as a physical quantity that must be specified by both magnitude and
direction. Examples of vectors include displacement, acceleration, force and momentum.
Note here that both quantities are defined by a magnitude, the difference is that a vector is
further defined in terms of a direction.

1.4 Vector Representation

A vector is represented diagrammatically by an “arrow”. This is a directed line segment
whose length is proportional to the magnitude of the vector and its direction is along the line
segment indicated by an arrow head as shown in figure 1.1 below.

1.4.1 Convectional forms of vector representation

The starting point of a vector is called the tail (or initial point) of a vector while the terminal
point is called the head (or end point) of the vector.

Figure 1.1 Free vectors

When written, vectors are represented using capital letters of the alphabet with either an arrow
at the top (eg. A ), or a wavy line below the letter. When typed the alphabetical letter is typed
in bold (e.g B ). Small letters with a cap are used for base vectors. Examples of these are
  
i , j and k for the Cartesian coordinate system.
A vector in Cartesian coordinates is written as in terms of the x ,y and z components as
  
A  2 i  3 j  k we will define components later.
Definition
A column vector is a vector representation where a vector is written as a column matrix
2 
  
 
(matrix with one column). The vector A  2 i  3 j  k is written as a column vector A   3 
 1 
 

1.4.2 Geometric representation of vector addition

Geometrically, the triangle law or the parallelogram law of vector addition can be used to

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define vector addition. We consider each of the cases.

1.4.2.1 The triangle law of vector addition

The vector sum A + B of the vectors A and B is the vector formed as the third side of a triangle
that is formed from the initial point of A to the terminal point of B by placing the initial point
of vector B at the terminal point of vector A as shown in figure 2(a) below.

A+B A
B B
A B+A
Fig. 2(a) Fig. 2(b)
Figure 2: Vector sum
The vector sum B + A of the vectors A and B is the vector formed as the third side of a
triangle that is formed from the initial point of B to the terminal point of A by placing the
initial point of vector A at the terminal point of vector B as shown in figure 2(b) above.
From the commutative law of vector addition, A+B = B+A and from the figures above you
notice that this is verified if you bring the two triangles together A+B will overlap with B+A
showing that they are the same. This is clearly seen in the parallelogram law discussed below.

Geometric meaning of A - B and B - A

The sum A – B is achieved by placing the head of vector B to that of vector A and drawing
tail of the resultant from vector A as shown below. This means that as you move from the
initial point of A + B to its terminal point you move in the direction of vector A and in the
opposite direction of vector B.
The sum B - A is achieved by placing the head of vector B to that of vector A and drawing
tail of the resultant from vector B.
A A

B B-A B
A-B

Figure 3: Adding the negative of a vector

1.4.2.2 Parallelogram law of vector addition

The law states that if you are given two vectors A and B then the vector sum A + B is the
vector forming the diagonal of the parallelogram generated by joining the tails of the two
vectors A and B such that A and B form the adjacent sides of this parallelogram. Notice that
in this law the tails of both vectors are placed together.

A+B
B

A
Figure 4: Parallelogram vector sum

1.5 Some special vectors

We define some special vectors below
1. Zero vector. This is a vector whose magnitude is zero. This vector has no specified

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 direction. This may not make a lot of sense but can be clear when you consider the
negative of a vector defined in number (3) below.
2. Free vector. This is a vector that can be translated from one position to another
without changing its magnitude or direction.
3. Negative of a vector. This is a vector with the same magnitude as a vector but is
opposite in direction to this vector. The negative of a vector A is the vector that is
added to A to give zero for the vector sum. Given a vector A, we define the negative
vector -A so that the vector sum A + (-A) = 0. This zero is the zero vector defined in
number (1) above.
Subtraction of a vector is the same as adding the negative of a vector. Example
A - B = A + (-B).
4. Position vector. This is a vector given for a point relative to the origin. Example
 
OA  i  2 j is the position vector of point A(1,2) on the xy-plane.
5. Equal vectors. Two vectors are equal if they have the same magnitude and both act
in the same direction.
6. Unit vector. This is a vector whose magnitude is one unit.
7. Base vector. This is a unit vector representing a given coordinate axis. The vectors
  
i , j and k are unit vectors in the Cartesian coordinates

1.6 Vector algebra

We now discuss some operations on vectors and operations with vectors in this section.
1.6.1 Magnitude of a vector

The magnitude of a given vector represents the size of the vector. The magnitude of a vector
A is denoted by |A|. Suppose that a vector is given in two dimensions as A = Ax i + Ay j
then we compute the magnitude of the vector from Pythagoras theorem as A  Ax 2  Ay 2
. On the other hand if the vector is given in three dimensions as A = Ax i + Ay j + Az k then
its magnitude is computed as A  Ax  Ay  Az
2 2 2

Note that magnitude is always positive

Example 1
Find the magnitude of each of the following vectors.
 2
1. A   
7
2. B  3, 4

3. C = i + 2j - 3k

Solution
1. A  22  7 2  53

2. B  32   4   9  16  5
2

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 3. C  12  22   3  1  4  9  14
2

1.6.2 Addition
Two or more vectors can be added if they have the same units. Vectors will obey the basic
laws of algebra. Given the vectors A, B and C, we define the following operations.
i) Commutative law of vector addition.
A+B = B+A
ii) Associative law of vector addition
A+(B+C) = (A+B)+C.

Example 2
   
Given the vectors A  5 i  2 j and B  2 i  2 j find the values of the following:
(a) A + B
(b) A - B

Solution
 5   2   5  2   3   
(a) A  B         
   or A  B  3 i  4 j
 2  2   2  2  4
 5   2   5   2    7  
(b) A  B             or A  B  7 i
 2  2   2  2   0

Example 3
       
Given the vectors A  i  3 j  2 k , B  4 i  k and C  i  2 j  5 k find the values of the
following:

(a) A + B
(b) A – B
(c) B - C
(d) A+B - C

Solution
1   4  1  4   5 
          
(a) A  B   3    0    3  0    3  or A  B  5 i  3 j  k
 2  1   2  1  1
       
1   4  1  4   3 
          
(b) A  B   3    0    3  0    3  or A  B  3 i  3 j  3 k
 2  1   2  1  3 
       
 4  1   4  1   3 
          
(c) B  C   0    2    0  2    2  or B  C  3 i  2 j  4 k
1   5  1  5   4 
       

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 A  B  C  ( A  B)  C or A  (B  C )
 5  1   5  1   4 
          
( A  B)  C   3    2    3  2   1  or ( A  B)  C  4 i  j  6 k
 1  5   1  5   6 
       
(d)
1   3  1  3   4 
          
A  (B  C )   3    2    3  2   1  i.e. A  (B  C )  4 i  j  6 k
 2   4   2  4   6 
       
  
Therefore A  B  C  4 i  j  6 k

1.6.3 Multiplication of a vector by a scalar m

If the scalar m is positive, the product m A is a vector with the same direction as vector A and
having a magnitude m|A| (m times the magnitude of vector A). If m is negative,the product
m A is a vector directed opposite vector A and with magnitude |mA|.
For the scalars m and n, we define the following products.
1. m(A + B) = mA + mB
2. (m + n)A = mA + nA
3. m(nA) = mnA

Example 4
Expand the following expressions.
a) 2(A+B)
b) -3(5A)
Solution
a) 2(A+B)=2A+2B
b) -3(5A) = (-3 × 5)A = -15A

Parallel vectors
If k is a scalar and B = kA then B is a vector that is parallel to vector A. Conversely if A is
parallel to B then there exists a scalar k such that B =kA. We therefore state that if two vectors
are parallel then one is a scalar multiple of the other.

Collinear points
These are points that appear on the same straight line. Two points will always be joined by a
straight line. To test if three points are collinear, we consider the points in pairs. The points
will be collinear if the vectors joining these pairs of points are scalar multiples of each other.
This is due to the fact that if two vectors are parallel then the two must be scalar multiples of
each other.
Example 5
Test if each of the following sets of points are collinear.

(a) A(2, 4), B(5, 9) C (-4, -6)

(b) D(1.5, 4), E (3, 5) F (6, 7)
(c) G(1, 2), H (2, 3), I(3, 4)
(d) J (1, 3, 4), K (3, 5, 5), L(-1, 1, 3)
(e) M (5, 1, 2), N(2, -5, -3), O (2, 3, 4)

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Solution

(a) We define the vectors AB and BC and test if the two are scalar multiples of each
other. We can also use the vectors AB and AC
 5  2  5  2   3  
AB  OB  OA             or AB  3 i  5 j
 9  4  9  4  5
 4   5    4  5    9   
BC  OC  OB           or AB  9 i  15 j
 6   9   6  9   15 
 3   9 
3AB  3       BC
 5   15 
i.e  3AB  BC
Since the two vectors are scalar multiples of each other then the three points are
collinear.
Note that if we had chosen AB and AC then
 4   2   4  2   6   
AC  OC  OA           or AC  6 i  10 j
 6   4   6  4   10 
 9 
sin ce BC   
 15 
3 3  6   9 
 AC       BC
2 2  10   15 
3
i.e  AC  BC
2
This means that the two vectors are scalar multiples of each other and therefore
the points A, B and C are collinear.
(b) We define the vectors DE and EF and test if the two are scalar multiples. We can
also use the vectors DF and EF
 3  1.5   3  1.5  1.5   
DE  OE  OD             or DE  1.5 i  j
 5   4   5  4  1 
 6   1.5   6  1.5   4.5   
EF  OF  OE         
   or EF  4.5 i  3 j
7  4  7  4  3 
1.5   4.5 
3DE  3       EF
1   3 
i.e 3DE  EF
Since the two vectors are scalar multiples of each other then the three points D, E
and F are collinear.
(c) Using the vectors GH and GI we have

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  2   1   2  1   1  
GH  OH  OG         
   or GH  i  j
 3   2   3  2   1
 3  1   3  1   2   
GI  OI  OG             or GI  2 i  2 j
 4  2  4  2  2
 1  2 
2GH  2       GI
 1  2 
i.e 2GH  GI
The two vectors are scalar multiples of each other and therefore the given three
points G, H and I are collinear.
(d) Consider the vectors JK and KL and test if they are parallel
 3  1   3  1   2 
       
JK  OK  OJ   5    3    5  3    2 
 5   4   5  4  1 
       
 1  3   1  3   4 
       
KL  OL  OK  1    5    1  5    4 
 3   5   3  5   2 
       
 2   4 
   
2JK  2  2    4   KL
 1   2 
   
i.e  2JK  KL
Since the two vectors are scalar multiples of each other, then the points J, K and L
are collinear.
(e) Consider the vectors MN and MO and test if they are parallel
 2   5   2  5   3 
       
MN  ON  OM   5   1    5  1    6 
 3   2   3  2   5 
       
 2   5   2  5   3 
       
MO  OO  OM   3   1    3  1    2 
 4  2  4  2  2 
       
There is no scalar that can be multiplied with MN to give MO. Since the two
vectors are not scalar multiples of each other, then the points M, N and O are not
collinear.

Example 6
Determine if the points A(3,-2,1), B(1,2,-2) and C(-1,6,-5) are collinear.

Solution

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If AB AC then AB  k AC
 1   3   2   1   3   4 
           
AB   2    2    4  AC   6    2    8 
 2   1   3   5   1   6 
           
sin ce AC  2 AB then AC AB

Example 7
Determine if the points P(1, 2,3), Q(2,1, 0) and R(4, 7, 6) are collinear.

Solution
Taking P as common point, then the points are collinear if PQ is parallel to PR
Further PQ is parallel to PR if they are scalar multiples of each other.
 2  1   1 
     
PQ   1    2    3 
 0   3   3 
     
 4 1  3
     
PR   7    2    9 
 6   3   9 
     
Since PR  3PQ then PR is parallel to PQ .

Exercise
Show that PQ is parallel to QR by verifying that QR  2 PQ .

1.6.4 Unit vector and base vector

1.6.4.1 Unit vectors

A
Given a vector A, we define the unit vector uˆ A as uˆ A  . This is a vector having a
A
magnitude of unity (one unit) and acts in the direction of vector A.

1.6.4.2 Base vectors

A base vector is a unit vector given relative to a particular axis of a coordinate system. In the
  

Cartesian coordinate system the base vectors i , j , and k are unit vectors in the directions
of the x, y and z axes respectively. In the cylindrical coordinate system, the base vectors are
  
er , e , and ez while in the spherical coordinate system the base vectors are
  
e , e , and e .

Example 8
Find the unit vector in the direction of each of the following vectors.
1. A = 3i - 4j
2. B = i + 2j - 3k

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3. C  3,12, 4
Solution

A  32   4   9  16  5
2

1. A 1 3 4
uˆ A    3i  4 j  i  j
A 5 5 5

B  12  22   3  1  4  9  14
2

2. B 1 1 2 3
uˆB    i  2 j  3k   i j k
B 14 14 14 14

C  32  122   4   9  144  16  13
2

3. C 1 3 12 4
uˆC    3i  12 j  4k   i  j  k
C 13 13 13 13

Example 9
Find a unit vector in the direction of vector A with initial point (-2, 3, 1) and terminal point
(0, -4, 4)

Solution
 0   2   2 
     
A   4    3    7 
 4 1  3
     
A  22  (7) 2  32  62
 2
A 1  
uˆ A   7
A 62  
 3
1.7 Lecture summary
I appreciate that in this lecture you were able to do the following

 Describe a vector and a scalar quantity

 Distinguish between a vector and a scalar
 Represent a vector in different convectional forms
 Describe the unit vector, free vector, negative vector, zero vector and position vector
 Compute the magnitude of a given vector
 Describe a unit vector and identify base vectors
 Given vectors A  Ax , Ay , Az , B  Bx , By , Bz in space and c is a scalar then

SMA 3250: VECTOR ANALYSIS Prof E. Mwenda 2021

 (i). Equality A  B iff Ax  Bx , Ay  B y , Az  Bz
(ii). Magnitude or absolute value or length A  Ax 2  Ay 2  Az 2
A
(iii). Unit vector in direction of vector A is uˆ A 
A
(iv). Addition A  B  B  A  Ax  Bx , Ay  By , Az  Bz
(v). Scalar multiplication c A  cAx , cAy , cAz
(vi). Parallel vectors A is parallel to B if  a scalar c such that A  c B

SMA 3250: VECTOR ANALYSIS Prof E. Mwenda 2021