Experiment 1

Estimation of Errors – Simple Pendulum

Aim: To find standard error in mean by measuring the time period of a simple pendulum
Apparatus: Simple pendulum, Stop Clock, Retort Stand

Formula: Standard error in mean  
N

where, 𝜎 = 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑑𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 

 f  x  x  2

N
N = No of Observations

x  mean 
fx
N
Diagram:

Tables:
Table to calculate time period

Time Period Time Period

Time taken for Time taken for
S.No. 10 Oscillations t S.No. 10 Oscillations t
T T
n n
(t) Seconds (t) Seconds
(n=10) (n=10)

Table to calculate mean & standard deviation

 x f f x x  x   x  x 2 f  x  x 
2

N f   f x  f  x  x  2


Graph:

Results:

1) Mean = ____________
2) Standard Deviation = ______________
a. 68.3% values lies between (𝑥- 𝜎) and (𝑥+ 𝜎)
3) Standard error in mean = ________________
a. . Values of mean in limits of error = x ± 𝜎
4) Gaussian distribution curve for the above table is presented (separately in graph sheet)
 Experiment 2
RESONANCE IN LCR - CIRCUIT
Aim: To determine the resonance frequency & quality factor of LCR Circuit in series and parallel
combinations.

Apparatus: A signal generator, inductor, capacitor, ammeter, resistors, AC milli-voltmeter.

Diagram(s):

LCR Circuit in Series LCR Circuit in Parallel

Table(s):
Part A: Series LCR Circuit. Part B: Parallel LCR Circuit.
L = _______________________ mH L = _______________________ mH
C = _______________________ µF. C = _______________________ µF.
Series Parallel
Current Frequency Current
S.No Frequency (Hz) S.No
(mA) (Hz) (mA)

Graph:
Bandwidth (∆𝑓) of the graph, for series, ______________and for parallel, ______________

Quality Factor, 𝑄 = (Theoretically), and 𝑄 = ∆ (Practically)

Results:
1
Using f r  and by locating the maxima / minima in the graphs
2 LC
I. Resonance frequency of LCR circuit in series, theoretically, Fr =________________Hz
Practically, Fr =_______________Hz
II. Resonance frequency of LCR circuit in Parallel, theoretically, Fr =________________Hz
Practically, Fr =_______________Hz
III. Quality factor, Q = __________________ in series and Q = __________________ in Parallel
 Experiment 3

ENERGY GAP OF A SEMICONDUCTOR

Aim: To determine the (band) energy gap in a semiconductor using a pp-nn junction diode.

Apparatus: A semiconductor p--n junction diode (D) of Germanium or Silicon, 0 to 100µA range dc
micro ammeter, a dc voltmeter of range 0 to 10 V, a mercury thermometer, Dry ccells of 1.5V and
9.0V emf, connection wires and a Heating arrangement, plug key.

Diagram:

Formula: The temperature dependence of the reverse saturation current Is in a p-n

p junction diode is
Eg

kT
given by, Is  Ae ------------------------------------ (1)
-------------------------

where, A is constant
Eg = the energy gap of the semiconductor in joules,
k = Boltzmann constant
k= 1.38 × 10-23 J / K
T= the absolute temperature (in Kelvin) of the diode and
η=1 for Germanium and 2 for silicon.
Eg

As we are dealing with a Germanium diode only we can have, I s  Ae kT --------
----------- (2)
Taking logarithms to base 10 on either side, we can get
( )
Log10 Is= log10A – 0.4343 ( ) ------------------- (3)

Substituting the value of k and expressing Eg in electron volts we get

( )
Log10 Is= log10A – 5036 [ ] --------------------- (4)
In the operating range of diodes, the temperature dependence of Is iss mainly determined by the second
term of eqn (4) even though A is temperature dependent.
The above expression is in the form of
of, 𝑦 = 𝑚 𝑥 + 𝑐. ---------------- (5)
Comparing equations 4 and 5, 𝑚 = − 5036 × 𝐸𝑔
|𝑚|
𝐸𝑔 = 𝑒𝑉
5036
| |
Thus, Energy gap of semiconductor (Germanium) is determined by, 𝐸𝑔 = 𝑒𝑉.--------------- (6)
Table:

Is (reverse saturation 1
S.No. t℃ 𝑇 = (𝑡 + 273) 𝐾 Log10 ( Is )
Current in µA) T

Graph: A graph is drawn with × 10-3 on x-axis and log10 (Is ) on y-axis.

Scale on x-axis:
on y-axis:

Precautions: the diode should be properly reverse biased.it should be very carefully observed.
(1) The reverse voltage should be quite below the break down voltage.
(2) Readings of temperature and Is should for taken only after Ts attains a steady value.
(3) As we are using a Germanium diode, the temperature should be below 750C.
(4) For better insulation and good thermal contact the diode is to be covered with a thin mica
foil.
Result:

The energy gap of given semiconductor is: ______________ eV.

 Experiment 4

DIFFRACTION GRATING USING LASER

Aim:-To determine the wavelenngth of the Laser source using grating.
Apparatus:-Grating, screen, mi
microscope and LASER sources.
Formula:-

Wavelength of the Lasser source, λ =

N=Lines per Inch on grating
e = Thickness of each line
d= distance between two successive lines
n= order of diffraction
on (n=±1, ±2, ±3, -------)
λ= wavelength of the source, a is the slit width
θ=angle of diffraction.
on.
Diagram:

Table:
Order of X cm
Maxima Y cm Z X 2 Y2 Sin θ = λ=
Left Right Mean
(n)

Result: The wavelength of given laser source is _______________

 Experiment 5

ACCEPTANCE ANGLE AND NUMERICAL APERTURE OF OPTICAL FIBER

Aim: To determine the numerical aperture and acceptance angle of given optical fiber.

Apparatus:-1.LED/Laser Diode Design Module TNS 20EL-TX. 2. LED/Laser Diode Design Module
TNS 20EA-RX. 3. Two meter PMMA fiber patch card. 4. Inline SMA adaptors. 5. Numerical
Aperture Measurement Jig

Block Diagram:

Formula:-

W
NA  Sin  max 
4L  W 2
2

Table:

Acceptance
Sl. No L (mm) W (mm) NA angle
ө (degrees)

Result: Numerical aperture of the available optical fibers is determined, and its value is _______.
Also obtained acceptance angle is____________.
 Experiment 6

TORSIONAL PENDULUM - RIGIDITY MODULUS

Aim: To determine the rigidity Modulus of the given wire using Torsional pendulum by the
dynamical method.

Apparatus: Torsional pendulum, stop watch, screw gauge, vernier calipers, measuring scale.

Diagram:

Formula:
8 M R2 l
The rigidity modulus   4
  2 dynes / cm 2
a 2 T
where,
𝑎 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒,

𝑀 = 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 (𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑚)𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑘,

𝑅 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 (𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑚)𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑘,

𝑙 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒,

𝑇 = 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑃𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑚.

Table-1:

Time
Length of Wire Time for 20 oscillation period T2 l
Sl.No
l (cm) T=t/20 (sec2)
Trial 1 Trail 2 Mean (t) (sec)
T2
1. 50
2. 60
3. 70
 4. 80
5. 90
6. 100

Table-2 Measuring the diameter of wire using Screw Gauge:

S.no. P.S.R (X) H.S.R error Y= (H.S.R±error) x LC TOTAL X+Y

Average diameter = _____mm

Radius = diameter/2 =_______ cm
Graph:
l
Plot a curve for l Vs T2 and calculate .
T2

8  MR 
2
l
n 4  × 2 =________________ dynes/cm2
a 2 T

Precautions:
1. While using vernier calipers, see that the readings must be taken without any parallax error
2. Measure the thickness of the wire using a screw gauge
3. Note the disc should be rotated along with its own axis.

Result: The rigidity modulus (𝜂) of the given wire using the dynamical method is
________________dynes/cm2
 Experiment 7

FREQUENCY OF AC SUPPLY - SONOMETER METHOD

Aim: To determine the frequency of AC supply using Sonometer

Apparatus: Brass, Steel, Copper Wires, Weight hanger with loose weights, two bar magnets, screw
gauge, rheostat, step-down transformer – 230 V A/c to 6 or 9 volts, Sonometer, Crocodile Clips,
electric wire for connections, plug key.
Diagram(s):

Formula:
Frequency (𝑛) of AC supply = Natural frequency of the vibrating loop

1 𝑇
𝑛 = 𝐻𝑧
2𝑙 𝑚
Where,
T= Mg and M = Mass suspended to the wire, g=gravitational constant.
m = mass per unit length of the wire
Mass per unit length of the wire (m) = ______________

Table:

Material of the Length of the vibrating Tension T = Frequency of AC supply

S.No wire Brass/
loop ‘ l ’ (cm). Mg (dynes) (Hz)
Copper/ Steel

Result: The frequency of AC supply using Sonometer is ……………. Hz

 Experiment 8

MELDE'S EXPERIMENT

Aim: To determine the frequency of an electrically driven tuning fork using Melde’s arrangement.

Apparatus: Electrically maintained tuning fork, stand with clamp and pulley, A light weight pan, A
weight box, Analytical Balance, A battery with an eliminator and connecting wires etc.

Diagram(s), Tables, Formulae::

For longitudinal arrangement:

Linear density (mass per unit length) m = … gm/cm

=……………..…

Load applied Length of

Tension Number of Length of √𝑇
in the pan (M) each √𝑇
S.No T=Mg Loops(x) cm thread(y) cm 𝑙
gm loop(l=y/x)

√
Frequency 𝑛 = Hz = ---------------- Hz
√
For transverse arrangement

Linear density (mass per unit length) m = =……………..… gm/cm

Load applied Number of Length of Length of

S.N Tension √𝑇
in the pan Loops(x) thread(y) each √𝑇
o T=Mg 𝑙
(M)gm cm cm loop(l=y/x)
1
2
3
4

√
Frequency 𝑛 = Hz = ---------------- Hz
√

Precautions:
 The thread should be uniform and inextensible.
 Well defined loops should be obtained by adjusting the tension with milligram weights.
 Frictions in the pulley should be least possible.

Result:
The Frequency of electrically driven Tuning fork in Longitudinal arrangement = __________ Hz
The Frequency of electrically driven Tuning fork in Transverse arrangement = __________ Hz
 Experiment 9

TIME CONSTANT OF RC CIRCUIT

Aim: To estimate the time constant of the RC circuit during the discharge of capacitor.

Apparatus: D.C. Voltage source, resistor, a capacitor, digital micro ammeter, Charge and discharge
key.

Diagram, Formula:

By applying Kirchhoff’s second law.

iR1 + (q/C) = ε  R1(dq/dt) + (q/C) = ε …………..(1)
which has the solution

q (t )  C (1  e  t / R1C )  q0 (1  e  t / R1C )
…………………..(2)
Where q0  C
The quantity  = R1C is the charging time constant which characterizes the rate at which charge is
deposited on the capacitor.

Observations and results: Measurement of time constant for discharging the capacitor
R = ________________________
C = ________________________
S.No. Current (I) Discharging S.No. Current Discharging
µA time (t) Secs (I) µA time (t)
Graph:
Plot a graph time in seconds on the x-axis and current in  A on y-axis and find the time for
a fall to 0.37 × I max. Let this be 

Results:
RC Time constant for discharging capacitor,
Theoretical value (=RxC) t = ____________ sec

Practical value (from graph) t = ____________ sec