OLABISI ONABANJO UNIVERSITY

DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCES

Rain Semester, 2024/2025 Academic Session

CMP222: Introduction to Computer Application

Lecturers:
Dr. Sakinat O. Folorunso (Lead)
(Room 2, Department of Computer Sciences, Faculty of Science Building)
E-mail: [email protected]

Dr. Samuel O. Hassan

(Room 10, Department of Computer Sciences, Faculty of Science Building)
E-mail: [email protected]

THIS DOCUMENT IS NOT FOR SALE!

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

1.1 Introduction
The term Computer is derived from ‘compute’ which means ‘to calculate’. We are all familiar
with calculations in our day-to-day life. We apply mathematical operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, etc. and many other formulae for calculations. Simple calculations take less time. But
complex calculations take much longer time. Another factor is accuracy in calculations. So man
explored with the idea to develop a machine, which can perform this type of arithmetic calculation
faster, and with full accuracy. This gave birth to a machine called ‘computer’.

1.2 What is a Computer?

Computer: It is an electronic device which processes given data to derive the required and
useful information. During the processing the computer has to perform various functions like receives
data(input) processes data(process) produces output(information) stores results (storage).

1.2.1 Characteristics of Computers

The characteristics which make computer make indispensable are

Figure 1.1: Characteristics of computer

1. Speed
The computer is able to process the data and gives the output in fractions of seconds, such that required
information is given to the user on time enabling the user to take right decisions on right time. A
powerful computer is capable of executing about 3 million calculations per second.

2. Accuracy
The accuracy of computers is consistently high enough which avoids any errors. If it all there are
errors, they are due to errors in instructions given by the programmer.

3. Reliable
The output generated by the computer is very reliable, but it is reliable only when the data, which is
passing as input to the computer and the program, which gives instructions are correct and reliable.

4. Storage Capacity
The computer has a provision to store large volumes of data in the small storage devices, which have
capacity to store huge amounts of data and help the retrieval of data an easy task.

5. Versatile
Computers are very versatile machines. Computers are capable of performing almost any
task ,provided the task can be reduced to a series of logical steps.

6. Automation
Once the instructions fed into computer it works automatically without any human intervention until
the completion of execution of program or meets logical instructions to terminate the job.

7. Reduction in paper work and cost

1) The use of computers for data processing in an organization leads to reduction in paper work
and results in speeding up the process.
2) As data in electronic files can be retrieved as and when required, the problem of maintenance of
large number of paper files gets reduced.
3) Though the initial investment for installing a computer is high, it substantially reduces the cost
of each of its transaction.
8. Diligent
A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It can work for hours without
creating any error. If millions of calculations are to be performed, a computer will perform every
calculation with the same accuracy. Due to this capability it overpowers human being in routine type of
work.

1.2.2 Advantages of Computers

1) Computers have made a very vital impact on society.
2) It has changed the way of life.
3) The use of computer technology has affected every field of life.
4) People are using computers to perform different tasks quickly and easily.
5) The use of computers makes different task easier.
6) It also saves time and effort and reduces the overall cost to complete a particular task.
7) Many organizations are using computers for keeping the records of their customers.
8) Banks are using computers for maintaining accounts and managing financial transactions.
9) The banks are also providing the facility of online banking.
10) The customers can check their account balance from using the internet.
11) They can also make financial transaction online.
12) The transactions are handled easily and quickly with computerized systems.
13) People are using computers for paying their bills, managing their home budgets or simply
having some break and watching a movie, listening to songs or playing computer games.
14) Online services like skype or social media websites are used for communication and
information sharing purposes.
15) Computer can be used as a great educational tool. Students can have access to all sort of
information on the internet.
16) Computer is being used in every field of life such as medical, business, industry, airline and
weather forecasting.

1.2.3 Disadvantages of Computers

The use of computer has also created some problems in society which are as follows.
1) Unemployment: Different tasks are performed automatically by using computers. It
reduces the need of people and increases unemployment in society.
2) Wastage of time and energy: Many people use computers without positive purpose. They play
games and chat for a long period of time. It causes wastage of time and energy. Young
generation is now spending more times on the social media websites like Facebook, Twitter etc
or texting their friends all night through smartphones which is bad for both studies and their
health. And it also has adverse effects on the social life.
3) Data Security: The data stored on a computer can be accessed by unauthorized persons
through networks. It has created serious problems for the data security.
4) Computer Crimes: People use the computer for negative activities. They hack the credit card
numbers of the people and misuse them or they can steal important data from big organizations.
5) Privacy violation: The computers are used to store personal data of the people. The privacy
of a person can be violated if the personal and confidential records are not protected properly.
6) Health risks: The improper and prolonged use of computer can results in injuries or disorders
of hands, wrists, elbows, eyes, necks and back. The users can avoid health risks by using the
computer in proper position. They must also take regular breaks while using the computer for
longer period of time. It is recommended to take a couple of minutes break after 30 minutes of
computer usage.
7) Impact on Environment: The computer manufacturing processes and computer waste are
polluting the environment. The wasted parts of computer can release dangerous toxic materials.
Green computer is a method to reduce the electricity consumed and environmental waste
generated when using a computer. It includes recycling and regulating manufacturing processes.
The used computers must be donated or disposed off properly.

1.2 Basic Applications of Computer

Computers play a role in every field of life. They are used in homes, business, educational
institutions, research organizations, medical field, government offices, entertainment, etc.
a) Home:
Computers are used at homes for several purposes like online bill payment, watching movies or
shows at home, home tutoring, social media access, playing games, internet access, etc. They
provide communication through electronic mail. They help to avail work from home facility for
corporate employees. Computers help the student community to avail online educational
support.
b) Medical Field
Computers are used in hospitals to maintain a database of patients’ history, diagnosis, Xrays,
live monitoring of patients, etc. Surgeons nowadays use robotic surgical devices to perform
delicate operations, and conduct surgeries remotely. Virtual reality technologies are also used
for training purposes. It also helps to monitor the foetus inside the mother’s womb.

c) Entertainment
Computers help to watch movies online, play games online; act as a virtual entertainer in
playing games, listening to music, etc. MIDI instruments greatly help people in the
entertainment industry in recording music with artificial instruments. Videos can be fed from
computers to full screen televisions. Photo editors are available with fabulous features.

d) Industry
Computers are used to perform several tasks in industries like managing inventory, designing
purpose, creating virtual sample products, interior designing, video conferencing, etc. Online
marketing has seen a great revolution in its ability to sell various products to inaccessible
corners like interior or rural areas. Stock markets have seen phenomenal participation from
different levels of people through the use of computers.

f) Education
Computers are used in education sector through online classes, online examinations, referring e-
books, online tutoring, etc. They help in increased use of audio-visual aids in the education
field.

g) Government
In government sectors, computers are used in data processing, maintaining a database of
citizens and supporting a paperless environment. The country’s defence organizations have
greatly benefitted from computers in their use for missile development, satellites, rocket
launches, etc.
h) Banking
In the banking sector, computers are used to store details of customers and conduct transactions,
such as withdrawal and deposit of money through ATMs. Banks have reduced manual errors
and expenses to a great extent through extensive use of computers.

i) Business
Nowadays, computers are totally integrated into business. The main objective of business is
transaction processing, which involves transactions with suppliers, employees or customers.
Computers can make these transactions easy and accurate. People can analyze investments,
sales, expenses, markets and other aspects of business using computers.

j) Training
Many organizations use computer-based training to train their employees, to save money and
improve performance. Video conferencing through computers allows saving of time and
travelling costs by being able to connect people in various locations.

k) Arts
Computers are extensively used in dance, photography, arts and culture. The fluid movement of
dance can be shown live via animation. Photos can be digitized using computers.

l) Science and Engineering

Computers with high performance are used to stimulate dynamic process in Science and
Engineering. Supercomputers have numerous applications in area of Research and
Development (R&D). Topographic images can be created through computers. Scientists use
computers to plot and analyze data to have a better understanding of earthquakes.

1.3 The Computer Generations

The evolution of computer started from 16th century and resulted in the form that we see today.
The present day computer, however, has also undergone rapid change during the last fifty years. This
period, during which the evolution of computer took place, can be divided into five distinct phases,
basis of the type of switching circuits known as Generations of Computers.
1. First Generation Computers (1942-1955)
These computers which used vacuum tubes (valves) as major electronic component . The
advantage of vacuum tubes technology is that it made the advent of Electronic digital computer.
Vacuum tubes were only electronic devices available during those days which made computing
possible. Examples of first generation computers are ENIVAC and UNIVAC-1.

Advantages
a) Vacuum tubes were the only electronic component available during those days.
b) Vacuum tube technology made possible to make electronic digital computers.
c) These computers could calculate data in millisecond.

Disadvantages
a) The computers were very large in size.
b) They consumed a large amount of energy.
c) They heated very soon due to thousands of vacuum tubes.
d) They were not very reliable.
e) Air conditioning was required.
f) Constant maintenance was required.
g) Non-portable.
h) Costly commercial production.
i) Limited commercial use.
j) Very slow speed.
k) Limited programming capabilities.
l) Used machine language only.
m) Used magnetic drums which provide very less data storage.
n) Used punch cards for input.
o) Not versatile and very faulty.

2. Second Generation Computers (1955-1964)

Around 1955 a device called Transistor replaced the bulky electric tubes in the first generation
computer. Transistors are smaller than electric tubes and have higher operating speed. They have no
filament and require no heating. Manufacturing cost was also very low. Thus the size of the computer
got reduced considerably. The examples of second generation computers are IBM 7094 series, IBM
1400 series and CDC 164 etc.

Advantages
a) Smaller in size as compared to the first generation computers.
b) The 2nd generation Computers were more reliable
c) Used less energy and were not heated.
d) Wider commercial use
e) Better portability as compared to the first generation computers.
f) Better speed and could calculate data in microseconds
g) Used faster peripherals like tape drives, magnetic disks, printer etc.
h) Used Assembly language instead of Machine language.
i) Accuracy improved.

Disadvantages
a) Cooling system was required
b) Constant maintenance was required
c) Commercial production was difficult
d) Only used for specific purposes
e) Costly and not versatile
f) Punch cards were used for input.

3. Third Generation Computers (1964-1975)

The third generation computers were introduced in 1964. They used Integrated Circuits (ICs).
These ICs are popularly known as Chips. Jack Kilby developed the concept of integrated circuit in
1958. It was an important invention in the computer field. The first IC was invented and used in 1961.
A single IC has many transistors, registers and capacitors built on a single thin slice of silicon. So it is
quite obvious that the size of the computer got further reduced. Computers of this generation were
small in size, low cost, large memory and processing speed is very high. The examples of third
generation computers are IBM 370, IBM System/360, UNIVAC 1108 and UNIVAC AC 9000 etc.
Advantages
a) Smaller in size as compared to previous generations.
b) More reliable.
c) Used less energy
d) Produced less heat as compared to the previous two generations of computers.
e) Better speed and could calculate data in nanoseconds.
f) Used fan for heat discharge to prevent damage.
g) Maintenance cost was low because hardware failure is rear.
h) Totally general purpose
i) Could be used for high-level languages.
j) Good storage
k) Versatile to an extent
l) Less expensive
m) Better accuracy
n) Commercial production increased.
o) Used mouse and keyboard for input.

Disadvantages
a) Air conditioning was required.
b) Highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacturing of IC chips.

4. Fourth Generation (1975-Present)

The present day computers that you see today are the fourth generation computers that started
around 1975. It uses large scale Integrated Circuits (LSIC) built on a single silicon chip called
microprocessors. Due to the development of microprocessor it is possible to place computer’s central
processing unit (CPU) on single chip. These computers are called microcomputers. Later very large
scale Integrated Circuits (VLSIC) replaced LSICs.
Thus the computer which was occupying a very large room in earlier days can now be placed on
a table. The personal computer (PC) that you see in your college is a Fourth Generation Computer.

Advantages
a) More powerful and reliable than previous generations.
b) Small in size
c) Fast processing power with less power consumption
d) Fan for heat discharging and thus to keep cold.
e) No air conditioning required.
f) Totally general purpose
g) Commercial production
h) Less need of repair.
i) Cheapest among all generations
j) All types of High level languages can be used in this type of computers

Disadvantages
The latest technology is required for manufacturing of Microprocessors.

5. Fifth Generation (Present & Beyond)

Scientists are working hard on the 5th generation computers with quite a few breakthroughs.
These computers use optic fiber technology to handle Artificial Intelligence, expert systems, Robotics
etc., these computers have high processing speeds and are more reliable.. Computers can understand
spoken words & imitate human reasoning. It can respond to its surroundings using different types of
sensors. Scientists are constantly working to increase the processing power of computers. They are
trying to create a computer with real IQ with the help of advanced programming and technologies.

1.4 Classification of Computers

The computers are classified into various types depends on their purpose, operation and size.
In general computers are classified into major categories based on.
(a) According to the purpose of the computer.
(b) According to the operation of computer.
(c) According to the size of computer.

1.4.1 Classification as per purpose of the computer

1. General purpose computers.
2. Special purpose computer.
1. General Purpose Computers: These computers are theoretically used for any type of applications.
These computers can be used in solving a business Problem and also used to solve mathematical
equation with same accuracy and consistency. Most of the computer now are general purpose digital
computers. All the PC’s, which have become household affair.

2. Special Purpose Computers: These digital computer are designed, made and used for any specific
job. These are usually used for those purposes which are critical and need great accuracy and response
like Satellite launching, weather forecasting etc.

1.4.2 According to the operation of computer

According to the operational principle of computers, they are categorized as analog, digital and
hybrid computers.

Analog Computers: These are almost extinct today. These are different from a digital computer
because an analog computer can perform several mathematical operations simultaneously. It uses
continuous variables for mathematical operations and utilizes mechanical or electrical energy.
Examples are telephone lines, speedometer, resistance of capacitor, frequency of signal and voltage etc

Digital Computers: They use digital circuits and are designed to operate on two states, namely bits 0
and 1. They are analogous to states ON and OFF. Data on these computers is represented as a series of
0s and 1s. Digital computers are suitable for complex computation and have higher processing speeds.
They are programmable. Digital computers are either general purpose computers or special purpose
ones. General purpose computers, as their name suggests, are designed for specific types of data
processing while general purpose computers are meant for general use.
Examples include: IBM PC, Apple Macintosh, modern smartphones

Hybrid Computers: These computers are a combination of both digital and analog computers. In this
type of computers, the digital segments perform process control by conversion of analog signals to
digital ones. Examples include electrocardiogram, ultrasound, echo-cardiogram, CT scan machines, etc
1.4.3 According to the size of computer
According to the sizes of the computers, the computers are classified as follows.

a) Supercomputers:
The highly calculation-intensive tasks can be effectively performed by means of
supercomputers. Quantum physics, mechanics, space exploration, earth quake studies, nuclear
weapons testing, weather forecasting, molecular theory are best studied by means of
supercomputers. Their ability of parallel processing and their well-designed memory hierarchy
give the supercomputers, large transaction processing powers.
Ex. PARAM developed in India.

b) Servers:
They are computers designed to provide services to client machines in a computer network.
They have larger storage capacities and powerful processors. Running on them are programs
that serve client requests and allocate resources like memory and time to client machines.
Usually they are very large in size, as they have large processors and many hard drives. They
are designed to be fail-safe and resistant to crash.

c) Mainframe Computers:
Large organizations use mainframes for highly critical applications such as bulk data processing
and ERP. Most of the mainframe computers have capacities to host multiple operating systems
and operate as a number of virtual machines. They can substitute for several small servers.

d) Wearable Computers:
A record-setting step in the evolution of computers was the creation of wearable computers.
These computers can be worn on the body and are often used in the study of behavior modeling
and human health. Military and health professionals have incorporated wearable computers into
their daily routine, as a part of such studies. When the users’ hands and sensory organs are
engaged in other activities, wearable computers are of great help in tracking human actions.
Wearable computers do not have to be turned on and off and remain in operation without user
intervention

e) Minicomputers:
In terms of size and processing capacity, minicomputers lie in between mainframes and
microcomputers. Minicomputers are also called mid-range systems or workstations. The term
 began to be popularly used in the 1960s to refer to relatively smaller third generation
computers. They took up the space that would be needed for a refrigerator or two and used
transistor and core memory technologies. The 12-bit PDP-8 minicomputer of the Digital
Equipment Corporation was the first successful minicomputer. These computers are not
designed for a single user. Individual departments of a large company or organizations use
Mini-computers for specific purposes. For example, a production department can use Mini-
computers for monitoring certain production process.

f) Microcomputers:
A computer with a microprocessor and its central processing unit is known as a microcomputer.
They do not occupy space as much as mainframes do. When supplemented with a keyboard and
a mouse, microcomputers can be called personal computers. A monitor, a keyboard and other
similar input-output devices, computer memory in the form of RAM and a power supply unit
come packaged in a microcomputer. These computers can fit on desks or tables and prove to be
the best choice for single-user tasks.
Desktop computers, laptops, personal digital assistant (PDA), tablets & smartphones are all
types of microcomputers. The micro-computers are widely used & the fastest growing
computers. These computers are the cheapest among the other three types of computers.

i) Desktops: A desktop is intended to be used on a single location. The spare parts of a

desktop computer are readily available at relatively lower costs. Power consumption is
not as critical as that in laptops. Desktops are widely popular for daily use in the
workplace and households.

ii) Laptops: Similar in operation to desktops, laptop computers are miniaturized and
optimized for mobile use. Laptops run on a single battery or an external adapter that
charges the computer batteries. They are enabled with an inbuilt keyboard, touch pad
acting as a mouse and a liquid crystal display. Their portability and capacity to operate
on battery power have proven to be of great help to mobile users.

iii) Notebooks: They fall in the category of laptops, but are inexpensive and relatively
smaller in size. They had a smaller feature set and lesser capacities in comparison to
regular laptops, at the time they came into the market. But with passing time, notebooks
too began featuring almost everything that notebooks had. By the end of 2008,
notebooks had begun to overtake notebooks in terms of market share and sales.
 iv) Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs):It is a handheld computer and popularly known as a
palmtop. It has a touch screen and a memory card for storage of data. PDAs can also be
used as portable audio players, web browsers and smart phones. Most of them can
access the Internet by means of Bluetooth or Wi-Fi communication.

v) Tablet Computers: Tablets are mobile computers that are very handy to use. They use
the touch screen technology. Tablets come with an onscreen keyboard or use a stylus or a
digital pen. Apple’s iPad redefined the class of tablet computers.

1.5 Anatomy of Computers

The Computer mainly consists the functions input, process, output and storage. These functions
were described in the manner of diagram as follows.
The Block diagram of computer consists mainly i.e.,

Figure 1.1 Block Diagram of Computer

 · Input unit
· CPU (Control unit, Main Memory and ALU)
· Output unit,
· Secondary Storage unit

a) Input:
This is the process of entering data and programs in to the computer system. Therefore, the
input unit takes data from us to the computer in an organized manner for processing through an
input device such as keyboard, mouse, MICR, OCR, Etc.,

b) Main Memory:
It is also known as internal memory. It is very fast in operation. It is used to store data and
instructions. Data has to be fed into the system before the actual processing starts. It contains a
part of the operating system Software, one or more execution programs being executed, the data
being processed and required by the programs for execution , and processed data awaiting
output.

c) Output:
This is the process of producing results from the data for getting useful information. Similarly
the output produced by the computer after processing must also be kept somewhere inside the
computer before being given to you in human readable form through the screen or printer.
Again the output is also stored inside the computer for further processing.

d) Control Unit (CU):

The next component of computer is the Control Unit, which acts like the supervisor seeing that
things are done in proper fashion. Control Unit is responsible for coordinating various
operations using time signal. The control unit determines the sequence in which computer
programs and instructions are executed. Things like processing of programs stored in the main
memory, interpretation of the instructions and issuing of signals for other units of the computer
to execute them. It also acts as a switch board operator when several users access the computer
simultaneously. Thereby it coordinates the activities of computer’s peripheral equipment as they
perform the input and output.
e) Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU):
After you enter data through the input device it is stored in the primary storage. The actual
processing of the data and instruction are performed by Arithmetic Logical Unit. The major
operations performed by the ALU are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, logic and
comparison. Data is transferred to ALU from storage unit when required. After processing the
output is returned back to storage unit for further processing or getting stored.

f) Secondary storage:
It is also known as auxiliary memory. It is closely linked with the main memory. Since main
memory can’t be flooded with unwanted data at particular moment, same is stored in auxiliary
memory from which desired data is fed to main memory as and when required by it. Thus
secondary storage is used to hold mass of information i.e., system software, application
programs, cinemas, games and data files. Obviously the capacity of secondary storage is very
high compared to main memory. Auxiliary memory usually in the form of Magnetic disk,
Magnetic tape, CD’s, Memory cards, Pen drives Etc.,
CHAPTER TWO: INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES

2.1 Introduction
Generally, we give data and program to the computer for processing. So what we give to the
Computer is known as input. That can be an image from a Digital Camera, or some letters types via
keyboard in a word document. The device through which we give the input is called input device.
Output is the result of the data we can see through some output device like a picture displayed by the
monitor, a word documented printed by a printer etc. The device through which we get output is called
output device.

2.2 Input Devices

An input device presents data to the processing unit in a machine-readable form. Although the
keyboard is a common input device for a small computer, a system may also support various other
input devices such as Optical Character Recognition (OCR), Magnetic Ink Character Recognition
(MICR), mark sense reader, etc.

a) Key board:
The keyboard is very much like a standard typewriter keyboard with a few additional keys. The
basic QWERTY layout of characters is maintained to make it easy for the trained typist to use
the system. The additional keys are included to perform certain special functions such as
loading a program, edition a text, etc. These are known as function keys that vary in number
from system to system. See Figure 2.1

Figure 2.1: A computer keyboard

b) Optical Character Recognition:
Often abbreviated as OCR, optical character recognition involves reading text from paper and
translating the images into a form that the computer can manipulate. An OCR system enables
you to take a book or a magazine article and feed it directly into an electronic computer file. See
Figure 2.2

Figure 2.2: OCR

c) Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR):

An MICR can identify characters printed with a special ink that contain particles of magnetic
material. This device particularly finds applications in banking industry. Since the MICR system
can recognise only certain character styles, the characters have to be accurately formed. See
Figures 2.3 and 2.4.

Figure 2.3: MICR Code

Figure 2.4: MICR Code reader

d) Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)
Optical mark recognition, also called mark sense reader, is a technology where an OMR device
senses the presence or absence of a mark, such as pencil mark. OMR is widely used in tests
such as aptitude tests. See Figures 2.5 and 2.6.

Figure 2.5: An OMR Sheet Figure 2.6: An OMR

e) Bar Code Reader

A bar-code is a set of black parallel lines (or bars) of varying thickness and separations that
represent a number (or numeric data). For convenience, the numeric data are often printed
underneath the bar code symbols.
These devices are generally available in super markets, bookshops, etc. Bar-code readers are
photoelectric scanners that read the bar codes or vertical zebra striped marks, printed on product
containers. Supermarkets use a bar code system called the Universal Product Code (UPC). The
bar code identifies the product to the supermarket’s computer which has a description and the
latest price of the product. The computer automatically tells the Point of Sales (POS) terminal
what the price is. See Figures 2.7 and 2.8.

Figure 2.7: A bar code Figure 2.8: A bar code reader

f) QR Code Reader
QR code (that is, quick response code) is a new format for storing data. Using QR code, the
code appears as black squares filled with dots and lines on a white background.
QR code are used for a wide variety of purposes, including tracking items in a business or
directing a cell phone to open a specific web address in a browser (e.g. to connect a whatsapp
app running on an phone to a web browser on a system). See Figures 2.9 and 2.10.

Figure 2.9: A QR code Figure 2.10: Phone as a QR code scanner

g) Digitizing Tablet
This is an input device that enables you to enter drawings and sketches into a computer. A
digitizing tablet consists of an electronic tablet and a cursor or pen. A cursor (also called a puck)
is similar to a mouse, except that it has a window with cross hairs for pinpoint placement, and it
can have as many as 16 buttons. A pen (also called a stylus) looks like a simple ballpoint pen
but uses an electronic head instead of ink. The tablet contains electronic field that enables it to
detect movement of the cursor or pen and translate the movements into digital signals that it
sends to the computer. Digitizing tables are also called digitizers, graphics tables, touch tables
or simply tables.

h) Scanner
Scanner is an input device that can read text or illustrations printed on paper and translate the
information into a form that the computer can use. A scanner works by digitizing an image -
dividing it into a grid of boxes and representing each box with either a zero or a one, depending
on whether the box is filled in. The resulting matrix of bits, called a bit map, can then be stored
in a file, displayed on a screen and manipulated by programs. Optical scanners do not
distinguish text from illustrations, they represent all images as bit maps. Therefore, you cannot
directly edit text that has been scanned. To edit text read by an optical scanner, you need an
 optical character recognition (OCR) system to translate the image into ASCII characters. Most
optical scanners sold today come with OCR packages. See Figure 2.11.

Figure 2.11: A computer scanner

i) Mouse
The computer mouse is designed after the animal mouse. The mouse is a device that controls
the movement of the cursor or pointer on a display screen. It is a small object you can roll
along a hard and flat surface. As you move the mouse, the pointer on the display screen moves
in the same direction. Mouse contains at least one button and sometimes as many as three,
which have different functions depending on what program is running. See Figure 2.12.

Figure 2.12: A computer mouse

The various options for clicking the mouse are as follows:
 Left click: To press the left mouse button once with your index finger. Used to select an icon
 Double click: To press the left mouse button twice in rapid succession with your index finger,
while the muse remains stationary. Used to start a program or open a file.
 Right click: To press the right button of the mouse once with your middle finger. Usually
used to display a set of commands.
 Drag and drop: It allows you to select and move an item from one location to another. To
achieve this, place the cursor over an item on the screen, click the left mouse
button and while holding the button down move the cursor to where you want to
place the item, and release it.
 Scroll: To press down on the scroll wheel as if it were a button (usually the index
finger).

j) Light Pen
Light pen is an input device that utilizes a light-sensitive detector to select objects on a display
screen.

k) Speech input devices

Speech or voice input devices convert a person’s speech into digital form. These input devices,
when combined with appropriate software, form voice recognition systems. These systems
enable users to operate microcomputers using voice commands.

l) Digital Camera
Digital Cameras are used to capture images. Those images are then transferred to a computer
when the Camera is connected to the computer. Mostly the Digital Camera images are in JPEG
format. See Figure 2.13.

Figure 2.13: A digital camera

2.3 Output Devices
Output devices receive information from the CPU and present it to the user in the desired form.
Output devices include display screen, loudspeakers, printers, plotters, etc.

a) Monitors
The first is the typical monitor that looks like the television screen and uses a large vacuum tube
called a cathode ray tube (CRT). Its operation is very similar to that of a television picture tube,
with an electronic gun shooting a beam of electrons to illuminate the pixels (picture elements)
on the screen. The number of pixel per screen determines the resolution. The resolution of a
monitor indicates how densely the pixels are packed. The second type, known as the flat-panel
display, is used with laptops or notebook computers. While the earlier monitors could only
display one color, that is, black, grayscale, etc. modern monitors have good support for color
and graphics show though this may require more memory.

b) Projector
A projector or image projector is an optical device that projects an image (or moving images)
onto a surface, commonly a projection screen. The images created from most projectors happen
by shining a light through a small transparent lens, but some newer types of projectors can
project the image directly, by using lasers. A virtual retinal display, or retinal projector, is a
projector that displays an image directly on the retina instead of an external screen. A video
projector is the most common type. Video projectors are digital replacements for earlier types of
projectors such as slide projectors and overhead projectors.

c) Speakers
Speaker is an important part of a computer system. Some systems have a built-in speaker,
though they are small in size. Speaker is an essential part of a computer because they can notify
about various system notifications through various sounds.

d) Printer
Printer is a device that prints text or illustrations on paper and in many cases on transparencies
and other media. There are many different types of printers. In terms of the technology utilized,
printer fall into the following categories.
1) Ink-jet Printer
Ink-jet printers work by spraying ionized ink on a sheet of paper. Magnetized plates in the ink’s
path direct the ink onto the paper in the desired shapes. Inkjet printers are capable of producing
high quality print approaching to that produced by laser printers. A typical ink-jet printer
provides a resolution of 300 dots per inch, although some newer models offer higher
resolutions.
In general, the price of ink-jet printers is lower than that of laser printers. However, they are
also considerably slower. Another drawback of ink-jet printers is that they require a special type
of ink that is apt to smudge on inexpensive copier paper.
Because ink-jet printers require smaller mechanical parts than laser printers, they are specially
popular as portable printers. In addition, colour ink-jet printers provide an inexpensive way to
print full-colour documents. See Figure 2.14.

Figure 2.14: An inkjet printer

2) Laser Printer
Laser Printer utilizes a laser beam to produce an image on a drum. The light of the laser alters
the electrical charge on the drum wherever it hits. The drum is then rolled through a reservoir of
toner, which is picked up by the charged portions of the drum. Finally, the toner is transferred to
the paper through a combination of heat and pressure. This is also the way copy machines work.
Because an entire page is transmitted to a drum before the toner is applied, laser printers are
sometimes called page printers. There are two other types of page printers that fall under the
category of laser printers even though they do not use lasers at all. One uses an array of LEDs to
expose the drum, and the other uses LCDs. Once the drum is charged, however, they both
operate like a real laser printer.
 One of the chief characteristics of laser printers is their resolution – how many dots per inch
(dpi) they lay down. The available resolutions range from 300 dpi at the low end to 1,200 dpi at
the high end. By comparison, offset printing usually prints at 1,200 or 2,400 dpi. Some laser
printers achieve higher resolutions with special techniques known generally as resolution
enhancement.
In addition to text, laser printers are very adept at printing graphics. However, you need
significant amounts of memory in the printer to print high-resolution graphics. To print a full-
page graphic at 300 dpi, for example, you need at least 1 MB (megabyte) of printer RAM. For a
600-dpi graphic, you need at least 4 MB RAM.
The speed of laser printers ranges from about 4 to 20 pages of text per minute (ppm). A typical
rate of 6 ppm is equivalent to about 40 characters per second (cps). See Figure 2.15.

Figure 2.15: A laser printer

3) Line Printer
Line printers are high-speed printers capable of printing an entire line at one time. A fast line
printer can print as many as 3,000 lines per minute. The disadvantages of line printers are that
they can print only one font, they cannot print graphics, the print quality is low, and they are
very noisy.

4) Thermal printer
Thermal printers are printers that produce images by pushing electrically heated pins against
special heat-sensitive paper. Thermal printers are inexpensive and are used in most calculators
and many fax machines. They produce low-quality print, and the paper tends to curl and fade
after a few weeks or months.
2.3 The Computer Monitor
A computer monitor has a display screen that is divided up into tiny dots, called pixels (also
known as picture elements). A pixel may be defined as the smallest size object or colour spot that can
be displayed and addressed on a monitor. Any image that is displayed on the monitor is made up of
thousands of such small pixels. The closely-spaced pixels divide the image area into a compact and
uniform two-dimensional grid of pixel lines and columns. The finer the pixels the more the number of
pixels displayable on a monitor system.
Each pixel has a unique address, which the computer uses to locate the pixel and control its
appearance. Computer monitors and computers account for up to 5% of home electricity use. In
particular, the computer monitors represent around 25% of the energy of the computer.

2.3.1 Types of Computer Monitors

a) Cathode Ray Tubes (CRT) monitors
b) Flat Panel Displays (or non CRT-based) monitors

2.3.1.1 Working of Cathode Ray Tubes (CRT)

A cathode is a (negatively charged) electron gun that contains a filament. When the filament is
heated, the electrons are emitted in a straight beam. When the beam hits a phosphorus-coated CRT
screen at a certain velocity, it emits light and a bright spot appears on the screen (Figure 2.16).

2.3.1.2 Non-CRT based Display Devices

Non-CRT based display devices are also called flat panel displays. CRT based display devices
are bulky, heavy, and fragile but flat panel display devices are light and easy to handle. As a result, they
have greater demand than CRT based DD. Examples of flat panel display devices are plasma, LCD,
LED, etc.
 Figure 2.16: The cathode ray tube

a) Plasma Display
Plasma display consists of a matrix of pixels. Each pixel contains a mechanism which is
actuated by voltage. The current emits light and is supplied to the pixel by using a switching device
transistor, resistor, etc. The basic technique in plasma is a display consisting of a matrix of cells in a
glass envelope, and each cell is filled with gas, like neon. Plasma displays can have an AC dielectric
layer placed in between the conductance and the gas, which is bi-stable or DC, or a combined AC/DC
hybrid. Large-size plasma has high resolution. Phosphorescent material emits light when excited by
either an AC or DC electric field. The material is zinc sulphite doped with manganese.
Electroluminescent display has a yellow color. An AC/DC excited thin film electron is mostly used in
computer graphics applications. The basic structure is shown in Figure 2.17.

Figure 2.17 The basic structure of gas discharge plasma display (AC/DC activated)
b) Liquid Crystal Display (LCD)
Liquid crystal display is an example of passive technology. It either transmits or reflects incident
which is modified with polarization. The basic principle of polarized light is that transmitted light is
passed through the first polarizer and polarized in the xyplane, since the polarized axis of the second
polarizer aligns with first one, and vice versa. The ceramic which exists in the mesophase is stable at a
temperature between solid and liquid, hence the name liquid crystal. Picture clarity is shown in Figure
2.18.

Figure 2.18 Liquid crystal display

Advantages of FPD over CRT Monitors

i. Flat panels takes up much less desk space and can be hung on cubicle walls. In cities where the
office space is extremely expensive, businesses can reduce the square footage for each
employee, while still providing the same amount of actual work space.
ii. Flat panels do not emit radiation and they ease the worries of prolonged exposure to a CRT
monitor.
iii. Flat panels consume less power, which can save businesses money.
iv. Flat panels do not flicker like CRT’s and they eliminate the eyestrain and headaches that can
result from flicker.
v. Flat panels are nicer to look at than CRT’s.
Advantages of CRT over FPD Monitors
i. CRTs are three to four times cheaper than FPDs, which can save businesses a substantial
amount of money in capital investment.
ii. CRTs are currently the industrial standard and all equipment is designed to work with them.
CHAPTER THREE: COMPUTER MEMORY

3.1 Introduction
The computer memory is a temporary storage area. It holds the data and instructions that the
Central Processing Unit (CPU) needs. Before a program can be run, the program is loaded from some
storage medium into the memory. This allows the CPU direct access to the program. Memory is a need
for any computer.

3.2 Memory Sizes (Capacity)

The size of memory is termed in terms KB,MB,GB etc.,
a) 1 Byte = 8 bits
b) 1 Kilo Byte(KB) = 1024 Bytes(210)
c) 1 Mega Byte(MB) = 1024 KB
d) 1 Giga Byte(GB) = 1024 MB
e) 1 Tera Byte(TB) = 1024 GB
f) 1 Peta Byte(PB) = 1024 TB
g) 1 Exa Byte(EB) = 1024 PB
h) 1 Zetta Byte(ZB) = 1024 EB
i) 1 Yotta Byte(YB) = 1024 ZB

So the capacity is defined in terms of byte or words. Thus 64 kilobyte (KB) memory is capable
of storing 64 x 1024 = 32,768 bytes. (1 kilobyte is equal to 1024 bytes). A memory size ranges from
few kilobytes in small systems to several thousands of Giga bytes in large mainframe and super
computers.
Suppose a memory card size is 2 GB means that it can store
2GB = 2 x 1024 MB
= 2 x 1024 x 1024 KB
= 2 x 1024 x 1024 x 1024 Bytes
= 2147483648 bytes
3.3 Types of Computer Memory
There are two kinds of computer memory: primary and secondary.
(1) Primary Memory
Primary Memory is also known as internal memory or main memory. As soon as the computer
is switched off, the contents of the primary memory is lost. You can store and retrieve data much faster
with primary memory compared to secondary memory. Primary memory is more expensive than
secondary memory. When the computer is doing any job, the data that have to be processed are stored
in the primary memory. This data may come from an input device like keyboard or from a secondary
storage device like a floppy disk, memory card or pen drive etc.
The primary memory itself is implemented by two types of memory technologies. The first is
called Random Access Memory (RAM) and the other is read only memory (ROM). A more
appropriate name for RAM is RWM (Read Write Memory), the CPU can write and read information
from any primary memory location implemented using RAM. The other part of primary memory is
implemented using ROM which stands for Read Only Memory.

a) Random Access Memory (RAM) : The primary storage is referred to as Random Access
Memory (RAM) because it is possible to randomly select and use any location of the memory directly
to store and retrieve data. It takes same time to any address of the memory as the first address. It is also
called read/write memory. The storage of data and instructions inside the primary storage is temporary.
It disappears from RAM as soon as the power to the computer is switched off. The memories, which
loose their content on failure of power supply, are known as volatile memories. So now we can say that
RAM is volatile memory.

b) Read Only Memory (ROM) : There is another memory in computer, which is called Read
Only Memory (ROM). Again it is the ICs inside the PC that form the ROM. The storage of program
and data in the ROM is permanent. The ROM stores some standard processing programs supplied by
the manufacturers to operate the personal computer. The ROM can only be read by the CPU but it
cannot be changed. The basic input/output program is stored in the ROM that examines and initializes
various equipment attached to the PC when the switch is turned ON. The memories, which do not lose
their content on failure of power supply, are known as non-volatile memories. ROM is non-volatile
memory.
c) PROM : There is another type of primary memory in computer, which is called Programmable
Read Only Memory (PROM). You know that it is not possible to modify or erase programs stored in
ROM, but it is possible for you to store your program in PROM chip. Once the programs are written it
cannot be changed and remain intact even if power is switched off. Therefore, programs or instructions
written in PROM or ROM cannot be erased or changed.

d) EPROM : This stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory, which overcome the
problem of PROM and ROM. EPROM chip can be programmed time and again by erasing the
information stored earlier in it. Information stored in EPROM can be erased by exposing it to
ultraviolet light. This memory can be reprogrammed using a special programming facility. When the
EPROM is in use, information can only be read.

e) EAPROM : This stands for Electrically Alterable Programmable Read Only Memory. This
concept is same as that of EPROM. The only difference is that the memory can be altered using
electrical signals. The whole of the memory need not be erased.

f) Cache Memory : The speed of CPU is extremely high compared to the access time of main
memory. Therefore, the performance of CPU decreases due to the slow speed of main memory. The
decreases the mismatch in operating speed, a small memory chip is attached between CPU and Main
memory whose access time is very close to the processing speed of CPU. It is called CACHE memory.
CACHE memories are accessed much faster than conventional RAM. It is used to store programs or
data currently being executed or temporary data frequently used by the CPU. It is also very expensive
to have bigger size of cache memory. Its size is therefore, normally kept small.

g) Registers : The CPU processes data and instruction with high speed. There is also movement of
data between various units of the computer. It is necessary to transfer the processed data with high
speed. So the computer uses a number of special memory units called registers. They are not part of the
main memory but they store data or information temporarily and pass it on as directed by the control
unit.
(2) Secondary Storage (Auxiliary Memory)
You are now clear that the operating speed of primary memory or main memory should be as
fast as possible to cope up with the CPU speed. These high-speed storage devices are very expensive
and hence the cost per bit of storage is also very high. Again, the storage capacity of the main memory
is also very limited.
Often it is necessary to store hundreds of millions of bytes of data for the CPU to process.
Therefore, additional memory is required in all the computer systems. This memory is called auxiliary
memory or secondary storage.
In this type of memory the cost per bit of storage is low. However, the operating speed is slower
than that of the primary memory. Huge volume of data are stored here on permanent basis and
transferred to the primary storage as and when required. Most widely used secondary storage devices
are magnetic tapes, magnetic disks and floppy disks, Compact disks and Pen drives etc.,

a) Optical Disk
With every application and software there is greater demand for memory capacity. It is the necessity to
store large volume of data that has led to the development of optical disk storage medium. Optical disks
can be divided into the following categories.

(i) Compact Disk/Read Only Memory (CD-ROM): CD-ROM disks are made of reflective metals.
CD-ROM is written during the process of manufacturing by high power laser beam. Here the storage
density is very high, storage cost is very low and access time is relatively fast. Each disk is
approximately 4 1/2 inches in diameter and can hold over 600 MB of data. As the CD-ROM can be
read only we cannot write or make changes into the data contained in it.

(ii) Write Once Read Many (WORM):

The inconvenience that we can not write any thing in to a CD-ROM is avoided in WORM. A
WORM allows the user to write data permanently on the disk. Once the data is written it can never be
erased without physically damaging the disk. Here data can be recorded from keyboard, video scanner,
OCR equipment and other devices. The advantage of WORM is that it can store vast amount of data
amounting to gigabytes. Any document in a WORM can be accessed very fast.
(iii) Erasable Optical Disk :
These are optical disks where data can be written, erased and re-written. This also applies a
laser beam to write and re-write the data. These disks may be used as alternatives to traditional disks.
Erasable optical disks are based on a technology known as magnetic optical (MO). To write a data bit
on the erasable optical disk the MO drive’s laser beam heats a tiny, precisely defined point on the disk’s
surface and magnetizes it.

b) Flash drive:
Flash drives have many names — jump drives, thumb drives, pen drives, and USB keychain
drives. Regardless of what you call them, they all refer to the same thing, which is a small data storage
device that uses flash memory and has a built-in USB connection. Flash drives are typically no more
than two to three inches in length and less than an inch in width. Their size and shape may resemble a
thumb or a small pen (which is where the names “thumb drive” and “pen drive” come from).
Flash drives are also very thin, often having a depth of less than a centimeter. Because of their
small form factor, they are highly portable and can easily fit in a pocket or on a keychain (hence the
name “keychain drive”). Nowadays flash drives can store several gigabytes of information. Since they
are small in size but have large storage capacities, flash drives have replaced most previous portable
data storage mediums such as floppy disks and removable hard disks like Zip disks. Because they have
a built-in USB connection, flash drives also don’t require a special disk drive to be used. Instead, they
can be used on any computer with a USB port, which nearly all modern computers have. Below is the
diagram of a pen drive.

Figure 3.1: Pen Drive

CHAPTER FOUR: INTRODUCTION TO OPERATING SYSTEMS

4.1 Introduction
An operating system is the most essential system software, that manages the operation of a
computer. Without an operating system, it is not possible to use the computer. We know that the
computer is a hardware and is useless until it is provided an essential software, which makes it ready to
use.
A computer with no software in place can do absolutely nothing. It cannot accept characters
from the keyboard, display data on a screen, execute, or even load an application program. The
operating system is a collection of programs (or software routines) that control the operation of all
hardware and other resources in the computer system.
All other software runs under the operating system’s control, accessing the hardware through
the operating system and following rules imposed by the operating system. It serves as the
hardware/software interface
User programs interact with operating system using set of extended instructions. These
instructions are called ``system calls’’. These system calls are used to create, delete and use various
software objects that are manages by the Operating systems.

4.2 Booting
An operating system is that software which makes the ready to use by a process, called booting.
When we switch on the computer, the instructions stored in ROM are automatically executed. These
instructions help the computer to load the operating system from external storage device (disk) to
internal storage (RAM). This process of loading of operating system from disk to RAM is called
booting. The term “booting” comes from the word – “bootstrap” as bootstrap help us to get our boots
on, similarly booting helps the computer to get ready. The process of booting is illustrated in Figure 4.1
.
 Figure 4.1: Process of booting

4.3 Definition of an Operating System

Operating system (OS) is a software that interact or communicate with the hardware of computer
system and allows other programs to run. It acts as an intermediary or interface between users of the
system and the computer system (software program i.e. application program, utilities and hardware). It
is a software that manages the computer hardware and provides common services for execution of
various application software. An operating system is a program after loading into the computer by a
boot program, it manages all the other activities in the computer system. See Figure 4.2 below.
 Figure 4.2: Architecture of an Operating System

4.3 Features of Operating Systems

(1) Memory Management: The operating system manages the computer’s memory,
ensuring that programs have the necessary memory to run and allocating memory
efficiently to maximize performance.
(2) Process Management: The operating system is responsible for managing the processes
running on the computer. It schedules processes to run on the CPU, allocates system
resources to processes, and terminates processes when they are no longer needed.
(3) File System Management: The operating system manages the file system, which is
responsible for storing and retrieving files on the computer’s hard disk or other storage
devices.
(4) Device Management: The operating system manages the computer’s input and output
devices, such as the keyboard, mouse, and printer, ensuring that they are properly
configured and functioning correctly.
(5) Security: The operating system provides security features to protect the computer from
unauthorized access, viruses, and other types of malware.
 (6) User Interface: The operating system provides a graphical user interface (GUI) or a
command-line interface (CLI) to interact with the computer, making it easier for users to
access and use the computer’s resources.
(7) Networking: The operating system provides networking features that enable computers
to communicate with each other over a network, allowing users to share resources and
collaborate with others.

4.4 Types of Operating System

The basic types of Operating Systems can be categorized into:

(a) Single program OS

(b) Multi-tasking OS
(c) Multi-user OS
(d) Real Time OS

Following are details of each:

(i) Single Program Operating System: These are operating system that allows only one programme
to run at a time. The computer user can only open one programme at a time. If the user decided to
work on another programme in the same computer, he must close the first programme before
opening another one. This makes working with such operating system burdensome especially when
you want to copy some data from the spreadsheet to another application package. Example is Batch
Operating system.

 Batch OS: The batch operating system does not have a direct link with the computer. A
different system divides and allocates similar tasks into batches for easy processing and faster
response. It is appropriate for lengthy and time-consuming tasks. To avoid slowing down a device,
each user prepares their tasks offline and submits them to an operator. The advantages and
disadvantages of using a batch operating system.

Advantages Disadvantages
Many users can share batch systems. Some notable disadvantages are: Batch
There is little idle time for batch operating operating systems are challenging to debug.
systems.
 Advantages Disadvantages
It becomes possible to manage large
Any failure of the system creates a backlog.
workloads.
It's easy to estimate how long a task will It may be costly to install and maintain good
take to be completed. batch operating systems.

Examples of single programme operation system are: Microsoft Disk Operating System (DOS),
LINUX, IBMPC-1DOS etc.

(ii) Multi-tasking or Time-Sharing: Multi-tasking operation system allows more than one program to
run at the same time. Programme are run in turns with the processor. The present programme that is
running is minimized so that another programme can be viewed.

Advantages Disadvantages
There's a quick response during task The user's data security might be a
performance. problem.
System failure can lead to widespread
It minimizes the idle time of the processor.
failures.
All tasks get an equal chance of being Problems in data communication may
accomplished. arise.
It reduces the chance of software The integrity of user programs is not
duplication. assured.

Examples of multi-tasking operating system are: Windows Operating System Vista, Solaris While the
Versions of Windows Operating System are: Windows 95, Windows 98, Windows ME, Windows XP
professional edition, Windows XP Home Edition, Windows NT.

(iii) Multi-User Operating System: This is a set of programme (Software) that gives access to
more than one computer user to share information with only one main computer (referred to as a
network server) at the same time. Multi-User network is used in cyber cafés, banks, schools’
computer laboratory and industries.
  Distributed OS: This system is based on autonomous but interconnected computers
communicating with each other via communication lines or a shared network. Each autonomous
system has its own processor that may differ in size and function. A distributed operating system
serves multiple applications and multiple users in real time. The data processing function is then
distributed across the processors. Distributed operating systems are used for tasks such as
telecommunication networks, airline reservation controls The advantages and disadvantages of
distributed operating systems are:
Advantages Disadvantages
If the primary network fails, the entire
They allow remote working.
system shuts down.
They allow a faster exchange of data
They're expensive to install.
among users.
Failure in one site may not cause much They require a high level of expertise to
disruption to the system. maintain.
They reduce delays in data processing.
They minimize the load on the host
computer.
They enhance scalability since more
systems can be added to the network.

 Network OS: Network operating systems are installed on a server providing users with the
capability to manage data, user groups and applications. This operating system enables users to
access and share files and devices such as printers, security software and other applications, mostly in
a local area network. Examples of network operating systems include Microsoft Windows, Linux and
macOS X. The advantages and disadvantages of network operating systems are

Advantages Disadvantages
Centralized servers provide high They require regular updates and
stability. maintenance.
Security issues are easier to handle Servers are expensive to buy and
through the servers. maintain.
 Advantages Disadvantages
It's easy to upgrade and integrate new Users' reliance on a central server might
technologies. be detrimental to workflows.
Remote access to the servers is
possible.

(iv) Real-time OS: Real-time operating systems provide support to real-time systems that require
observance of strict time requirements. The response time between input, processing and response is
tiny, which is beneficial for processes that are highly sensitive and need high precision. These processes
include operating missile systems, medical systems or air traffic control systems, where delays may
lead to loss of life and property. Real-time operating systems may either be hard real-time systems or
soft real-time systems. Hard real-time systems are installed in applications with strict time constraints.
The system guarantees the completion of sensitive tasks on time. Hard real-time does not have virtual
memory. Soft real-time systems do not have equally rigid time requirements. A critical task gets
priority over other tasks. Real-time operating systems are used for tasks such as scientific experiments,
Medical Imaging, Robotics and Air traffic control operations. The advantages and disadvantages of
real-time operating systems include:

Advantages Disadvantages
They use device and systems maximally,
They have a low capacity to run tasks simultaneously.
hence more output.
They allow fast shifting from one task to
They use heavy system resources.
another.
The focus is on current tasks, and less focus They run on complex algorithms that are not easy to
is put on the queue. understand.
They're unsuitable for thread priority because of the
They can be used in embedded systems.
system's inability to switch tasks.
Real-time systems are meticulously
programmed, hence free of errors.
They allow easy allocation of memory.
4.5 Popular Operating Systems

Some of the most popular operating systems in use today include:

a) Windows: Windows is the most popular desktop operating system, used by over 1 billion users
worldwide. It has a wide range of features and applications, including the Office suite, gaming,
and productivity tools.
b) MacOS: macOS is the desktop operating system used by Apple Mac computers. It is known for
its clean, user-friendly interface and is popular among creative professionals.

c) Linux: Linux is an open-source operating system that is available for free and can be
customized to meet specific needs. It is used by developers, businesses, and individuals who
prefer an open-source, customizable operating system.

d) iOS: iOS is the mobile operating system used by Apple iPhones and iPads. It is known for its
user-friendly interface, tight integration with Apple’s hardware and software, and robust
security features.

e) Android: Android is the most popular mobile operating system, used by over 2 billion users
worldwide. It is known for its open-source nature, customization options, and compatibility
with a wide range of devices.

4.6 Operating System Techniques

There are several techniques used in multi-user operating systems for enabling many users to
concurrently share the single or multiple CPU (e.g. Multiprogramming and Multiprocessing). Some
techniques are used in single-user operating system to handle multiple tasks (Multi-tasking). The
common technique used in different operating systems are defined as follows:
i.) Batch Processing Systems:
This is the oldest type of operating system and is characterized by a computer system which
handles a batch of input which is collected over a period of time. Jobs are entered in a queue
which is maintained by the operating system, and there is no provision for interaction by the
user once the input has been submitted.
ii.) Real-time Systems:
This type of operating system is characterized by speed of response. The system is able to
respond very quickly to a change of circumstance and to initiate feedback. Examples include the
control of a chemical plant, a space capsule or the monitoring of a patient’s condition in
hospital.

iii) Multi-access and Time-sharing Systems:

A mainframe computer may support a hundred or more users simultaneously, whereas a typical
minicomputer may support up to 20 or 30. Time-sharing systems allows each user a time slice
of less than a second, but in an interactive environment not all users will require service for each
time slice, priority scheduling allows for a more rapid response. Multi-access operating system
use multiprogramming (i.e., a process by which a single CPU works on two or more programme
concurrently) and often employ virtual memory.

iv) Multiprocessing:
It refers to the use of two or more CPUs to perform a coordinated task simultaneously.

v) Multi-tasking:
It refers to the ability of an operating system to execute two or more tasks concurrently.

vi) Multithreading:
It refers to the concurrent processing of several threads (sub-process) inside the same
programme..

4.7 Classification of Operating System

Basing on the features of the operating systems and the interface provided they can be classified as
a.) User Friendly Operating System:
These Operating systems provide a pleasant and easy to work environment, they are usually
graphical based, where the various options are represented as icons, menus etc. Windows 95,
Windows XP, Windows-2000, Windows-8 are some of the user friendly Operating systems.
b.) Programming friendly Operating systems:-
The programmer is anyone who has fair knowledge about programming concepts and he is
expected to know the computer in a detailed manner. The programmer much concerned about
 various utilities, functionalities, flexibility and powerful environment. UNIX, XENIX, LINUX
etc. are some of the character based interfaces which are very powerful and programming
friendly.

4.7.1 Character User Interfaces (CUI)

This user interface is character (or command-line) based, one gets prompts in characters and a
user has to type the characters. These were the interfaces which enabled the programmers to do work
easy, but they it is difficult to work in as we have to type every instruction and commands . MS-DOS,
UNIX, LINUX etc. are some of the most popular character based operating systems.

4.7.2 Graphical User Interface (GUI)

This interface is graphical i. e., there are pictures, graphical objects, images, menus etc. which
have specific functionality. This interface provides very pleasant environment to work on it. Here
almost every action is automated, at click of a button can get desired action done. Windows XP,
Window-NT are some of very popular GUI based Operating systems.
CHAPTER FIVE: COMPUTER VIRUS

5.1 Introduction
Computer virus is one of the greatest threats to computers and computer applications. Once the
virus is made it will generally be distributed through shareware, pirated software, e-mail or other
various ways of transporting data, once the virus infects someone's computer it will either start
infecting other data, destroying data, overwriting data, corrupting software, stealing hard disk space or
CPU time, accessing private information, corrupting data, displaying political or humorous messages
on the user's screen, spamming their contacts, or logging their keystrokes. The reason that these
programs are called viruses is because it is spreads like a human virus, once you have become infected
either by downloading something off of the Internet or sharing software any disks or write able media
that you placed into the computer will then be infected. When that disk is put into another computer
their computer is then infected, and then if that person puts files on the Internet and hundreds of people
download that file they are all infected and then the process continues infecting thousands if not
millions of people. However, not all viruses carry a destructive payload or attempt to hide themselves
—the defining characteristic of viruses is that they are self-replicating computer programs which install
themselves without the user's consent.

5.2 Mode of Transmission of Computer Virus

The majority of viruses are contracted from mobile external storage devices by bringing
information from one source and then put onto your computer. Viruses can infect disks and when that
disk is put into your computer your computer will then become infected with that virus, a recent survey
done in 1997 by NCSA given to 80 percent of PC users showed that 90% of PC users contract viruses
by floppy disk from mobile external storage devices.
In the survey done above it showed that the other 20% of viruses were contracted by email attachments
and over the Internet. This means that you received an email with an attached file and opened the file.
Or downloaded a file over the Internet.
5.3 Virus Properties
Your computer can be infected even if files are just copied. Because some viruses are memory
resident as soon as a program is loaded into memory the virus then attaches itself into memory.
(a) Can be Polymorphic. Some viruses have the capability of modifying their code which means
one virus could have various amounts of similar variants.
(b) Can be memory / Non memory resident. Depending on the virus can be memory resident virus
which first attaches itself into memory and then infects the computer. The virus can also be Non
memory resident which means a program must be ran in order to infect the computer.
(c) Can be a stealth virus. Stealth viruses will first attach itself to files on the computer and then
attack the computer this causes the virus to spread more rapidly.
(d) Viruses can carry other viruses and infect that system and also infect with the other virus as
well. Because viruses are generally written by different individuals and do not infect the same
locations of memory and or files this could mean multiple viruses can be stored in one file,
diskette or computer.
(e) Can make the system never show outward signs. Some viruses will hide changes made such as
when infecting a file the file will stay the same size.
(f) Can stay on the computer even if the computer is formatted. Viruses have the capability of
infecting different portions of the computer such as the CMOS battery or master

5.4 How Viruses May Effect Files

i. Viruses can affect any files however usually attack .com, .exe, .sys, .bin, .pif or any data files.
ii. Viruses have the capability of infecting any file however will generally infect executable files or
data files such as word or excel documents which are open frequently.
iii. It can increase the files size, however this can be hidden. When infecting files virtues will
generally increase the size of the file however with more sophisticated viruses these changes
can be hidden.
iv. It can delete files as the file is ran. Because most files are loaded into memory and then ran once
the program is in memory the Virus can delete the file.
v. It can corrupt files randomly. Some destructive viruses are not designed to destroy random data
but instead randomly delete or corrupt files.
vi. It can cause write protect errors when executing .exe files from a write protected disk.
vii. Viruses may need to write themselves to files which are executed because of this if a diskette is
write protected you may receive a write protection error.
 viii. It can convert .exe files to .com files. Viruses may use a separate file to run the program
and rename the original file to another extension so the exe is ran before the com.
ix. It can reboot the computer when a files is ran. Various computers may be designed to reboot the
computer when ran.

5.5 Detecting Viruses

The most commonly used method of protecting against and detecting viruses is to purchase a
third party application designed to scan for all types of viruses. A list of these protection programs are
listed above. Alternatively a user can look at various aspects of the computer and detect possible signs
indicating a virus is on the computer. While this method can be used to determine some viruses it
cannot clean or determine the exact virus you may or may not have.

5.6 The Common Types of Computer Virus

(a) Boot viruses
Since nobody uses floppy disks anymore, these types of computer virus are left to infect only
the master boot records of the hard disk. The boot record program loads the operating system in
the memory at startup. These viruses replace the boot record and move it to a different part of
the hard disk, or simply overwrite it. As you can imagine, once you start your operating system,
it loads into memory, along with the virus. Once the virus is in the memory, it is free to do
whatever it was programmed to do. To avoid loading the boot record viruses into memory, you
must boot your operating system from another source (another hard drive or a bootable
CD/DVD).

(b) Program viruses

These types of computer virus will infect only executable files (with extensions
like .BIN, .COM, .EXE, .OVL, .DRV, and .SYS). Once executed, these programs load into
memory, along with the virus contained within them. Once in the memory, the scenario repeats
– the virus is free to act and infect other files or simply deliver its payload. These viruses are
friendlier than boot viruses and can be removed a lot easier.

(c) Multipartite viruses

These computer viruses are hybrids, derived from boot viruses and program viruses. They infect
executable files, just like the program viruses but, once the executable is executed, it infects the
 master boot records. The scenario is similar to the boot virus‘s one: once you boot your
operating system, the virus is loaded into the memory, from where it is free to infect other
programs and replicate itself, ultimately delivering the payload.

(d) Stealth viruses

These viruses are specialized in avoiding detection and will use a number of techniques to do
so. Most of them simply redirect the hard disk head, forcing it to read another memory sector
instead of their own. Some of them also alter the reading of the file size shown when listing the
directory. These types of computer virus are very hard to find by humans, but antivirus software
is specially designed to track them down and erase them.

(e) Polymorphic viruses

The polymorphic viruses will always change their source code from one infection to another.
Each infection is different, and this makes detection very hard. However, detection is still
possible, depending on the antivirus.

(f) Macro viruses

This virus is relatively new and it infects macros within a template or document. When you
open a word processing document, it activates the virus. The virus infects the Normal.dot
template, which is a general file used by all the documents. So, whenever you open an
uninfected document, by referring to the Normal.dot file, it gets infected as well. This infection
can only spread if infected documents are opened on another machine.

(g) Active X viruses

Most people do not know how to configure ActiveX and Java controls, unconsciously leaving a
security hole. Applets are then allowed to run freely on the machine, delivering all ActiveX
viruses. By simply turning off some ActiveX and Java controls in the browser, a user can
efficiently protect their PC from this type of computer virus.

5.7 Anti-Virus Software

Antivirus is software that searches a hard disk for viruses and removes any that are found. Most
antivirus programs include an auto-update feature that enables the program to download profiles of new
viruses so that it can check for the new viruses as soon as they are discovered.
 Antivirus is protective software designed to defend your computer against malicious software.
Malicious software or "malware" includes: viruses, Trojans, keyloggers, hijackers, dialers, and other
code that vandalizes or steals your computer contents. In order to be an effective defense, your
antivirus software needs to run in the background at all times, and should be kept updated so it
recognizes new versions of malicious software.
CHAPTER SIX: COMPUTER LANGUAGES

6.1 Introduction to Languages

You are aware with the term language. A language is a system of communication between you
and another person. There ate two forms of languages: Formal and Natural.

6.1.1 Natural languages:

These are the languages people speak, such as Yoruba, English, Spanish, Hausa, French, etc.
They were not designed by people (although people try to impose some order on them); they evolved
naturally.

6.1.2 Formal languages:

These are language that are designed by people for specific applications. For example, the
notation the mathematicians use is a formal language, that is, particularly good at denoting
relationships among numbers and symbols. Chemists use a formal language to represent the chemical
structure of molecules. And most importantly, programming languages are formal language that have
been designed to express computations used for communication between programmer and computer.
Formal language tend to have strict rules about syntax. Example: 3 + 3 = 6 is a syntactically correct
mathematical statement but 3 + =3 & 6 is not. H 2O is syntactically correct chemical formula, but 2Z2 is
not.
Syntax rule come in two forms, pertaining to tokens and structure. Tokens are the basic elements of
the language, such as words, numbers, and chemical elements. One of the problems with 3 + = 3 & 6 is
that & is not a legal token in mathematics. Similarly, 2Z2 is not legal because there is no element with
the abbreviation Z2.
The second type of syntax rule pertains to the structure of a statement; that is, the way the tokens are
arranged. The statement 3 + = 3 is illegal because even though + and = are legal tokens, you can’t have
one right after the other. Similarly, in a chemical formula, the subscript comes after the element name,
not before.
Programming language is a set of instructions consisting of rules, syntax, numerical and logical
operators and utility functions. Therefore, it falls under the category of formal languages.
6.2 Differences Between Natural and Formal Languages
i.) Ambiguity: Natural language are full of ambiguity, which people deal with by using
contextual clues and other information. Formal languages are designed to be nearly or completely
unambiguous, which means that any statement has exactly one meaning, regardless of context.
ii.) Redundancy: In order to make up for ambiguity and reduce misunderstanding, natural
languages employ lots of redundancy. As a result, they are often verbose. Formal languages are less
redundant and more concise.
iii.) Literalness: Natural languages are full of idioms and mataphor. If I say, “The penny
dropped”, there is probably no penny and nothing dropped (this idiom means that someone realised
something after a period of confusion). Formal languages means exactly what they say.

6.3 Computer Programming Languages

One man communicate with another in a language, which another man can understand.
Similarly, man communicates with computer in a language, which machine can understand. This
language which consists of a set of commands, understandable by computer directly or after translating,
is known as Computer Programming Language. There are many types of computer languages, which
can be categorized into four types:
a) Low-level Languages (First and Second Generation Languages)
b) High-level Languages (Third Generation Languages)
c) User-Friendly Languages (Fourth Generation Languages)
d) Object Oriented Languages (Fifth Generation Languages)

6.3.1 Low-level Languages

In early day of computers, only those languages were used for programming, which could be
directly executed on computer. Languages, which computer can understand directly and are called
machine dependent, are called low-level languages. For example, Machine Language and Assembly
Language are two important low-level languages.
Machine language is the oldest and most difficult of all the languages. It is known as First
Generation Language. In machine language, all the instructions are given to computer in binary digits
(such as 11000111), and hence are directly understood by the computer.
On the other hand, assembly language is easier than machine language, and is known as Second
Generation Language. Assembly Language is the first step to improve the programming structure. You
should know that computer can handle numbers and letter. Therefore some combination of letters can
be used to substitute for number of machine codes. The set of symbols and letters forms the Assembly
Language and a translator program is required to translate the Assembly Language to machine
language. This translator program is called ‘Assembler’. It is considered to be a second-generation
language. In assembly language, instructions are given using mnemonics operation (such as ADD,
MUL, etc.) instead of binary digits.

Advantage of Machine Language

The only advantage is that program of machine language run very fast because no translation program
is required for the CPU.

Disadvantages of Machine Language

1. It is very difficult to program in machine language. The programmer has to know details of
hardware to write program.
2. The programmer has to remember a lot of codes to write a program which results in program
errors.
3. It is difficult to debug the program.

Advantages of Assembly Language

1. The symbolic programming of Assembly Language is easier to understand and saves a lot of
time and effort of the programmer.
2. It is easier to correct errors and modify program instructions.
3. Assembly Language has the same efficiency of execution as the machine level language.
4. Because this is one-to-one translator between assembly language program and its corresponding
machine language program.

Disadvantages of Assembly Language

1. One of the major disadvantages is that assembly language is machine dependent.
2. A program written for one computer might not run in other computers with different
hardware configuration.
6.3.2 High-level Language
Development of applications using low level language requires a deep understanding of the
hardware. In order to facilitate the programmers to write programs without knowing the internal details
of computer components, many languages were developed. These languages use common English
words and are translated into low-level languages before processing by the computer. These languages
which computer cannot understand directly and are not machine dependent, are High-level Languages
(HLL). These languages are also known as Third Generation Languages. Some of the common high-
level languages are:
i. BASIC (Beginners All Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code);
ii. COBOL (Common Business Oriented Language);
iii. FORTRAN (FORtran TRANslator);
iv. PASCAL (Name of a Scientist);
v. C (it does not stand for anything)
These languages were widely used for applications development, but most of them are outdated now-a-
days due to popularization of the Fourth Generation Languages.

6.3.3 User-friendly Languages

Although high-level languages are simpler to codify than low-level languages, they still require
a lot of time to learn heir programming syntax. Hence, these languages are beyond reach of many
computer users (including MIS professionals), who do not want expertise in programming. Therefore, a
new category of languages have been developed which are user-friendly, very easy to codify and
simple to learn. These languages are called as User-friendly languages and popularly known as 4GLs
(Fourth Generation Languages). Some of the common 4GLs are Dbase, Foxbase, Foxpro, MS Access,
Oracle, Sybase and Ingress.

6.3.4 Object-Oriented Languages

We have discussed that the object-oriented programming is the latest approach in programming.
The languages which are based on Object-oriented Programming (OOP) approach, are called Object-
Oriented Languages. They may be classified into Fifth Generation Languages. Object oriented
languages are specially useful for development of GUI (Graphical User Interface) applications. The
languages also offer a unique feature of Reusable Code. Some of the popular object-oriented languages
are Smalltalk, C++ and Object COBOL, Object Pascal, Simula, Java and Visual J++.
6.4 Compiler
It is a program translator that translates the instruction of a higher level language to machine
language. It is called compiler because it compiles machine language instructions for every program
instructions of higher level language. Thus compiler is a program translator like assembler but more
sophisticated. It scans the entire program first and then translates it into machine code. The programs
written by the programmer in higher level language is called source program. After this program is
converted to machine languages by the compiler it is called object program. A compiler can translate
only those source programs, which have been written, in that language for which the compiler is meant
for. For example FORTRAN compiler will not compile source code written in COBOL language.

6.5 Interpreter
An interpreter is another type of program translator used for translating higher level language
into machine language. It takes one statement of higher level languages, translate it into machine
language and immediately execute it. Translation and execution are carried out for each statement. It
differs from compiler, which translate the entire source program into machine code and does involve in
its execution.
The advantage of interpreter compared to compiler is its fast response to changes in source
program. It eliminates the need for a separate compilation after changes to each program. Interpreters
are easy to write and do not require large memory in computer. The disadvantage of interpreter is that it
is time consuming method because each time a statement in a program is executed then it is first
translated. Thus compiled machine language program runs much faster than an interpreted program.

6.6 Word Processing

A word processor enables you to create a document, store it electronically on a disk, display it
on a screen, modify it by entering commands and characters from the keyboard, and print it on a
printer.
The great advantage of word processing over using a typewriter is that you can make changes
without retyping the entire document. If you make a typing mistake, you simply back up the course and
correct your mistake. If you want to delete a paragraph, you simply remove it, without leaving a trace.
It is equally easy to insert a word, sentence, or paragraph in the middle of a document. Word processors
also make it easy to move sections of text from one place to another within a document, or between
documents. When you have made all the changes you want, you can send the file to a printer to get a
hardcopy. Examples of word processors include MS Word, LaTex, Liber Office, etc.
CHAPTER SEVEN: NETWORKING

7.1 Computer Network

A computer network is a group of computers which are interconnected to exchange and share
information. People can transfer or receive information at minimum cost and time, using computer
networks. The Internet is a computer network that millions of people use every day. Other shared
resources can include a printer or a file server. The Internet itself can be considered as a computer
network.
Data or information available at a central computer can be easily shared, updated and accessed
by all the other users connected to the central computer. Computer networks from ISPs to Wi-Fi and
cellular networks are a key part of the information economy. These networks are the foundation for the
Web. The connection between computers can be done via cabling, most commonly the Ethernet cable,
or wirelessly through radio waves. Connected computers can share resources, like access to the
Internet, printers, file servers, and others. A network is a multipurpose connection, which allows a
single computer to do more.

7.2 Network Devices

Computer network devices are also known as communication devices and they constitute a data
communication network. These devices are routers, switches, hubs, LAN cards, gateway, modems,
hardware firewall, Channel Service Unit (CSU)/Data Service Unit (DSU), ISDN terminals and
transceivers. In an Ethernet or WAN network, the data communication cannot be performed without
these devices. Being an IT professional or a network administrator, you must have good understanding
of these devices. Some of these devices and their functionalities are described below:

(a) Modem: A modem is a communication device that is used to provide the connectivity with
the Internet. Modem works in two ways i.e., modulation and demodulation. It converts the
digital data into the analog and analog to digital. Figure 7.1 shows the position of modem
when two computers are interacting with each other.
 Figure 7.1: Usage of Modem

(b) RJ45 Connector: RJ45 is a type of connector commonly used for Ethernet networking. It
looks similar to a telephone jack, but is slightly wider. Since Ethernet cable have a RJ45
connector on each end, Ethernet cables are sometimes also called RJ45 cables. The ‘RJ’ in
RJ45 stands for ‘registered jack’ since it is a standardized network interface. The ‘45’ simply
refers to the number of the interface standard.

Figure 7.2: RJ-45 connector

(c) Ethernet card: An Ethernet card is one kind of network adapter. These adapters support the
Ethernet standard for high-speed network connections via cables. Ethernet cards are
sometimes known as network interface cards (NICs). Ethernet is the most commonly used
local network technology deployed with transmission speeds heading upwards into the
gigabits range.
 It is the most widely installed local area network (LAN) technology. Ethernet is a link layer
protocol in the TCP/IP stack, describing how networked devices can format data for
transmission to other network devices on the same network segment, and how to put that
data out on the network connection.

(d) Routers: Routers are networking devices used to extend or segment networks by forwarding
packets from one logical network to another. A router is a device that forwards data packets
along networks. A router is connected to at least two networks, commonly two LANs or WANs
or a LAN and its ISP’s network. Routers are located at gateways, the places where two or more
networks connect. Routers are most often used in large Internet works that use the TCP/IP
protocol suite and for connecting TCP/IP hosts and local area networks (LANs) to the Internet
using dedicated leased lines.

(e) Hub: A hub is the most basic networking device that connects multiple computers or other
network devices together. Unlike a network switch or router, a network hub has no routing
tables or intelligence on where to send information and broadcasts all network data across
each connection. Most hubs can detect basic network errors such as collisions, but having all
information broadcast to multiple ports can be a security risk and cause bottlenecks. Hubs
connect computer together in a star topology network. Due to their design, they increase the
chances for collision. Hubs operate in the physical layer of the ISO model and have no
intelligence. In the past network hubs were popular because they were cheaper than a switch
and router. Today, switches do not cost much more than a hub, and are much better solution
for any network.

(f) Switches: Switches are a special type of hub that offer an additional layer of intelligence to
basic physical layer repeater hubs. A switch does essentially what a hub does, but more
efficiently. By paying attention to the traffic that comes across it, it can “learn” where
particular addresses are. A switch must be able to read the MAC address of each frame it
receives. This information allows switches to repeat incoming data frames only to the
addressed computer.
Switches learn the location of the devices that they are connected to almost instantaneously.
The net result is that most network traffic only goes where it needs to rather than to every
port. On busy networks, this can make the network much faster.
(g) Gateways: A network gateway is an internetworking system capable of joining together
two networks that use different base protocols. A network gateway can be implemented
completely in software, completely in hardware, or as a combination of both. So gateway is
a device used to connect networks using different protocols. Gateways operate at the
network layer of the OSI model. In order to communicate with a host of other networks, an
IP host must be configured with a route to the destination network.

(h) Bridges: A bridge is a device that separates two or more network segments within one
logical network (e.g. a single IP-subnet).A bridge is usually placed between two separate
groups of computers that talk with each other, but not that much with the computers in the
other group. The job of the bridge is to examine the destination of the data packets one at a
time and decide whether or not to pass the packets to the other side of the Ethernet segment.
The result is a faster, quieter network with fewer collisions. A bridge is used to join two
network segments together; it allows computers on either segment to access resources on
the other. They can also be used to divide large networks into smaller segments.

7.3 Types of Networks

A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of computers and
devices interconnected by communications channels that facilitate communications and allows sharing
of resources and information among interconnected devices. Networks may be classified according to a
wide variety of characteristics such as medium used to transport the data, communications protocol
used, scale, topology, organizational scope, etc. Computer networks are now rapidly used by the all
levels of society, like government bodies, schools, colleges and private sector etc. There are many types
of computer networks, some of the important ones are described below:

7.3.1 Local Area Network (LAN)

Local Area Network is confined to small geographical area, like in a building or group of
buildings. Data transfer rate of LAN is very high even faster than data transmitted through telephone
lines. It’s a group of computers all belonging to the same organization, and are linked within a small
geographic area using a network. At security purpose level, it is not trust worthy because, for example,
an employee of an organization can change the important data of the organization. Due to its small size,
it is possible for one person to administrate a Local Area Network. The defining characteristics of
LANs, in contrast to Wide Area Networks (WANs), include their usually higher data-transfer rates,
smaller geographic area, and lack of need for leased telecommunication lines.
LANs are typically used for single site where people need to share resources among themselves
but not with the rest of the outside world. Think of an office building where everybody should be able
to access files on a central server or be able to print a document to one or more central printers. Those
tasks should be easy for everybody working in the same office, but you would not want somebody just
walking outside to be able to send a document to the printer from their cell phone. If a local area
network, or LAN, is entirely wireless, it is referred to as a Wireless Local Area Network, or WLAN.

Figure 7.3: Local Area Network (LAN)

7.3.2 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
Metropolitan Area Network or MAN is basically spread throughout a city, college campus or a
small region. MANs are larger than LANs, and it enables its users to share information throughout the
city. It is commonly used by schools, campuses, hospitals, large universities, large companies etc.

Figure 7.4: Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

7.3.3 Wide Area Network (WAN)
Wide Area Network covers comparatively large geographic area than LAN and MAN, for
example an entire country. It uses public network telephone lines and lease lines. This type of network
can even be spread over the world. WAN provides network to the LAN and MAN. This is very speedy
and expensive. Wide Area Networks use optic fiber as their communication medium. Internet is best
known example of public WAN.

Fig. 7.5: Wide Area Network (WAN)

7.4 Types of Network Connection

A network is two or more devices connected through links. A link is a communications pathway
that transfers data from one device to another. For visualization purposes, it is simplest to imagine any
link as a line drawn between two points. For communication to occur, two devices must be connected
in some way to the same link at the same time.
There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint.
(a) Point-to-Point: A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two
devices. The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two
devices. Most point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the
two ends, but other options, such as microwave or satellite links, are also possible (see Fig.
7.6a). When you change television channels by infrared remote control, you are establishing
a point-to-point connection between the remote control and the television's control system.

(b) Multipoint: A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than
two specific devices share a single link (see Fig. 7.6b). In a multipoint environment, the
 capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially or temporally. If several devices can use
the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared connection. If users must take turns, it is a
timeshared connection.

Figure 7.6: Types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint

7.5 Network Topology

Network topology is the schematic description of a network arrangement, connecting various
nodes (sender and receiver) through lines of connection. Topology is the schematic diagram showing
how the networks are connected physically and logically. Physical topology is the physical layout of
nodes, workstations and cables in the network; while logical topology is the way information flows
between different components. So network topology is the arrangement of the various elements of a
computer network. Details of network topologies are given below and are represented in Fig. 7.7

7.5.1 Bus Topology

In this type of topology all computers are connected by a single length of cable with a
terminator at each end. The bus topology is the simplest and most widely used local area network
design. Only one computer at a time can send a message. It transmits data only in one direction and
every device is connected to a single cable. So it affects the speed of the network. It is cost effective
and requires least amount of cable compared to other topologies. It is normally used in smaller
networks and is very easy to understand. But it is slower and if the main cable fails, the entire network
fails.

Figure 7.7: Network Topologies

7.5.2 Star Topology
The star network is frequently used to connect one or more small computers or peripheral
devices to a large host computer or CPU. Each computer on a star network communicates with a
central hub that re-sends the message either to all the computers or only to the destination computer.
Every node has a dedicated connection to the central hub. It is fast with few nodes and low network
traffic. It is easy to troubleshoot and easy to setup. But cost of installation is high and is expensive to
use as well. If the host computer fails, the entire network gets affected.
7.5.3 Token Ring
A token ring network is a Local Area Network (LAN) in which all computers are connected in a
ring or star topology and a bit- or token passing scheme is used in order to prevent the collision of data
between two computers that want to send messages at the same time. The token ring protocol was
developed by IBM. The access method used involves token passing. In token ring, the computers are
connected so that the signal travels around the network from one computer to another in a logical ring.

7.5.4 Ring Topology

In this type of topology the workstations are connected in a circle using cable segments. In this
layer each node is physically connected to only two other nodes i.e., adjacent pairs of workstations are
directly connected. Ring topology can function without server. The ring topology may prove optimum
when system requirements are modest and workstations are at scattered points.

7.5.5 Mesh Topology

It is a type of network setup where each of the computers and network devices are
interconnected with one another. A mesh topology is most often used in large backbone networks in
which failure of a single switch or router can result in a large portion of a network going down. A mesh
network topology is a decentralized design in which each node on the network connects to at least two
other nodes. Mesh networks can use a full mesh topology or a partial mesh topology. In a full mesh
topology, each network node is connected to all the other nodes in the network. In a partial mesh
topology, at least one node connects directly to every other node while others may only connect to
those nodes they exchange data with on a frequent basis.

7.5.6 Tree Topology

The tree topology, also known as Hierarchical topology uses two or more star networks
connected together. It could also employ a combination of bus and star topologies. This topology
divides the network into multiple levels of network. It has a root node, intermediate node, and ultimate
nodes. The tree network topology is ideal when the workstations are located in groups, with each group
occupying a relatively small physical region. An example is a university campus in which each building
has its own star network, and all the central computers are linked in a campus-wide system. It is easy to
add or remove workstations from each star network. Entire star networks can be added to, or removed
from, the bus.