The history of computing is a fascinating journey marked by rapid

advancements.

In the late ‘30s and early ‘40s, Alan Turing proposed the concept of the
Turing machine, establishing foundational theories for computation. His
Turing machine is an abstract model of computation, consisting of an
infinitely long tape divided into cells where symbols can be written, a
read/write head that can move along the tape, a state register, and a set of
rules dictating how the machine should react based on the current state and
symbol read. This model explores what it means for a problem to be solvable
by a mathematical algorithm.

During World War II, Alan Turing was instrumental at Bletchley Park, an
English country house and estate where he and many others worked on
breaking the German Enigma cryptography, a cipher used by the German
military to secure their communications. Turing developed the "Bombe," an
electromechanical device that significantly sped up the decryption process.
His method, called Ultra, along with contributions from other mathematicians
and codebreakers, allowed for regular deciphering of German military
communications. The intelligence derived from Bletchley Park's efforts,
especially concerning U-boat positions during the Battle of the Atlantic, air
raids, and D-Day preparations, is credited with shortening the European
theater of World War II by several years and saving countless lives.

Even back then Turing touched on philosophical questions about artificial

intelligence with the Turing Test. The Turing Test was proposed by him in his
1950 paper called "Computing Machinery and Intelligence." It is still the
criterion for determining a machine's ability to exhibit intelligent behavior
that is indistinguishable from a human. Turing suggested a test where a
human evaluator would engage in natural language conversations with a
machine and a human, both hidden from view. If human evaluators cannot
consistently tell the machine from the human, the machine is said to have
passed the Turing test. While no machine has fully passed the stringent
version, lately many chatbots and large language AI systems have come
close, especially in controlled environments or with specific domains of
knowledge. The test continues to influence AI research, encouraging the
development of systems that can engage in more nuanced, human-like
conversation.

1945 is heralded as a pivotal moment in computing history, marking the

birth of the first general-purpose electronic digital computer, the ENIAC
(Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer) . Designed by John W.
Mauchly and J. Presper Eckert at the University of Pennsylvania's Moore
School of Electrical Engineering with funding from the U.S. Army, the ENIAC
was initially built to compute artillery firing tables.

ENIAC was an immense machine, spanning about 1,800 square feet,

weighing 30 tons, and comprising approximately over 17,000 vacuum tubes.
Its programming was done via plugboards and switches which was very
labor-intensive, but it also allowed ENIAC to be versatile, performing not just
military calculations but also tasks in weather prediction, nuclear physics,
and advanced statistical studies. ENIAC's speed was groundbreaking for its
time, performing multiplication in 2.8 milliseconds. Its influence extended
beyond its operational life, setting the next stage in computing known as von
Neumann architecture, which was named after mathematician and polymath
John von Neumann. This was the advent of stored-program computers,
which paved the way for modern computing software. The fundamental idea
behind von Neumann architecture was where instructions and data are both
stored in the same computer memory. This was a significant departure from
earlier machines like the ENIAC that could only perform one specific task and
needed to be rewired to handle different tasks.

The von Neumann computing architecture comprises several key

components: memory, which holds both data and instructions; a central
processing unit (CPU) with an arithmetic logic unit (ALU) for performing
operations and a control unit to orchestrate the flow of data; input/output
systems for interaction with the external world; and a bus for communication
among these components. The operational cycle of this model involves
fetching, decoding, executing, and storing, where instructions are
sequentially processed. While this architecture offered great advances, it
also introduces the "von Neumann bottleneck," where the shared bus can
limit performance as it handles both data and instructions. Modern solutions
to this issue include the use of cache memory, a high-speed buffer between
the CPU (Central Processing Unit) or brain of the computer and RAM
(Random Access Memory), a type of volatile memory used to store data and
instructions that the CPU needs while performing tasks. Thus the Cache
reduces the frequency of memory access for frequently used data or
instructions. Von Neumann’s legacy is evident in virtually every computer
system still in use today, from personal computers to supercomputers,
making it a cornerstone of our digital age.

In 1947 the invention of the transistor by Bell Laboratories' researchers

William Shockley, John Bardeen, and Walter Brattain revolutionized
electronics, particularly computing, by replacing bulky, power-hungry
vacuum tubes with smaller, more efficient, and reliable solid-state devices.
This shift allowed for the miniaturization of computers, significantly reducing
their size, cost, and power consumption while increasing speed and
precision, marking the transition from first to second-generation computers.
The transistor's impact extended beyond computing, paving the way for
integrated circuits, microprocessors, and a plethora of portable electronics,
fueling what became known as Moore's Law. Moore's Law, named after
Gordon Moore, co-founder of Intel Corporation, is an empirical observation
turned into a guiding principle for the semiconductor industry. Moore's Law
originally stated that the number of transistors on a microchip (a measure of
a chip's complexity) would double approximately every two years, leading to
a corresponding increase in computing power while simultaneously reducing
costs. This prediction was made in 1965 when Moore observed that this trend
had been true for the previous decade and expected it to continue
indefinitely. Over time, the law has been somewhat reinterpreted to also
reflect the pace at which chip performance, memory capacity, and other
measures of technological progress have advanced. While not a law of
physics, Moore's Law has served as an industry target, driving innovation in
semiconductor manufacturing, influencing research and development
investments, and shaping expectations for technological advancement.
However, as physical limits of silicon-based technology approach, the
continuation of Moore's Law in its original form has become increasingly
challenging, leading to discussions about its end or evolution into newer
forms of computational scaling.

The introduction of software languages, FORTRAN , which stands for FORmula

TRANslation, in 1957 and COBOL, COmmon Business-Oriented Language, in
1959 marked significant advancements in the field of programming, making
the process more accessible to individuals beyond the realm of computer
science. FORTRAN, developed by IBM's John Backus, was tailored for scientific
computing, allowing scientists and engineers to easily translate mathematics
into programs. This language was revolutionary because it enabled people
with less technical programming knowledge to automate complex scientific
calculations, thereby accelerating research across various fields. FORTRAN's
focus on efficiency for numerical computations made it a long-lasting tool in
scientific and engineering applications, remaining relevant even today.

On the business side, COBOL was designed under the leadership of Grace
Hopper to be an accessible language for business processes, with a syntax
that mimicked natural language to facilitate understanding by non-
programmers. COBOL's development was crucial for handling large-scale
business data processing, enabling the automation of administrative and
financial tasks. This language became the backbone of many business
systems, in sectors like banking, brokerage, and government, where legacy
systems written in COBOL are still in use due to their stability and the
complexity of replacing them.

The IBM 701, introduced in 1952 and known as the Defense Calculator, was
one of IBM's first ventures into the commercial computer market,
significantly marking the transition from custom-built to mass-produced
computing machines. With its use of around 4,000 vacuum tubes, stored-
program capability following the von Neumann architecture, and a memory
of 2,048 words, the IBM 701 was designed for scientific and engineering
computations, performing 17,000 additions or 12,000 multiplications per
second. Utilizing punch cards for input/output and pioneering the use of
magnetic tape for data storage, only 19 units were manufactured, but its
impact was profound. It solidified IBM's position in the computer industry,
influenced the development of programming languages and software, and
demonstrated the commercial viability of computers for both military and
business applications, setting the stage for the subsequent growth of the
computing sector.

Following the introduction of the IBM 701 in 1952 this was a significant step
in IBM's transition to a computing giant, contributing to its reputation and
setting the stage for decades of future successes. IBM's stock saw consistent
growth throughout the decade of the 60s into the 80s, driven by the
company's increasing dominance in the mainframe computing industry. This
period marked IBM's evolution from a company known for punch card
technology to a leader in computer technology. IBM was the clear leader in
both market dominance and stock performance among mainframe
manufacturers in the 1960s. Their strategic decisions, like the System/360, a
groundbreaking family of mainframe computer systems introduced by IBM in
1964, not only redefined the mainframe market but also had a profound
positive impact on their stock performance, making IBM an investment
favorite of that era. Other companies, while significant in their contributions
to mainframe technology, did not match IBM's financial and market success
during this period.

In the 1970s, a group of computer companies known as the "BUNCH" sought

to challenge IBM's dominance. The “BUNCH” consisted of Burroughs, UNIVAC
(later part of Sperry Corporation), NCR, Control Data Corporation (CDC), and
Honeywell. Burroughs was known for its banking solutions and stack-based
architecture; UNIVAC had early success with the UNIVAC I; NCR transitioned
from cash registers into computing with a focus on business applications;
CDC was famous for its supercomputers; and Honeywell aimed for reliability
and IBM compatibility. Despite their efforts, these companies collectively
couldn't significantly erode IBM's market share, leading to various mergers
and acquisitions over the years: Burroughs and UNIVAC merged into Unisys,
NCR was acquired by AT&T, CDC's computer business was divested, and
Honeywell sold its computer division. The stock performance of these
companies was generally less impressive than IBM's, with each experiencing
different levels of success based on their market focus and ability to innovate
against the backdrop of IBM's System/360 dominance.

In 1971, Intel unveiled the the first commercial micro-processor, which

revolutionized computing by condensing the functionality of a CPU onto a
single chip. With 2,300 transistors and a basic set of arithmetic and logic
capabilities, this 4-bit processor, known as the 4004, was initially intended
for calculators but eventually opened the door to much broader computer
applications. Its introduction marked a pivotal moment by enabling the
miniaturization, affordability, and accessibility of computing power, which
was crucial for the birth of personal computers (PCs) later. This innovation
democratized technology, allowing individuals, small businesses, and
educational institutions to harness computing power previously only
available to large organizations with mainframes or minicomputers. The
microprocessor's impact extended beyond hardware, sparking an industry
boom in software development, PC manufacturing, and semiconductor
technology. Intel's subsequent processors like the 8008, 8080, and the x86
series standardized personal computing, profoundly influencing the evolution
of operating systems, software, and digital culture. The legacy of the
microprocessor is vast, underpinning the development of laptops,
smartphones, and IoT, transforming society into the information age, and
continuously driving technological progress.

Intel's stock performance after the introduction of the microprocessor in

1971 was not immediately remarkable, but the company experienced
significant growth in the following decades. The microprocessor became a
crucial product for Intel, eventually surpassing memory chips as its primary
business. By August 2000, Intel's market value briefly reached $509 billion
(equivalent to about $1 trillion in 2024 dollars), making it the most valuable
public company at the time. This growth was largely driven by Intel's
dominance in the personal computer industry, where its microprocessors
powered DOS-based and Windows PCs since 1981. However, Intel's stock
performance has declined significantly in recent years. As of December
2024, Intel's market value had fallen to $104 billion, far below its peak and
trailing behind competitors like Nvidia ($3.4 trillion. This decline is attributed
to factors such as maturing PC sales, increased competition in the
datacenter market, and challenges in adapting to new technologies like AI
chips.

The Apple II, launched in 1977, was a landmark in the history of personal
computing as one of the first highly successful mass-produced
microcomputers. Designed by Steve Wozniak and marketed by Steve Jobs,
this computer was equipped with the MOS Technology 6502 microprocessor,
an 8-bit microprocessor with a 16-bit address bus, allowing it to access up to
64 KB of memory. It offered color graphics, and was expandable through
eight slots, making it versatile for school, home and limited small business
use. Priced at $1,298, it was relatively affordable, which contributed to its
widespread adoption. The Apple II's success was bolstered by its software
ecosystem, including the influential VisiCalc spreadsheet, and it played a
critical role in shaping the expectations for personal computers with its user-
friendly design and expandability. Its long production run and the
establishment of a vibrant software community made it an iconic machine
that significantly influenced the trajectory of Apple Inc. and the personal
computing industry at large.

Apple's stock performance after the introduction of the Apple II in 1977 was
initially very positive, with the product becoming the company's first major
success. However, despite the Apple II's popularity, Apple's market share
remained behind competitors in the home computer market. In the 1990s,
Apple faced significant challenges that nearly led to bankruptcy. These
included increased competition from Microsoft’s Windows based PCs, failed
product launches like the Newton, poor financial performance, an overly
complex product line, lack of focus on quality and innovation, and
management changes including Steve Jobs' departure in 1985. The Apple
Newton, introduced in 1993, was Apple's pioneering attempt at creating a
personal digital assistant (PDA). This innovative device which was way ahead
of its time featured a touch screen, handwriting recognition, and an ARM
(Advanced RISC Machines) CPU, along with various productivity tools.
However, despite its groundbreaking nature, the Newton faced significant
challenges that led to its downfall. These included unreliable handwriting
recognition, a way too high price point of $699, overhyped marketing that
set unrealistic expectations, premature launch of underdeveloped
technology, and stiff competition from simpler, cheaper better alternatives
like Palm Pilots. The Newton's failure contributed to Apple's huge financial
struggles in the mid-1990s, with the company losing over $1 billion annually
by 1997. Upon Steve Job’s return to Apple, Jobs, who disliked the device,
discontinued the Newton line in 1998. Despite its commercial failure, the
Newton project laid the groundwork for future Apple innovations, with some
of its features and concepts later influencing the development of the iPhone.

The IBM Personal Computer (IBM PC), launched in 1981, was a game-changer
in the world of computing, effectively standardizing the personal computer
market and triggering a wave of compatible clones. IBM chose to base the PC
on Intel's 8088 microprocessor, which was both affordable and capable, and
included an open architecture that welcomed third-party hardware via
expansion slots and off-the-shelf components. This openness, combined with
the use of Microsoft's PC-DOS, not only made the IBM PC a benchmark for
quality but also catalyzed an ecosystem where other manufacturers could
produce IBM-compatible machines. This led to a surge in the PC market, with
companies like Compaq and Dell producing clones that could run the same
software, thereby driving down costs and increasing accessibility. The IBM PC
established the Intel x86 architecture as the standard for personal computer
CPUs, influencing software development, particularly the growth of Microsoft
Windows from DOS. Its impact was profound, democratizing computing,
shaping workplace practices, education, and entertainment, and setting
enduring industry standards that continue to influence the tech landscape.

During the PC era, some of the best computing stocks included Microsoft,
which dominated the operating system market; and Intel, which led in CPU
microprocessors; IBM, which initially dominated but later declined; and
Apple, which became significant with the Apple II and Macintosh. IBM's
downfall in the PC market was due to a combination of factors. The company
lost substantial market share, dropping from about 80% in the early 1980s to
20% a decade later. The PC industry became commoditized, reducing profit
margins, while smaller, more focused companies outperformed IBM in
specific segments. IBM was slow to adapt to rapid technological changes,
especially in the early internet era, and was overextended across too many
product lines. Its high-cost structure led to losses, with the company losing
$1 for every $100 of PC sales. Internal conflicts and antitrust restrictions
further hampered IBM's ability to compete effectively. These issues resulted
in significant financial losses in the early 1990s, with IBM registering net
losses of $16 billion between 1991 and 1993. Ultimately, in 2005, IBM sold its
PC division to Lenovo for $1.75 billion, marking the end of its era in the
consumer PC market.

The 90’s The coming of age of LANs & the WWW

Ethernet technology was originally invented in 1973 by Robert Metcalfe and

David Boggs at Xerox PARC, and much later became the standard for local
area networks (LANs) through a series of developments and standardization
efforts. Xerox made Ethernet publicly available in 1980, the same year
Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), Intel, and Xerox published the first 10
Mbps Ethernet specification. However it was the IEEE 802.3 committee which
adopted Ethernet as a standard for networking in 1983 that led to the
networking revolution. Ethernet's open standard, ever increasing data
speeds, and adaptability led to its widespread adoption, making it the
backbone of modern connectivity in offices, homes, and data centers,
facilitating the growth and interconnection of local area networks (LANs).

Also in the late 1980s and early 1990s ,Sir Tim Berners-Lee is celebrated for
inventing the World Wide Web while working at CERN (Conseil Européen pour
la Recherche Nucléaire or he European Council for Nuclear Research ).
Initially proposing an information management system to facilitate research
sharing among governmnets and later universities. Tim Berners-Lee
developed key technologies we all use everyday like HTML (Hypertext
Markup Language) , URL (Uniform Resource Locator) , and HTTP (Hypertext
Transfer Protocol), which collectively form the backbone of the World Wide
Web (WWW). His creation of the first web browser and server on a NeXT
computer marked the beginning of the Web's journey. Berners-Lee made the
source code freely available, which was pivotal to the Web's rapid
proliferation. In 1994, he established the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)
to standardize web technologies and has since been an advocate for an
open, accessible Web, addressing issues like net neutrality and data privacy
with initiatives like the Solid project. His contributions have earned him
numerous accolades, including knighthood in 2004 and the A.M. Turing Award
in 2016. Berners-Lee's vision continues to influence how we think about the
Internet, emphasizing its role in empowering humanity through education,
communication, and information access.

Several companies have profited significantly from Ethernet technology, with

Cisco Systems, Arista Networks, Huawei, and Hewlett Packard Enterprise
standing out as top performers. Cisco remains the market leader in Ethernet
switching, with a 34.8% market share in Q2 2024, down from 47.2% in Q2
2023. Arista Networks has seen substantial growth, increasing its market
share from 11.1% in 2023 to 13.5% in Q2 2024. Huawei has also shown
strong performance in Chian and Asis, growing its market share from 9.4% in
2023 to 12.0% in Q2 2024. HPE experienced significant growth in 2023 but
saw a decrease in market share to 6.2% by Q2 2024. These companies have
capitalized on the growing Ethernet market, which has demonstrated
resilience even during economic uncertainty. The global industrial Ethernet
market is projected to reach $47.59 billion by 2026, indicating continued
opportunities for profit in this sector.

The World Wide Web has been a catalyst for unprecedented growth and
success for several tech giants, with companies like Amazon, Alphabet
(Google), Meta (formerly Facebook), and Chinese companies, Alibaba and
Tencent Holdings emerging as the biggest beneficiaries. Amazon, the largest
U.S. Internet-based retailer, reported a staggering $574.79 billion in revenue
for FY 2023, with a market capitalization of $1.92 trillion in May 2024.
Alphabet, dominating search and online advertising, generated $307.39
billion in revenue for fiscal year 2023 and boasted a market cap of $2.18
trillion. Meta, despite recent challenges, reported $134.9 billion in revenue
for 2023 and maintained a market cap of $1.2 trillion. Chinese e-commerce
giant Alibaba and tech conglomerate Tencent Holdings have also seen
remarkable growth, with revenues of $126.49 billion and approximately $85
billion respectively in FY 2023. These companies' stocks have consistently
outperformed the market since their IPOs, reflecting their dominant positions
in the modern digital economy. However, it's crucial to remember that stock
performance can be volatile and past success doesn't guarantee continued
future results.

2000s: Mobile and Ubiquitous Computing

Apple’s introduction of the iPhone in 2007 transformed mobile computing

and had a profound impact on technology and society. By putting the
internet in everyone's pocket, the iPhone led to explosive growth in mobile
data traffic and created a new paradigm for software distribution with the
launch of the App Store in 2008. It popularized touchscreen interfaces,
changing how users interact with devices, and turned smartphones into
multifunctional tools that replaced cameras, GPS devices, and MP3 players.
The iPhone also enabled users to browse desktop websites on mobile devices
for the first time and introduced sensor-based computing, allowing for
interactions between phones and their immediate environments.

In parallel, social media platforms like Facebook and Twitter emerged as

dominant forces in online interactions. These platforms broke down
geographical barriers, enabling real-time global connectivity and facilitating
communication that was more controlled but potentially less spontaneous.
They allowed for the formation of online communities based on shared
interests and democratized communication, giving marginalized groups a
platform to amplify their voices.

Additionally, cloud computing became a major trend during this period,

allowing users to access services and storage over the internet, further
complementing the mobile-first experience introduced by smartphones.
Together, these developments reshaped how people interact with technology
and each other in an increasingly digital world.

Mobile and ubiquitous computing have transformed the technology

landscape, significantly benefiting numerous companies across various
sectors. Apple Inc. revolutionized the smartphone market with the launch of
the iPhone in 2007, leading to a substantial surge in mobile computing. This
innovation not only solidified Apple’s dominance but also resulted in a
remarkable appreciation of its stock price, which increased from around $12
in 2007 to over $248 today.

Google (Alphabet Inc.), as the developer of the Android operating system,

has enabled a wide range of mobile devices and seen its stock rise
dramatically, from approximately $300 in 2010 to over $2,700 by 2021.
Samsung Electronics has maintained its position as a major player in mobile
hardware, significantly benefiting from the smartphone boom.

Microsoft, while facing challenges in the mobile OS market, has pivoted to

cloud services and cross-platform applications, such as Office 365 and Azure,
contributing to a stock price increase from around $30 in 2014 to over $300
in 2021. Facebook (now Meta Platforms, Inc.) has thrived with mobile
engagement, leading to substantial advertising revenue and a stock price
increase from about $40 in 2013 to over $300 by 2021. Amazon has also
benefited, with its mobile app enhancing shopping experiences and its stock
appreciating from around $300 in 2015 to over $3,000 in 2021. Uber
Technologies relies entirely on mobile computing for its ride-hailing service,
experiencing stock fluctuations but gaining significant market capitalization
following its IPO in 2019.

Netflix has adapted its streaming service for mobile users, seeing its stock
rise from approximately $100 in 2015 to over $600 by 2021. Zoom Video
Communications became essential for remote work and virtual meetings,
with its stock soaring from around $60 in 2020 to over $400 later that year.
Lastly, Fitbit, known for its wearable fitness trackers, capitalized on the
growth of wearable technology, leading to its acquisition by Google in 2021.
Overall, these companies have leveraged advancements in mobile
computing to create innovative products and services, significantly impacting
their stock performance and reshaping various industries.