UNIT -II

INTEGRATOR: The circuit in which the output is equal to the integral of the input waveform is termed as
integrator or integration amplifier. Using basic inverting amplifier configuration, integrator circuit can be
constructed. by replacing the feedback resistor with capacitor C F as shown

To Obtain an expression for Output Voltage:

By applying Kirchhoff’s current law at node V2,we write

Since IB is very small, it is neglected.

 ---------- (1)

Now, iF is the current through the capacitor

where Vc is the voltage across the capacitor.

Substituting for iin and iF in equation (1) we write

Since A is very large, V 1  V2 = 0, ( V1 is at ground, V2 also appears to be at ground i.e it is at virtual

ground.

Integrating both sides we get

 (2)
where C is the integration constant and is proportional to the value of the output voltage V o at time t = 0
seconds.

This equation indicates that output voltage is directly proportional to the negative integral of the input
voltage and inversely proportional to the time constant R1CF.

For the integrator to work properly the time constant =RC of the circuit must be at least 10 times
greater than the width of the input pulse. i.e R1CF>10T

Note:

1. When Vin = 0, circuit acts as an open loop amplifier because the capacitor acts as an open circuit (X CF = )
to the input offset voltage V io. This voltage charges the capacitor C F and would produce an error ramp voltage
which increases with time till op-amp reaches saturation. To reduce the error voltage and to limit the low
frequency gain to RF/R1, a resistor RF is connected across the feedback capacitor C F in practical integrator
circuit as shown below

The cutoff frequency is given by f= i.e RF=10R1

Applications:

1. Integrator is used in analog computers to solve differential equations.

2. It is used in signal wave shaping circuits
3. It is used in ADC(Analog to Digital Circuit)
Integrator will produce sine wave output for cosine input, triangular output for square wave input , ramp
voltage for a step voltage.

DIFFERENTIATOR:

The circuit shown above represents a basic differentiator. Differentiator circuit is one whose output waveform
is the derivative of the input waveform. Inverting amplifier configuration is used to get differentiator circuit
where in a capacitor C1 is used instead of input resistor R1.
To get expression for the output Voltage:

Applying Kirchhoff’s current law at node V2 we get,

Since IB is very small, it is neglected.

i.e

Because of virtual ground concept,

Vo is equal to RFC1 times the negative instantaneous rate change of the input voltage V in with time.

For the differentiator to work properly the time constant =RFC1 of the circuit must be at least 10 times
smaller than the width of the input pulse. i.e RFC1<10T

Note:

Basic circuit has some defect. Since the reactance of the capacitor C varies inversely with frequency,
the gain of the circuit RF /C1 increases with the increase in frequency which makes the circuit unstable. Since
output voltage increases with frequency, it makes the circuit sensitive to high frequency noise. When
amplified, this noise may overdrive the differentiated output.

Thus in a practical differentiator circuit, a resistor R 1 is place in series with the input capacitor to limit
the high frequency gain to –RF/R1 as shown.

The cutoff frequency is given by f = i.e RF=10R1

Applications:

1. Differentiator is used in analog computers.

2. It is used in signal wave shaping circuits
3. It is used as a rate of change detector in FM modulators
Differentiator will produce cosine wave output for sine wave input, square wave output for triangular wave
input, pulse waveform for square wave input etc.
Filters using Op-amp
An electric filter is a frequency selection circuit that passes a specified band of frequencies and blocks
signals of frequencies outside this band. Depending on the types of elements used in the construction, filters
can be classified in a number of ways:

1.Analog or digital

2. Passive and Active

3.Audio or radio frequency

Passive filters make use of resistors, capacitors and inductors. Active filters on the other hand employ
transistors or op-amps in addition to the passive components

RC filters are used for low frequency(AF) signal operation where as LC filters are used for high
frequency(RF) because of their high value of figure of merit. AF filters do not use inductors because they are
costly and bulky and they dissipate more power.

Active filters have the following advantages over a passive filter

1. Gain and Frequency adjustment flexibility

Since op-amp is capable of providing a gain the input signal is not attenuated as in the case in a passive
filter. In addition active filters are easy to tune.

2. No loading problem- Because of high input resistance and low output resistance of op-amp, active filters
doesn’t cause loading of the source or the load connected to it.

3. Low Cost – Typically active filters are more advantageous than passive filters. This is because of the
variety of cheaper op-amps and the absence of inductors

4.Easily adjustable over wide frequency range.

Disadvantages of active filters:

1.Active filters require power supplies.

2. Frequency response depends on the type of active component used.

Uses: Filters are used in the field of signal processing and communication. Active filters are employed in
radio, television, telephone, radar, space satellite and biomedical equipment.

The most commonly used filters are

1. Low pass filter

2. High pass filter
3. Band pass filter
4. Band stop filter
5. All pass filter
Figures below shows the frequency response of different types of filters

Ideal response is shown by the dotted lines, while solid lines indicate the practical filter response.

Low pass filter has constant gain from 0Hz to a higher cutoff frequency f H and then it attenuates
the frequencies above fH. At fH, the gain is down by 3 dB. The frequencies between 0Hz and f H is said to
be pass band frequency or its bandwidth.

High pass filter will allow frequencies after a cutoff frequency f L.

Band pass filetr will allow only a one band of frequencies (in between f L and fH) and the band
elimination filter will allow all frequencies except a band of frequencies (in between f L and fH)

Frequency response of any filter will not resemble the frequency response of an ideal filter. But
with special design techniques and precision components, ideal response can be approximated.

Butterworth, Chebyshev, Cauer (Elliptic) filters are some of the most commonly used practical filters,
whose frequency response is closer to the ideal frequency response

Butterworth filter has flat pass band and flat stop band. For this reason it is sometimes called as flat-flat
filter

The Chebyshev filter has ripple pass band and flat stop band. The Cauer filter has a ripple pass band and a
ripple stop band
Note: The rate at which the gain of the filter changes in the stop band is determined by the order of the
filter. The order of the filter is determined by the number of RC networks used in a filter.

Eg: For the first order filter, the gain decrease or increase at the rate of 20dB/decade

For the second order filter, the gain decrease or increase at the rate of 40dB/decade

First order Low pass Butterworth filter

Figure below shows the circuit diagram of first
order low pass Butterworth filter

The circuit uses an RC network for filtering. The

op-amp is used in non inverting configuration.
Resistors R1 and RF determine the gain of the
filter

According to voltage divider rule

(VDR), the voltage at the non inverting terminal
is given by

V1= where j= and –jXC =

Simplifying the above equation we get

V1= ----------------(1)

The output voltage V0 of the above circuit is given by

Vo=(1+ ) V1=(1+ )

i.e. Vo= Vin , where AF= 1+ and fH=

Here AF is the pass band gain of the filter, fH is the higher cutoff frequency of the filter.

Now the gain of the filter as a function of frequency is written as

---------------------(2)
The gain magnitude of the low pass filter is obtained by writing the above equation in polar form

--------------------- (3)

The operation of the low pass filter can be verified from the gain magnitude equation no. (3)

Case 1: At low frequencies, i.e. f <<<fH

Case 2: When f=fH

Case 3: At high frequencies, i.e. f

>>fH

< AF

Thus the low pass filter has the

constant gain AF from 0 Hz to the higher cutoff frequency f H. At fH the gain is 0.707 AF and after fH it
decreases at a constant rate with the increase in frequency as shown in the graph.

When the frequency is increased 10 fold after f H, the voltage gain is divided by 10. In other words the
gain decreases by 20 dB, when the frequency is increased by 10. Hence the rate at which the gain rolls off
after fH is 20 dB/ decade or 6 dB/ octave, where Octave signifies a two fold increase in frequency

Note: The frequency fH is also called as -3dB frequency

Design of First order low pass filter

1. Choose a value of higher cut off frequency fH (may be given)
2. Select a suitable value of C ( less than 1F)
3. Calculate the value of R using R =
4. Choose a value of pass band gain AF (may be given)
5. Select a suitable value of RF

6. Calculate the value of R1 using the relation AF= 1+

First order High pass Butterworth filter
Figure below shows the circuit diagram of first order high pass Butterworth filter

The circuit uses an RC network for filtering.

The op-amp is used in non inverting
configuration. Resistors R1 and RF determine
the gain of the filter

According to voltage divider rule

(VDR), the voltage at the non inverting
terminal is given by

V1= where j= and

–jXC =

Simplifying the above equation we get

V1= ---------------(1)

The output voltage V0 of the above circuit is given by

Vo=(1+ ) V1= (1+ )

i.e. Vo = Vin , where AF= 1+ and fL=

Here AF is the pass band gain of the filter; fL is the lower cutoff frequency of the filter.

Now the gain of the filter as a function of frequency is written as

---------------------(2)

The gain magnitude of the low pass filter is obtained by writing the above equation in polar form
 --------------------- (3)

The operation of the low pass filter can be verified from the gain magnitude equation no. (3)

Case 1: At high frequencies, i.e. f >>fL

( 1 << ( and can be neglected)

Case 2: When f=fL

Case 3: At low frequencies, i.e.

f <<fL

< AF

Thus the high pass filter has the

constant gain AF above the lower
cutoff frequency fL. At fL the gain is
0.707 AF and below fL it increases at
a constant rate with the increase in
frequency as shown in the graph

When the frequency is decreased10 fold below f L, the voltage gain is divided by 10. In other words the
gain decreases by 20 dB, when the frequency is decreased by 10. Hence the rate at which the gain rolls
off after fL is 20 dB/decade or 6 dB/ octave, where Octave signifies a two fold increase in frequency

Note: The frequency fL is also called as -3dB frequency

Design of First order High pass filter

1. Choose a value of lower cut off frequency fL (may be given)
2. Select a suitable value of C ( less than 1F)
3. Calculate the value of R using R =
4. Choose a value of pass band gain AF (may be given)
5. Select a suitable value of RF

6. Calculate the value of R1 using the relation AF= 1+