1.

Define Operating System with its Objectives

Definition: An operating system (OS) is system software that manages computer hardware, software
resources, and provides common services for computer programs.
Objectives of Operating System:
• Resource Management: Efficiently manage the computer's resources such as CPU, memory, and I/O
devices.
• User Convenience: Provide a convenient and user-friendly interface.
• Execution of Programs: Ensure correct and efficient execution of user programs.
• File Management: Manage files and directories.
• Error Detection: Detect and respond to errors.
• Security and Protection: Ensure security and protection of data.

2. What are the Different Types of Multiprocessing?

• Symmetric Multiprocessing (SMP): Each processor runs an identical copy of the operating system,
and these copies communicate with one another as needed.
• Asymmetric Multiprocessing (AMP): Each processor is assigned a specific task. A master processor
controls the system; the other processors look to the master for instruction or have predefined
tasks.

3. What do You Mean by a Time-Sharing System?

A time-sharing system allows multiple users to share computer resources simultaneously by multitasking—
running multiple processes concurrently by rapidly switching between them, so each user feels like they
have the computer's full resources.

4. What is a Process and Mention the Various States of a Process?

Definition: A process is a program in execution, which includes the program code and its current activity.
States of a Process:
• New: The process is being created.
• Ready: The process is waiting to be assigned to a processor.
• Running: Instructions are being executed.
• Waiting: The process is waiting for some event to occur (such as I/O completion).
• Terminated: The process has finished execution.

5. Define Thread and List the Thread Issues

Definition: A thread is the smallest unit of processing that can be scheduled by an operating system. It is a
part of a process and shares resources with other threads in the same process.
Thread Issues:
• Synchronization: Proper coordination between threads to avoid conflicts.
• Deadlock: A situation where threads are waiting indefinitely for resources held by each other.
• Performance: Efficiently managing multiple threads to optimize performance.
• Communication: Ensuring threads can communicate and share data correctly.

6. What is a System Program?

System programs provide a convenient environment for users to develop and execute programs.
Categories of System Programs:
 1. File Management
2. Status Information
3. File Modification
4. Programming Language Support
5. Program Loading & Execution
6. Communication

7. What is a Bootstrap Program?

A bootstrap program is a special type of program that initializes the operating system during the startup
process of a computer. It loads the operating system kernel and starts its execution.

8. What is Medium-Term Scheduling?

Medium-term scheduling involves temporarily removing processes from main memory and placing them in
secondary storage (swapping). This is done to improve the process mix or the level of multiprogramming.

9. Differentiate Between Preemptive and Non-Preemptive Scheduling

Preemptive Scheduling Non-Preemptive Scheduling
The operating system can interrupt and suspend a Once a process starts execution, it runs to
currently running process to start or resume another completion before any other process can
process. start.
More suitable for time-sharing systems. More suitable for batch systems.
May cause overhead due to context switching. No overhead from context switching.

10. Give the Necessary Conditions for Deadlock to Occur

For a deadlock to occur, the following four conditions must be present simultaneously:
1. Mutual Exclusion: At least one resource must be held in a non-shareable mode.
2. Hold and Wait: A process holding at least one resource is waiting to acquire additional resources
held by other processes.
3. No Preemption: Resources cannot be forcibly taken away from a process holding them.
4. Circular Wait: A circular chain of processes exists, where each process holds at least one resource
that the next process in the chain is waiting for.
System Calls
1. Definition & Purpose
o System calls provide an interface between user applications and the operating system.
o They allow user programs to request services such as file operations, process management,
and device control.
o A single CPU can execute only one instruction at a time. If a process in user mode requires
OS services, it uses system calls.
2. Working Mechanism
o When an application calls a system function, a stub is executed.
o The trap instruction switches the CPU to supervisor (kernel) mode.
o The OS identifies the system call using a system call number stored in a system table.
o The OS executes the requested service and then switches back to user mode, returning
control to the application.
 3. System Call vs. Procedure Call
o A system call enters the kernel and allows access to OS services.
o A procedure call does not enter the kernel; it remains in user mode.
o System calls return integer values:
▪ Positive/zero → Success.
▪ Negative → Error.
4. API vs. System Call
o API (Application Programming Interface) provides functions for developers but does not
always correspond directly to system calls.
o API functions can:
1. Work entirely in user mode (without a system call).
2. Use multiple system calls within a single function.
3. Have different APIs calling the same system call.
o Common APIs:
▪ Win32 API (Windows).
▪ POSIX API (Linux/Unix).
▪ Java API (Virtual Machines).
5. Parameter Passing Methods in System Calls
o Registers: Parameters passed directly through CPU registers.
o Memory: Address of parameter block stored in registers.
o Stack: Parameters pushed onto the stack and retrieved by OS.
 6. Classification of System Calls
1. File Management
o Operations: create, delete, open, close, read, write files.
o File attributes: name, type, size, permissions, creation date.
o Similar operations apply to directories.
2. Process Management
o Operations: create, terminate, execute, suspend processes.
o Process attributes: priority, process ID, execution time, memory allocation.
o Debugging tools allow monitoring and correcting errors.
3. Interprocess Communication (IPC)
o Methods: Pipes, sockets, message passing, shared memory.
o Pipes: Unidirectional/bidirectional data transfer between processes.
o Sockets: Communication between processes on the same or different machines.
o Message Passing: Direct or indirect communication via a mailbox.
o Shared Memory: Fastest IPC method as data does not need to be copied.
4. I/O Device Management
o System calls: request, release, read, write device.
o Device attributes: status, buffer size, access permissions.
o Controls device access, ensuring proper resource allocation.
5. Information Processing & Maintenance
o Operations: get/set system time, date, system info, process, and file attributes.
o Used for system monitoring, logging, and data retrieval.
o Transfers information between user and OS.
Operating System Structure and Operations
1. Introduction
An Operating System (OS) is a software layer that manages hardware resources and provides an interface
for user applications. It ensures system stability, resource management, and security while offering
essential services such as process scheduling, memory management, and file handling.

2. Operating System Structures

The design of an operating system follows different architectures, each with specific advantages and trade-
offs. The main structures include:
2.1 Simple Structure (MS-DOS, UNIX)
• Older systems like MS-DOS have a simple structure without strict module boundaries.
• No user and kernel mode, making the system prone to crashes if an application fails.
• Layers in MS-DOS:
1. Application Layer
2. System Programs
3. Device Drivers
4. ROM BIOS Drivers
• UNIX Structure:
o Divided into Kernel and System Programs.
o Kernel manages CPU scheduling, I/O, memory, and file system.
o Uses APIs to interact with system calls.
2.2 Layered Approach
• Operating system is divided into multiple layers, each handling a specific task.
• Layers are numbered from Layer 0 (hardware) to Layer N (user interface).
• Advantages:
o Modular design allows easier debugging and updates.
o Errors are isolated within specific layers.
o System functions are well-organized.
• Challenges:
o Performance overhead due to multiple layers.
o Layer selection must be carefully planned to avoid inefficiencies.

2.3 Monolithic Structure

 • Traditional UNIX and Linux use a monolithic kernel.
• The entire OS runs as a single program in kernel mode.
• System calls are the main way to interact with the kernel.
• Examples: Windows 95, 98, Linux, FreeBSD.
• Advantages:
o Fast execution due to direct access to system functions.
o Well-tested and time-efficient.
• Disadvantages:
o Difficult to maintain as the codebase grows.
o Low fault tolerance—a crash in one module can crash the whole system.
2.4 Microkernel Architecture

• Minimal core functionalities in the kernel:

o Memory management
o Process scheduling
o Interprocess communication (IPC)
• All other services (file system, device drivers) run as user processes.
• Message passing is used for communication.
• Examples: Mach OS, QNX, Windows NT.
• Advantages:
 o High security—crash in one module does not affect others.
o Easier maintenance with a modular approach.
o Supports distributed systems.
• Disadvantage:
o Lower performance due to frequent context switching.
2.5 Virtual Machine Architecture

• Each process gets its own virtual machine, simulating a complete OS.
• Virtualization separates the OS from physical hardware.
• Multiple virtual OS instances can run on the same machine.
• Examples: Java Virtual Machine (JVM), VMware, Hyper-V.
• Advantages:
o Complete isolation of virtual machines.
o No memory conflicts between processes.
• Disadvantages:
o Performance overhead due to hardware abstraction.

Operating System Services – Key Points

1. Program Execution
o Loads programs into memory and executes them.
o Handles program termination (with or without errors).
2. Input-Output (I/O) Operations
o Manages I/O devices needed for program execution.
3. Error Detection
o Detects memory, CPU, and I/O errors (e.g., stack overflow, file not found).
4. File and Directory Operations
o Allows file/directory creation, modification, renaming, and searching.
5. Communication
o Supports inter-process communication (IPC) via pipes, shared memory, sockets, and
message passing.
6. Graphical User Interface (GUI)
 o Provides interaction methods:
▪ Command Line Interface (CLI) – Text-based commands.
▪ Batch Interface – Uses script files for automated execution.
7. Additional Services for Multi-User Systems
o Resource Allocation – Manages resource distribution among users.
o Accounting – Tracks resource usage and user permissions.
o Data Protection & Security – Ensures secure access to system resources.

4. Conclusion
Operating system structures define how an OS is designed and how it manages system resources.
Different structures, such as monolithic, layered, microkernel, and virtual machine architectures, offer
trade-offs between performance, security, and maintainability. Operating system operations ensure
efficient execution of processes, memory management, file handling, and I/O management.
Multiprocessor Systems
A multiprocessor system is a computing system with more than one processor that shares resources such
as memory, clock, and peripheral devices. It is also known as a parallel system or tightly coupled system
and is designed to improve performance, reliability, and efficiency.
Features of Multiprocessor Systems
1. Efficient Context Switching – Processors support fast switching between tasks.
2. Large Memory Address Space – Supports larger physical and virtual memory for better
performance.
3. Fault Tolerance – If one processor fails, others can continue the execution.
4. Inter-Process Communication (IPC) – Hardware-based IPC enhances efficiency.
Types of Multiprocessing Models
1. Single-Instruction, Single-Data (SISD) – Traditional single-processor execution.
2. Multiple-Instruction, Multiple-Data (MIMD) – Multiple processors execute different instructions on
different data.
3. Single-Instruction, Multiple-Data (SIMD) – A single instruction operates on multiple data points
(vector processing).
4. Multiple-Instruction, Single-Data (MISD) – Multiple processors execute different instructions on the
same data (used in fail-safe systems).
Advantages of Multiprocessor Systems
1. Increased Throughput – More processors handle more tasks simultaneously.
2. Cost-Effective – Cheaper than multiple single-processor systems.
3. Reliability – A failure in one processor does not stop the entire system.
4. Reduced Response Time – Faster execution due to multiple processors.
Disadvantages of Multiprocessor Systems
1. Complexity – Hardware and software management is complicated.
2. Reduced Per-CPU Efficiency – Extra CPU cycles are needed for managing multiple processors.
Types of Multiprocessing Systems
1. Symmetric Multiprocessing (SMP)
 • All processors are equal and work independently.
• Each processor executes its own tasks while sharing memory and I/O.
• No master-slave relationship; all processors run the OS equally.
• Examples: Windows NT 4.0, Novell NetWare 2.1.
2. Asymmetric Multiprocessing (ASMP)
• There is one master processor that controls other slave processors.
• Slaves execute only predefined tasks assigned by the master.
• Each processor may have its own memory address space.
• More complex but useful for specialized tasks.
Conclusion
Multiprocessor systems enhance computing power and efficiency but require complex software and
hardware management. The choice between SMP and ASMP depends on the application needs, whether
general-purpose processing (SMP) or controlled execution (ASMP).
Difference Between Peer-to-Peer and Master-Slave Relationship
Feature Peer-to-Peer Relationship Master-Slave Relationship
Hierarchy No hierarchy; all entities are equal. One master controls multiple slaves.
Control Each processor works independently. Master assigns tasks to slaves.
Resource Shared resources with equal access. Master manages resource
Sharing allocation.
Fault More fault-tolerant; failure of one peer does not Failure of the master affects the
Tolerance affect others. entire system.
Evolution of Operating Systems (8 Marks)
Operating systems have evolved significantly over time to improve efficiency, user interaction, and resource
management. The evolution can be divided into the following phases:
1. Early Systems / Serial Processing (Mid-1940s to Mid-1950s)
• No operating system; programs were loaded and executed manually.
• Instructions were processed one after another in a sequential manner.
• Slow execution due to manual setup and lack of automation.
2. Simple Batch Systems (1960s)
• Jobs were grouped into batches and processed sequentially.
• A batch monitor (kernel) was introduced to automate job execution.
• Reduced CPU idle time but had long turnaround times.
3. Multi-Programmed Batch Systems (1970s)
• Multiple jobs were loaded into memory at once to maximize CPU utilization.
• Used job scheduling to execute processes efficiently.
 • Improved resource management but required memory management and CPU scheduling.
4. Time-Sharing and Real-Time Systems (1970s)
• Time-sharing OS: Allowed multiple users to interact with the system by allocating time slices.
• Real-time OS: Designed for time-sensitive applications like industrial control and embedded
systems.
• Enabled user interaction and efficient CPU scheduling.
5. Multiprocessor Systems (1980s)
• Used multiple processors to enhance performance and reliability.
• Included Symmetric Multiprocessing (SMP) and Asymmetric Multiprocessing (ASMP).
• Increased throughput and fault tolerance.
6. Networked/Distributed Systems (1980s - Present)
• Allowed multiple computers to communicate and share resources.
• Distributed OS: Provided a seamless environment across multiple systems.
• Enabled cloud computing, virtualization, and modern multi-user systems.
Conclusion
The evolution of operating systems has led to improved efficiency, security, multitasking, and resource
management. Modern OS like Windows, Linux, and macOS are based on these advancements, providing
better user experience and system performance.
System Programs (8 Marks)
Modern operating systems consist of system programs that provide an interface between the user,
applications, and hardware. These programs help in managing resources and performing essential
functions. They can be categorized into the following types:
1. File Management
• Used for creating, deleting, copying, renaming, and organizing files and directories.
• Examples: mkdir, rm, cp, mv in Linux; File Explorer in Windows.
2. Status Information
• Provides system details like date, time, available memory, CPU usage, and disk space.
• Examples: top, df, free in Linux; Task Manager in Windows.
3. File Modification
• Text editors allow users to create and modify files.
• Examples: Notepad, Vim, Nano, Visual Studio Code.
4. Programming Language Support
• Includes compilers, assemblers, and interpreters for programming languages such as C, C++, Java,
and Python.
• Examples: GCC, Java Compiler (javac), Python Interpreter.
5. Program Loading and Execution
• Loads programs into memory and executes them using system loaders and linkers.
• Examples: Loader, Linker, Task Scheduler.
6. Communications
• Manages communication between users, processes, and I/O devices.
• Examples: Remote login (SSH), file transfer (FTP), email, web browsing.
Conclusion
System programs enhance the functionality of the operating system by simplifying file management,
programming support, execution, debugging, and communication. They play a crucial role in ensuring an
efficient and user-friendly computing environment.
System Boot in Operating System and Its Types
Introduction
System booting is the process of starting a computer and loading the operating system into the main
memory (RAM) so that the user can interact with it. The boot process is crucial as it initializes hardware
components, checks system integrity, and prepares the operating system for execution.

Types of System Booting

1. Cold Booting (Hard Booting)
• Cold booting occurs when the computer is powered on from a completely switched-off state (i.e.,
no previous power supply).
• It involves a full hardware initialization process known as Power-On Self-Test (POST), which checks
essential components such as RAM, CPU, and storage devices.
• The BIOS or UEFI firmware searches for the Master Boot Record (MBR) or GUID Partition Table
(GPT) to locate the OS.
• Once the OS is identified, the bootloader (like GRUB or Windows Boot Manager) loads the kernel
into RAM and starts system execution.
Example: Turning on a desktop PC or laptop after it has been shut down.

2. Warm Booting (Soft Booting)

• Warm booting occurs when the computer is restarted without completely shutting down the
power.
• This is usually done using the Restart option in the operating system or by pressing a key
combination (e.g., Ctrl + Alt + Del).
• Unlike cold booting, the hardware does not go through a full POST check, making the restart
process faster.
• The OS reloads the kernel and system files without initializing all hardware components again.
Example: Restarting a Windows or Linux system after installing software updates.

Booting Process Steps

1. Power-On Self-Test (POST):
o Checks the hardware components like RAM, CPU, storage, and input devices.
o Displays error messages if any hardware fails.
2. BIOS/UEFI Execution:
o The firmware (BIOS or UEFI) initializes the system and searches for the bootloader in storage
devices.
3. Loading the Bootloader:
o The Master Boot Record (MBR) or GUID Partition Table (GPT) contains the bootloader,
which loads the OS kernel.
4. Kernel Loading:
o The kernel is copied into RAM, initializes system processes, and sets up drivers.
5. User Mode Execution:
o The operating system fully loads, and the user can interact with the system.

Conclusion
Booting is a critical process in the operating system that ensures smooth system startup. Cold booting is
used when starting the computer from a completely powered-off state, while warm booting is used for
quick restarts. Understanding these processes helps in troubleshooting system issues and optimizing
performance.
Given Data:
Process Arrival Time Burst Time
P1 0 10
P2 1 29
P3 2 3
P4 3 7
P5 4 12

(i) Gantt Charts

1. FCFS (First Come First Serve) Scheduling
Processes are executed in the order of arrival.
CopyEdit
| P1 | P2 | P3 | P4 | P5 |
0 10 39 42 49 61

2. SJF (Shortest Job First) - Non-Preemptive

Processes are executed in the order of the shortest burst time first.
CopyEdit
| P1 | P3 | P4 | P5 | P2 |
0 10 13 20 32 61

3. Round Robin (RR) with Quantum = 10ms

Each process gets executed for a time slice of 10ms before moving to the next.
CopyEdit
| P1 | P2 | P3 | P4 | P5 | P2 | P5 | P2 |
0 10 20 23 30 40 50 52 61

(ii) Calculations for Average Turnaround Time and Average Waiting Time
1. Turnaround Time (TAT)
TAT=CompletionTime−ArrivalTimeTAT = Completion Time - Arrival TimeTAT=CompletionTime−ArrivalTime
2. Waiting Time (WT)
WT=TAT−BurstTimeWT = TAT - Burst TimeWT=TAT−BurstTime
FCFS Calculations
Process Arrival Burst Completion Turnaround (TAT) Waiting (WT)
P1 0 10 10 10 0
P2 1 29 39 38 9
P3 2 3 42 40 37
P4 3 7 49 46 39
P5 4 12 61 57 45
Average TAT=10+38+40+46+575=38.2\text{Average TAT} = \frac{10 + 38 + 40 + 46 + 57}{5} =
38.2Average TAT=510+38+40+46+57=38.2 Average WT=0+9+37+39+455=26\text{Average WT} = \frac{0 + 9
+ 37 + 39 + 45}{5} = 26Average WT=50+9+37+39+45=26

SJF Calculations
Process Arrival Burst Completion Turnaround (TAT) Waiting (WT)
P1 0 10 10 10 0
P3 2 3 13 11 8
P4 3 7 20 17 10
P5 4 12 32 28 16
P2 1 29 61 60 31
Average TAT=10+11+17+28+605=25.2\text{Average TAT} = \frac{10 + 11 + 17 + 28 + 60}{5} =
25.2Average TAT=510+11+17+28+60=25.2 Average WT=0+8+10+16+315=13\text{Average WT} = \frac{0 + 8
+ 10 + 16 + 31}{5} = 13Average WT=50+8+10+16+31=13

Round Robin (Quantum = 10ms) Calculations

Process Arrival Burst Completion Turnaround (TAT) Waiting (WT)
P1 0 10 10 10 0
P2 1 29 61 60 31
P3 2 3 23 21 18
P4 3 7 30 27 20
P5 4 12 52 48 36
Average TAT=10+60+21+27+485=33.2\text{Average TAT} = \frac{10 + 60 + 21 + 27 + 48}{5} =
33.2Average TAT=510+60+21+27+48=33.2 Average WT=0+31+18+20+365=21\text{Average WT} = \frac{0 +
31 + 18 + 20 + 36}{5} = 21Average WT=50+31+18+20+36=21

Final Summary of Results

Scheduling Average Turnaround Time Average Waiting Time
FCFS 38.2 ms 26 ms
SJF 25.2 ms 13 ms
RR 33.2 ms 21 ms
Conclusion:
• SJF has the lowest average turnaround and waiting time, making it the most efficient in this case.
• RR improves fairness but increases average turnaround time.
• FCFS performs the worst in terms of waiting time due to the "convoy effect."

4. CPU Scheduling Algorithms

CPU scheduling is the process of determining which process in the ready queue should be executed by the
CPU. The scheduling algorithms used to achieve this are:
1. First-Come, First-Serve (FCFS): The process that arrives first gets executed first.
2. Shortest Job Next (SJN/SJF): The process with the shortest burst time gets executed first.
3. Round Robin (RR): Each process gets a fixed time slice (quantum) before moving to the next.
4. Priority Scheduling: The process with the highest priority gets executed first.

(i) Round Robin (RR) Scheduling with Quantum = 2 ms

Given Data:
Process Arrival Time Burst Time
P1 0 4
P2 0 5
P3 0 3
Step-by-Step Execution (Time Quantum = 2 ms)
1. Gantt Chart Execution:
CopyEdit
| P1 | P2 | P3 | P1 | P2 | P3 | P2 |
0 2 4 6 8 10 11 13
2. Completion Time (CT):
o P1 finishes at 8 ms
o P2 finishes at 13 ms
o P3 finishes at 11 ms
3. Turnaround Time (TAT) = Completion Time - Arrival Time
o P1: 8 - 0 = 8 ms
o P2: 13 - 0 = 13 ms
o P3: 11 - 0 = 11 ms
4. Waiting Time (WT) = Turnaround Time - Burst Time
o P1: 8 - 4 = 4 ms
o P2: 13 - 5 = 8 ms
o P3: 11 - 3 = 8 ms
5. Average TAT = (8 + 13 + 11) / 3 = 10.67 ms
6. Average WT = (4 + 8 + 8) / 3 = 6.67 ms

(ii) Priority Scheduling (Non-Preemptive)

Given Data:
Process Arrival Time Burst Time Priority
P1 0 7 2
P2 0 4 1
P3 0 6 3
Step-by-Step Execution (Higher priority = Lower number)
1. Order of Execution (Based on Priority)
o P2 (Priority 1)
o P1 (Priority 2)
o P3 (Priority 3)
2. Gantt Chart Execution:
CopyEdit
| P2 | P1 | P3 |
0 4 11 17
3. Completion Time (CT):
o P2: 4 ms
o P1: 11 ms
o P3: 17 ms
4. Turnaround Time (TAT) = Completion Time - Arrival Time
 o P1: 11 - 0 = 11 ms
o P2: 4 - 0 = 4 ms
o P3: 17 - 0 = 17 ms
5. Waiting Time (WT) = Turnaround Time - Burst Time
o P1: 11 - 7 = 4 ms
o P2: 4 - 4 = 0 ms
o P3: 17 - 6 = 11 ms
6. Average TAT = (11 + 4 + 17) / 3 = 10.67 ms
7. Average WT = (4 + 0 + 11) / 3 = 5 ms

Final Summary of Results

Scheduling Method Average Turnaround Time Average Waiting Time
Round Robin 10.67 ms 6.67 ms
Priority 10.67 ms 5 ms
Conclusion:
• Priority Scheduling is more efficient in reducing waiting time since high-priority processes execute
first.
• Round Robin ensures fairness but may increase waiting time due to frequent context switching.
4o