COMPLEX VARIABLE

AND TRANSFORMS
COMPLEX ENGINEERING PROBLEM

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING
 CLASS 3rd
SEMESTER MED-3N-B22
INSTRUCTOR DR. SHAJID KHAN

GROUP MEMBERS
NAME
Muhammad Usman
Usman Ayub Awan
Muhammad Haseeb
Anas Mehmood
Zahid Azeem

UNIT STEP FUNCTION

Introduction:
The unit step function, also known as the Heaviside step function, is fundamental in mathematics and its
applications, particularly in engineering and signal processing. It models a sudden transition from one value to
another, making it useful for representing on/off states or thresholds.

Here's a breakdown of the unit step function:

Definition:
The unit step function, u(t), is defined as

That is, u is a function of time t, and u has value zero when time is negative (before we flip the switch); and
value one when time is positive (from when we flip the switch).

Value at t = 0?

In some textbooks you will see the unit step function defined as having value 1 at t = 0, as follows:
Also, sometimes you'll see the value given as f(0)=0.5.

In this work, it doesn't make a great deal of difference to our calculations, so we'll continue to use the first
interpretation, and draw our graphs accordingly.

Shifted Unit Step Function

In many circuits, waveforms are applied at specified intervals other than t=0. Such a function may be described
using the shifted (aka delayed) unit step function.

Definition of Shifted Unit Step Function

A function that has value 00 up to the time t=a and thereafter has value 11, is written:

Example Shifted Unit Step Function

f(t)=u(t−3)

The equation means f(t) has a value of 00 when t<3 and 11 when t>3.

The sketch of the waveform is as follows:

Rectangular Pulse
A common situation in a circuit is for a voltage to be applied at a particular time (say t = a) and removed later,
at t = b (say). We write such a situation using unit step functions as:

V(t)=u(t−a)−u(t− b)

This voltage has strength 11, duration (b−a).

Example of Rectangular Pulse

The graph of `V(t) = u(t − 1.2) − u(t − 3.8)` is as follows. Here, the duration is `3.8 − 1.2 = 2.6`.
Products Involving Unit Step Functions:
When combined with other functions defined for t>0, the unit step function "turns off" a portion of their graph.

The concept is related to having a switch in an electronic circuit open for some time (so there is no current
flow), and then the switch is closed (so the current begins to flow).

Example of products with Unit Functions

f(t)=sint, then the graph of g(t)=sint⋅u(t−2π) is

Graph of g(t)=sint⋅u(t−2π), the product of a shifted unit function.

The sint portion starts at t=2π because we have multiplied sint by u(t−2π).

We use the dot (⋅⋅) for multiplication so that it is easier to read.

Product of u(t) vs. Shifting the Function Along the X-axis

Note the differences between the following:

f(t)⋅u(t), where the f(t) part begins at t=0.

f(t)⋅u(t−a), where the f(t) part begins at t=a.

f(t−a)⋅u(t), where the part has been shifted to the right by a unit and begins at t=0.

f(t−a)⋅u(t−a), where the f(t) part has been shifted to the right by units and begins at t=a.

Example:

Let f(t)=4t+2 and a=1. We see different combinations of shifting with different starting points.

g1(t)=f(t)⋅u(t)=(4t+2)⋅u(t)
 Graph of g1(t)=(4t+2)⋅u(t), the product of a unit function.

Derivative
The unit step function is level in all places except for a discontinuity at t = 0. For this reason, the derivative of
the unit step function is 0 at all points t, except where t = 0. Where t = 0, the derivative of the unit step function
is infinite.

The derivative of a unit step function is called an impulse function. The impulse function will be described in
more detail next.
Integral
The integral of a unit step function is computed as such:

In other words, the integral of a unit step is a "ramp" function. This function is 0 for all values that are less than
zero and becomes a straight line at zero with a slope of +1.

Time Inversion
if we want to reverse the unit step function, we can flip it around the y-axis as such: u(-t). With a little bit of
manipulation, we can come to an important result:

Other Properties
Here we will list some other properties of the unit step function:
Deeper Explorations on the Shifted and Scaled Steps:
 While the basic unit step function offers immense power, its versatility expands further with
modifications:

 Shifted Step Function: u(t - a) represents a step function delayed by a unit, activating at t = an instead of
t = 0.

 Scaled Step Function: ku(t) scales the output by a factor of k, altering the jump height from 0 to k.

Properties of Step Function

Below are the mentioned properties of the step function:

 When we add or multiply two-step functions, then also it gives a step function as the output.

 When you multiply a step function with a number, it will give a step function. Thus for real numbers,
step functions are responsible for creating algebra.

 In a step function, there is only a finite number of values as output.

Visualization:
 Imagine a graph where the x-axis represents time and the y-axis represents the function's value. The
unit step function would be a horizontal line at y = 0 for all negative time values, then abruptly
jumping to a horizontal line at y = 1 at time 0 and remaining there for all positive times. It's like a
staircase with one step at a time 0.

Example of unit step function:

Applications:
The unit step function has numerous applications across various fields, including:

 Signal processing:
It can represent the turning on or off of a signal, making it useful for analyzing and manipulating
signals in various domains like electronics and communications.
In signal processing, the unit step function is frequently used to model and analyze signals. It is
especially valuable in describing signals that abruptly change their state at a specific time, such as a
sudden increase in amplitude. The convolution of a signal with the unit step function is used in the
analysis of linear time-invariant systems.
 Control systems:
In control systems, the unit step function is utilized to study the response of a system to a sudden
change in input. The step response of a system is a critical concept in control theory, and the unit
step function is a fundamental component of its analysis.
It can model the activation or deactivation of a control mechanism based on a threshold condition,
for example, in temperature control systems.
 Electrical Engineering:
In electrical engineering, the unit step function is frequently employed to model and analyze the
behavior of circuits. For instance, it is used to describe the response of a circuit to a sudden change
in voltage or current.
 Differential Equations:
The unit step function is extensively used in solving differential equations, particularly those
involving piecewise-defined functions. It simplifies the representation of solutions, especially when
there are different behaviors in distinct intervals.
 Heaviside Function:
The unit step function is also known as the Heaviside step function, named after the mathematician
Oliver Heaviside. It is a fundamental tool in the study of operational calculus and Laplace
transforms.
 Complex Analysis:
In the realm of complex analysis, the unit step function is extended to the complex plane to facilitate
the analysis of functions involving complex numbers. This extension is particularly useful in dealing
with contour integrals and expressing functions in a piecewise manner based on the real part of
complex numbers.
 Integral Transforms:
Integral transforms, such as the Laplace and Fourier transforms, involve the unit step function in
their definitions. The unit step function helps in simplifying integrals and expressing functions in a
more convenient form for further analysis.
 Quantum Mechanics:
In quantum mechanics, the unit step function is employed to describe the behavior of particles in
potential wells. The wave function of a particle is often modeled using the unit step function to
represent the boundaries of the potential well.
 Environmental Science:
In environmental science, the unit step function might be employed to model sudden changes in
environmental variables.
 Machine Learning:
In machine learning, the unit step function can be utilized as an activation function in neural
networks, contributing to the modeling of binary decisions.
 Robotics:
 In robotics, the unit step function may be used to model sudden changes in the movement or
behavior of robotic systems.
 Physics:
In physics, the unit step function is applied to model various phenomena, including phase transitions
and sudden changes in physical systems.
 Computer Science:
In computer science, the unit step function can be used to model the behavior of algorithms,
especially those with abrupt changes in state or behavior.
 Piecewise functions:
It can be used to build piecewise functions, where the function's behavior changes abruptly at certain
points, useful for modeling diverse systems with different regimes.
 Thresholding:
It can be used to separate positive and negative values in data analysis, for example, identifying
profitable and unprofitable sales in financial data.
 Activation function in binary classification:
In machine learning, it can be used as a simple activation function in binary classifiers, where the
output is 1 if the input is above a certain threshold and 0 otherwise.

Additional points:
 The unit step function can be shifted and scaled to represent different scenarios. For example, u(t - 5)
represents a step function that jumps at time 5 instead of 0.
 It is a discontinuous function, meaning it has an abrupt jump at time 0.
 It is a fundamental building block for more complex functions and plays a crucial role in various
mathematical and engineering disciplines.