1. Can you discriminate bandwidth and latency?

o Bandwidth: Refers to the maximum data transfer rate of a network. It determines

the amount of data that can be transmitted in a given amount of time (e.g., Mbps).

o Latency: Refers to the delay before data begins to transfer after the instruction is
given. It is typically measured in milliseconds (ms).

o Marking Scheme: 1 mark for defining bandwidth, 1 mark for defining latency.

2. Generalise LAN, WAN, MAN.

o LAN (Local Area Network): Covers a small area like a home, office, or building.

o WAN (Wide Area Network): Covers a large geographical area, connecting multiple
LANs (e.g., the Internet).

o MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): Spans a city or campus, larger than LAN but
smaller than WAN.

o Marking Scheme: 1 mark for explaining LAN, 1 mark for distinguishing MAN and
WAN.

3. Show your understanding about payload.

o Payload: Refers to the actual data being transmitted in a network packet, excluding
headers and metadata. It is the core content of the message.

o Marking Scheme: Full 2 marks for clear and concise explanation.

4. Discuss SCTP several types of chunks.

o Types of SCTP Chunks:

 DATA Chunk: Transmits user data.

 INIT Chunk: Used to initiate an association.

 SACK Chunk: Acknowledges received DATA chunks.

 HEARTBEAT Chunk: Checks the reachability of a peer.

 SHUTDOWN Chunk: Gracefully closes an association.

o Marking Scheme: 1 mark for listing at least two chunks, 1 mark for explaining their
purpose.

5. Can you differentiate IPv4 and IPv6?

o IPv4: 32-bit address, written in dotted decimal format (e.g., 192.168.1.1).

 o IPv6: 128-bit address, written in hexadecimal (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3::).

o Marking Scheme: 1 mark for explaining IPv4, 1 mark for IPv6.

6. Examine Reliable Flooding.

o Reliable Flooding: Ensures that all nodes in a network receive a copy of the message.
It uses mechanisms like sequence numbers to avoid duplication.

o Marking Scheme: 1 mark for defining the concept, 1 mark for explaining its
mechanism.

7. Explain what is Routing.

o Routing: The process of selecting paths in a network to send data packets from a
source to a destination.

o Marking Scheme: Full 2 marks for a clear explanation.

8. Compare Unicast and Multicast Routing.

o Unicast Routing: One-to-one communication, where a packet is sent to a single

recipient.

o Multicast Routing: One-to-many communication, where a packet is sent to multiple

recipients in a group.

o Marking Scheme: 1 mark for unicast, 1 mark for multicast.

9. Describe MAC.

o MAC (Media Access Control): A sublayer of the data link layer responsible for
controlling access to the physical transmission medium. It includes addressing (MAC
addresses) and methods like CSMA/CD.

o Marking Scheme: Full 2 marks for explaining MAC and its function.

10. What is circuit switching?

o Circuit Switching: A method of communication where a dedicated communication

path is established between two endpoints for the duration of the session (e.g.,
traditional telephone networks).

o Marking Scheme: Full 2 marks for defining and providing an example

Question 1: Examine OSI architecture with a neat diagram (13 Marks)

1. Introduction to OSI Model (2 Marks)

o Brief explanation of OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model and its purpose.

o Mention that it has 7 layers and is designed for standardizing communication

systems.

2. Layers of OSI Model with Functions (7 Marks)

o Physical Layer: Transmits raw bit streams over a physical medium. (1 Mark)

o Data Link Layer: Responsible for node-to-node data transfer and error correction. (1
Mark)

o Network Layer: Handles routing and forwarding of data. (1 Mark)

o Transport Layer: Ensures reliable data transfer and error handling. (1 Mark)

o Session Layer: Manages sessions between applications. (1 Mark)

o Presentation Layer: Ensures proper data translation and encryption. (1 Mark)

o Application Layer: Provides network services to end-users. (1 Mark)

3. Neat Diagram of OSI Model (3 Marks)

o Diagram should clearly show all 7 layers in order with labels and short descriptions.

4. Importance of OSI Model (1 Mark)

o Mention its role in standardization, interoperability, and troubleshooting.

OR

Question 2: Explain how FTP has a message format for exchanges and responses during control
connection (13 Marks)

1. Introduction to FTP (2 Marks)

o FTP (File Transfer Protocol) is used for transferring files between a client and server.

o Control connection is established on port 21 for communication.

2. Message Format in FTP (7 Marks)

o Command Messages (4 Marks):

 Commands sent by the client, e.g., USER, PASS, LIST, RETR, STOR.

 Syntax: <command> <parameter>, e.g., USER username.

o Response Messages (3 Marks):

 Responses sent by the server in numeric codes and human-readable text.

 Example: 200 Command okay, 530 Not logged in.

 3. Control Connection Mechanism (3 Marks)

o Persistent connection over TCP for exchanging commands and responses.

o Describes initiation, maintenance, and termination of the control connection.

4. Importance of Message Format in FTP (1 Mark)

o Ensures clear communication between client and server for proper file transfer.

Q3 (b): How is congestion controlled? Explain in detail about congestion control mechanisms in the
transport layer.

1. Introduction to Congestion Control (2 Marks)

o Define congestion in a network (e.g., overload of packets).

o Highlight its impact (e.g., packet loss, delays).

2. Congestion Control Mechanisms (10 Marks)

o Open-Loop Control (3 Marks):

 Techniques like traffic shaping (token bucket, leaky bucket).

o Closed-Loop Control (4 Marks):

 Feedback mechanisms:

1. End-to-End Congestion Control: Examples include TCP congestion

control algorithms like AIMD.

2. Network-Assisted Congestion Control: Routers provide feedback.

o Specific Techniques (3 Marks):

 Slow start.

 Congestion avoidance.

 Fast retransmit and fast recovery.

3. Conclusion (1 Mark)

o Summarize the importance of congestion control in maintaining network

performance.

13. a) Introduction to IP Address Conflict (2 Marks)

 Explain that having the same IP address assigned to two hosts on the same Ethernet leads
to an IP address conflict, causing communication disruptions.

 Mention that ARP (Address Resolution Protocol) is used to map IP addresses to MAC
addresses on Ethernet networks.

2. What Happens to A’s Existing Connections? (5 Marks)

 1. Disruption of A’s Existing Connections (2 Marks):

o When Host B starts up with the same IP as Host A, it sends ARP announcements
(also called Gratuitous ARP) to inform other devices of its presence.

o These announcements update the ARP caches of all devices in the network,
replacing Host A’s MAC address with Host B’s.

o As a result, packets intended for Host A are now sent to Host B, causing A’s
connections to break.

2. Loss of Sessions (2 Marks):

o TCP connections on Host A might time out because it no longer receives packets.

o Any active communication between Host A and other hosts is interrupted.

3. Network Behavior (1 Mark):

o Devices on the same network might see inconsistent communication, as some

might still use Host A’s MAC address if their ARP cache hasn’t been updated.

3. Role of Self-ARP in Resolving the Problem (5 Marks)

1. What is Self-ARP? (1 Mark):

o Self-ARP is when a host sends out ARP requests for its own IP address to detect
conflicts.

2. Steps to Detect and Resolve Conflict (3 Marks):

o When Host B starts up, it performs a Self-ARP (Gratuitous ARP) to check if another
device (Host A) is already using the same IP.

o If a conflict is detected (i.e., Host A responds to B’s ARP request with the same IP
but a different MAC address):

 Host B stops using the conflicting IP address.

 Alternatively, an administrator or system automatically assigns a new IP to

Host B.

3. Prevention of Connection Loss (1 Mark):

o Self-ARP ensures that hosts do not unknowingly disrupt each other’s connections,
preserving the stability of the network.

4. Conclusion (1 Mark)

 Summarize that while IP conflicts disrupt communication, Self-ARP is a simple yet effective
mechanism to detect and resolve such conflicts.

 Highlight the importance of properly managing IP addresses to avoid these issues.

1. Introduction to IP Addressing (1 Mark)

 Define IP addressing as a method used to identify devices on a network.

 Mention the two major IP versions: IPv4 (32-bit) and IPv6 (128-bit).

2. IP Addressing Methods (5 Marks)

1. Static Addressing (1 Mark):

o IP address is manually assigned to a device by an administrator.

o Used in small networks or for devices like servers, printers, and routers.

o Advantages: Predictable addressing and no dependency on DHCP.

o Disadvantages: Time-consuming and prone to human error.

2. Dynamic Addressing (1 Mark):

o IP address is assigned automatically by a DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration

Protocol) server.

o Common in large networks where IP management is critical.

o Advantages: Easy to configure, reduces administrative overhead.

o Disadvantages: IP addresses may change, which might be unsuitable for some

applications.

3. APIPA (Automatic Private IP Addressing) (1 Mark):

o When no DHCP server is available, devices can self-assign an IP address from the
range 169.254.0.0/16.

o Useful for small peer-to-peer networks.

o Limitations: Only works within a single subnet; no internet access.

4. Public and Private Addressing (1 Mark):

o Public Addresses: Globally unique and used for internet communication. Managed
by ICANN.

o Private Addresses: Used for local networks, defined by ranges:

 Class A: 10.0.0.0 - 10.255.255.255

 Class B: 172.16.0.0 - 172.31.255.255

 Class C: 192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.255

o Private addresses require NAT (Network Address Translation) for internet access.

5. Subnetting (1 Mark):

o Process of dividing a large network into smaller subnetworks.

 o Subnetting improves network management and efficient use of IP addresses.

3. Conclusion (1 Mark)

 Summarize the importance of IP addressing methods in managing networks effectively.

 Highlight how methods like dynamic addressing and subnetting help in scalability and
flexibility of networks.

ii) Answer Key: Explain IPv6 and Compare IPv4 vs IPv6 (6 Marks)

1. Explanation of IPv6 (3 Marks)

1. Definition (1 Mark):

o IPv6 (Internet Protocol version 6) is the latest version of the Internet Protocol,
designed to replace IPv4.

o It uses 128-bit addressing, allowing a significantly larger address space compared

to IPv4's 32-bit addressing.

2. Key Features of IPv6 (2 Marks):

o Larger Address Space: Supports 2^128 addresses, eliminating the problem of

address exhaustion.

o Simplified Header: IPv6 has a simpler and more efficient packet header, improving
performance.

o No NAT Required: Provides unique addresses for every device, eliminating the
need for NAT (Network Address Translation).

o Auto-Configuration: Supports stateless and stateful address configuration for

devices.

o Enhanced Security: Includes built-in IPsec for secure communication.

o Multicasting: Improved support for sending data to multiple destinations

simultaneously.

2. Comparison of IPv4 and IPv6 (3 Marks)

Feature IPv4 IPv6

Address Size 32-bit (e.g., 192.168.0.1) 128-bit (e.g., 2001:db8::1)

Address Space ~4.3 billion addresses Virtually unlimited (2^128)

Header Complexity Complex with options Simplified header format

NAT Requirement NAT is commonly used NAT is not required

Feature IPv4 IPv6

Security Optional (IPsec is external) Mandatory IPsec implementation

Configuration Manual/DHCP Auto-configuration supported

Broadcasting Supports broadcasting No broadcasting; uses multicasting

Performance Lower efficiency due to NAT Higher efficiency and scalability

3. Conclusion (1 Mark)

 IPv6 is designed to overcome the limitations of IPv4, especially with the increasing number
of devices on the internet.

 Its advanced features, larger address space, and improved efficiency make it a critical
upgrade for modern networks.

DVMRP answer is above

OSPF answer is above

Answer Key: Link State Routing Algorithm with Neat Sketch (13 Marks)

1. Introduction to Link State Routing (2 Marks)

 Definition:
Link State Routing is a dynamic routing algorithm that maintains a complete map of the
network topology. Each router calculates the shortest path to every other router using
Dijkstra's Algorithm.

 Objective:
To provide efficient, loop-free routes and adapt quickly to network changes.

2. Steps of the Link State Routing Algorithm (5 Marks)

1. Neighbor Discovery and Initialization (1 Mark):

o Each router identifies its immediate neighbors and measures the cost (e.g., delay,
bandwidth) to each.

o This information is stored in a Link State Database (LSDB).

2. Flooding of Link State Packets (LSPs) (1 Mark):

o Each router generates LSPs containing information about its neighbors and the
associated costs.

o LSPs are broadcast to all routers in the network to ensure all routers have the same
LSDB.

3. Formation of Topological Database (1 Mark):

 o Once LSPs are received, each router builds a network graph based on the entire
topology.

4. Shortest Path Calculation Using Dijkstra's Algorithm (2 Marks):

o Each router applies Dijkstra's Algorithm to compute the shortest path to every
other router.

o The resulting information is used to update the routing table with the next hop for
each destination.

3. Neat Sketch of Link State Routing (3 Marks)

Diagram Explanation:

1. The network contains multiple routers (e.g., A, B, C, D, E).

2. Each router exchanges link state information with neighbors.

3. Using Dijkstra's Algorithm, the shortest paths from a source router (e.g., A) to all other
routers are computed.

(A simplified graph and routing tree can be drawn showing the shortest paths and costs.)

4. Example of Link State Routing (3 Marks)

1. Network Setup:

o Assume a network with 4 routers: A, B, C, D.

o Link costs: A-B (1), A-C (4), B-C (2), B-D (6), C-D (3).

2. Dijkstra's Algorithm from Router A:

o Start with A. Compute shortest distances iteratively:

 From A: B (1), C (4), D (7).

o Update routing table with next hops:

 Destination B → Next Hop B.

 Destination C → Next Hop B.

 Destination D → Next Hop C.

5. Advantages of Link State Routing (1 Mark)

 Faster convergence.

 More accurate routing information.

 Reduces routing loops compared to distance vector algorithms.

6. Conclusion (1 Mark)

 Link State Routing provides a scalable, efficient, and reliable routing mechanism for large
networks.

 Its use of Dijkstra's Algorithm ensures optimal routes in real-time.

Mark Split-Up

1. Introduction (2 Marks)

2. Algorithm Steps (5 Marks)

3. Neat Sketch (3 Marks)

4. Example with Explanation (3 Marks)

5. Conclusion (1 Mark)

15 a) PPP

Answer Key: Explain PPP and Its Services with Neat Diagram (13 Marks)

1. Introduction to PPP (2 Marks)

 Definition:
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a data link layer protocol used for direct communication
between two network nodes over serial links, such as phone lines, ISDN, or fiber-optic
lines.

 Purpose:
It provides encapsulation, authentication, error detection, and support for multiple
protocols like IP, IPv6, and others.

2. Key Features of PPP (2 Marks)

 Multi-Protocol Support: Works with protocols like IP, IPv6, IPX, and others.

 Authentication: Provides authentication methods like PAP (Password Authentication

Protocol) and CHAP (Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol).

 Error Detection: Uses Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) to detect transmission errors.

 Link Management: Establishes, maintains, and terminates links using LCP (Link Control
Protocol).

 Extensibility: Uses NCP (Network Control Protocol) to support multiple protocols

simultaneously.
3. PPP Services (6 Marks)

1. Encapsulation (1 Mark):

o PPP encapsulates network-layer packets into frames for transmission over serial
links.

o The PPP frame consists of:

 Flag, Address, Control, Protocol, Payload, Checksum.

2. Authentication (2 Marks):

o PAP (Password Authentication Protocol):

 Sends credentials in plain text.

 Simpler but less secure.

o CHAP (Challenge Handshake Authentication Protocol):

 Uses a challenge-response mechanism to ensure secure authentication.

 Avoids transmitting passwords over the link.

3. Error Detection (1 Mark):

o PPP ensures data integrity using CRC, identifying and discarding corrupted frames.

4. Link Establishment and Termination (1 Mark):

o LCP (Link Control Protocol):

 Negotiates link parameters (e.g., maximum frame size, authentication

protocols).

 Ensures proper initialization before data transfer.

o Termination: Gracefully shuts down the link when communication is complete.

5. Multiprotocol Support (1 Mark):

o NCP (Network Control Protocol):

 Handles protocol-specific options for IP, IPv6, and others, enabling versatile
use.

4. Diagram of PPP (3 Marks)

Diagram Description:

The PPP communication process includes:

1. Establishment Phase: Using LCP to configure and test the link.

2. Authentication Phase: (Optional) Using PAP/CHAP for authentication.

3. Network Layer Protocol Phase: Using NCP to handle multiple protocols.

 4. Termination Phase: Using LCP to terminate the link gracefully.

(Draw a diagram with the PPP Frame format and communication flow for better clarity.)

5. Advantages of PPP (2 Marks)

 Simple and effective for point-to-point communication.

 Multi-protocol and multi-platform support.

 Secure communication with authentication protocols like CHAP.

6. Conclusion (1 Mark)

PPP is a versatile protocol that ensures reliable and secure data communication over serial links.
Its modular design supports multiple protocols and authentication mechanisms, making it an
integral part of network communication.

Mark Split-Up

1. Introduction (2 Marks)

2. Key Features (2 Marks)

3. PPP Services (6 Marks)

4. Diagram (3 Marks)

5. Conclusion (1 Mark)

b) use IEEE 802.3 and IEEE 802.11

Answer Key: Differences Between Wired (IEEE 802.3) and Wireless (IEEE 802.11) LANs (13 Marks)

1. Introduction (2 Marks)

 IEEE 802.3 (Wired LANs):

A standard for Ethernet-based Local Area Networks (LANs) that use physical cables (such as
twisted pair or fiber-optic) for data transmission.

 IEEE 802.11 (Wireless LANs):

A standard for Wireless LANs (WLANs), commonly known as Wi-Fi, that uses radio waves
for data transmission without physical cabling.

2. Key Differences Between Wired (802.3) and Wireless (802.11) LANs (9 Marks)

Feature IEEE 802.3 (Wired LAN) IEEE 802.11 (Wireless LAN)

Transmission Physical cables (e.g., twisted Radio waves (wireless transmission)

Feature IEEE 802.3 (Wired LAN) IEEE 802.11 (Wireless LAN)

Medium pair, fiber)

Speeds up to 1 Gbps to 400 Speeds up to 600 Mbps to several Gbps (varies by

Speed
Gbps Wi-Fi standard, e.g., 802.11ac/ax)

Higher initial setup cost due

Cost Lower setup cost (no cables required)
to cabling

Requires physical installation

Installation Easy to install; no cabling is needed
of cables

High mobility; devices can connect anywhere

Mobility Limited to cable length
within the range

High; less prone to Prone to interference from other wireless devices

Reliability
interference or physical obstructions

More secure due to physical Requires robust encryption (e.g., WPA3) to ensure
Security
control security

Typically uses star, bus, or

Topology Uses ad hoc or infrastructure mode
ring topology

Power Lower power consumption Higher power consumption, especially for Wi-Fi-
Consumption for devices enabled devices

Lower latency due to direct

Latency Higher latency compared to wired connections
cable connection

More complex due to

Maintenance Easier maintenance; no cables to manage
physical cables

3. Use Case Scenarios (2 Marks)

 Wired LANs (IEEE 802.3):

Ideal for high-speed, reliable communication in offices, data centers, and industrial
networks where mobility is not a priority.

 Wireless LANs (IEEE 802.11):

Preferred for mobile devices, laptops, and environments where ease of installation and
mobility are key (e.g., homes, cafes, public hotspots).

4. Diagram Representation (Optional but Suggested for 2 Marks)

A diagram can illustrate the following:

1. A wired LAN setup with devices connected to an Ethernet switch using cables.

2. A wireless LAN setup with devices connecting wirelessly to a Wi-Fi router or access point.
5. Conclusion (1 Mark)

Both IEEE 802.3 and IEEE 802.11 have unique advantages. Wired LANs provide better speed and
reliability, while wireless LANs offer flexibility and mobility. The choice depends on specific
network requirements.

Mark Split-Up

1. Introduction (2 Marks)

2. Key Differences Table (9 Marks)

3. Use Case Scenarios (2 Marks)

4. Conclusion (1 Mark)

PART-C

16 a) Question Breakdown:

You are tasked with sending a 3500-byte datagram from one router (R1) to another router (R2)
over two links, with varying Maximum Transmission Unit (MTU) sizes. You need to analyze how the
datagram is fragmented as it passes through these two links.

Key Information:

 Original Datagram Size: 3500 bytes

 MTU of first link (from R1 to R2): 1000 bytes

 MTU of second link (from R2 onwards): 600 bytes

 Identification Number: 465

 Fragmentation Process: IPv4 fragmentation

Steps to Solve:

1. Determine Initial Fragmentation on the First Link (MTU = 1000 bytes):

o IP Header Size: Typically, the IPv4 header size is 20 bytes.

o Data Payload: The maximum data size that can fit into a single datagram when the
MTU is 1000 bytes is: 1000−20=980 bytes of data1000 - 20 = 980 \text{ bytes of
data}1000−20=980 bytes of data

o Total Datagram Size: The original datagram is 3500 bytes, so it needs to be

fragmented.

First Fragment:

o Data size: 980 bytes (maximum data that can fit)

 o Header: 20 bytes (IPv4 header)

o Total size: 1000 bytes (980 + 20)

Remaining Data: After the first fragment, we still have:

3500−1000=2500 bytes remaining3500 - 1000 = 2500 \text{ bytes

remaining}3500−1000=2500 bytes remaining

The remaining 2500 bytes need to be fragmented again.

Second Fragment:

o Data size: 980 bytes

o Header: 20 bytes

o Total size: 1000 bytes (980 + 20)

Remaining Data: After the second fragment, we still have:

2500−1000=1500 bytes remaining2500 - 1000 = 1500 \text{ bytes

remaining}2500−1000=1500 bytes remaining

Third Fragment:

o Data size: 980 bytes

o Header: 20 bytes

o Total size: 1000 bytes (980 + 20)

Remaining Data: After the third fragment, we still have:

1500−1000=500 bytes remaining1500 - 1000 = 500 \text{ bytes

remaining}1500−1000=500 bytes remaining

Fourth Fragment:

o Data size: 500 bytes (remaining data)

o Header: 20 bytes

o Total size: 520 bytes (500 + 20)

So, after the first link (MTU = 1000 bytes), we have 4 fragments.

2. Determine Further Fragmentation on the Second Link (MTU = 600 bytes):

Now, the 4 fragments that were created in the first step need to traverse a link with an MTU of 600
bytes. Let's analyze each fragment:

For the First Three Fragments (1000 bytes each):

o First Fragment (1000 bytes):

 Maximum data size that can fit into the 600-byte MTU:
600−20=580 bytes of data600 - 20 = 580 \text{ bytes of
data}600−20=580 bytes of data
  This fragment will be divided into two smaller fragments:

 First subfragment: 580 bytes of data + 20 bytes header = 600 bytes.

 Second subfragment: 400 bytes of data + 20 bytes header = 420

bytes.

o Second Fragment (1000 bytes):

 Same as above, it will be divided into two smaller fragments:

 First subfragment: 580 bytes of data + 20 bytes header = 600 bytes.

 Second subfragment: 400 bytes of data + 20 bytes header = 420

bytes.

o Third Fragment (1000 bytes):

 Same as above, it will be divided into two smaller fragments:

 First subfragment: 580 bytes of data + 20 bytes header = 600 bytes.

 Second subfragment: 400 bytes of data + 20 bytes header = 420

bytes.

For the Fourth Fragment (520 bytes):

o This fragment is small enough to fit directly into the 600-byte MTU without further
fragmentation.

 No fragmentation required; it will be transmitted as a single fragment.

Final Fragmentation Summary:

After traversing both links, the original 3500-byte datagram is divided into 10 fragments:

 First Link (MTU = 1000 bytes): 4 fragments (1000, 1000, 1000, 520 bytes)

 Second Link (MTU = 600 bytes):

o The first 3 fragments (1000 bytes) are further fragmented into:

 6 fragments of 600 bytes (580 bytes of data + 20 bytes header).

 3 fragments of 420 bytes (400 bytes of data + 20 bytes header).

o The fourth fragment (520 bytes) remains intact.

So, there are 10 fragments delivered at the destination.

Mark Breakdown:

1. Explanation of Initial Fragmentation (First Link MTU = 1000 bytes): 5 marks

o Breakdown of the fragmentation process.

o Correct calculation of how many fragments are produced.

 o Identifying the total datagram size after each fragmentation.

2. Explanation of Further Fragmentation (Second Link MTU = 600 bytes): 5 marks

o Explanation of how each fragment is re-fragmented.

o Correct calculation of how many new sub-fragments are created.

3. Final Fragment Count and Conclusion: 2 marks

o Correct total number of fragments.

o Explanation of why the fourth fragment doesn't need further fragmentation.

4. Technical Correctness and Clarity: 3 marks

o Ensuring that the entire fragmentation process is described clearly and accurately.

o Proper use of terminology and logical step-by-step approach.

Total Marks: 15

b) I ) how TCP operation 8 marks

You are tasked with explaining the operation of the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) with a
neat sketch. The question is worth 8 marks, so the answer should cover the key operations of TCP
in a structured and clear manner.

Key Points to Cover:

1. Introduction to TCP (1 mark)

o TCP is a reliable, connection-oriented protocol in the transport layer of the OSI

model.

o It ensures that data is delivered in order, error-free, and without loss, by managing
the data flow between sender and receiver.

2. Key Features of TCP (2 marks)

o Connection-oriented communication: Establishes a connection before data

transfer.

o Reliable delivery: Ensures all data is received in order and retransmits lost data.

o Flow control: Regulates the amount of data sent to prevent congestion.

o Error control: Detects errors using checksums and requests retransmissions.

3. TCP Connection Establishment (Three-Way Handshake) (2 marks)

o Step 1: SYN: The client sends a SYN (synchronize) packet to the server to initiate
the connection.

o Step 2: SYN-ACK: The server responds with a SYN-ACK (synchronize-acknowledge)

packet.

o Step 3: ACK: The client sends an ACK (acknowledgment) packet to confirm the
connection.
 4. Data Transfer (Sliding Window and Acknowledgment) (2 marks)

o Sliding Window Protocol: TCP uses the sliding window mechanism to control the
flow of data. The window size determines the amount of data the sender can
transmit before needing an acknowledgment.

o Acknowledgments: Each received data packet is acknowledged by the receiver, and

if a packet is lost, it is retransmitted.

5. Connection Termination (Four-Way Handshake) (1 mark)

o FIN: The termination process starts with a FIN (finish) packet from the sender to
terminate the connection.

o ACK: The receiver responds with an ACK to acknowledge the termination request.

o The process involves four steps (initiator sends FIN, receiver sends FIN after
acknowledging, and the connection is fully closed).

Neat Sketch:

The sketch should illustrate the following:

 The flow of data during the three-way handshake for connection establishment.

 The data transfer phase with sliding window and acknowledgment.

 The four-way handshake for connection termination.

Mark Breakdown:

1. Introduction to TCP: 1 mark

o Define TCP and mention its primary purpose.

2. Key Features of TCP: 2 marks

o Discuss the core features like reliability, flow control, and error control.

3. TCP Connection Establishment (Three-Way Handshake): 2 marks

o Provide a clear explanation of the three-way handshake with the necessary steps.

4. Data Transfer (Sliding Window and Acknowledgment): 2 marks

o Describe how TCP manages data transfer and handles flow control and
acknowledgments.

5. Connection Termination (Four-Way Handshake): 1 mark

o Explain the connection termination process and the four-way handshake.

Answer:

1. Introduction to TCP (1 mark)

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is a connection-oriented, reliable communication protocol in
the transport layer of the OSI model. It ensures that data is transferred between two devices in a
secure and orderly manner, with error detection, retransmission, and flow control mechanisms.

2. Key Features of TCP (2 marks)

 Connection-Oriented: TCP establishes a connection before data is transmitted (via the

three-way handshake).

 Reliable: Data delivery is guaranteed. TCP provides mechanisms for acknowledgment and
retransmission of lost data.

 Flow Control: TCP uses a sliding window to control the amount of data the sender can
transmit before receiving an acknowledgment.

 Error Control: Each packet sent contains a checksum to verify data integrity. If errors are
detected, the packet is retransmitted.

3. TCP Connection Establishment (Three-Way Handshake) (2 marks)

The Three-Way Handshake is used to establish a connection between the sender and the receiver.

 Step 1: SYN (Sender to Receiver):

o The client (sender) sends a SYN (synchronize) message to the server indicating the
start of the connection and proposing a sequence number.

 Step 2: SYN-ACK (Receiver to Sender):

o The server acknowledges the SYN message by sending a SYN-ACK (synchronize-

acknowledge) message. The server also includes its own sequence number.

 Step 3: ACK (Sender to Receiver):

o The client sends an ACK (acknowledgment) message back to the server, completing
the handshake. The connection is now established, and data transfer can begin.

4. Data Transfer (Sliding Window and Acknowledgment) (2 marks)

 Sliding Window Protocol: TCP uses a sliding window mechanism for flow control. The
sender can transmit data up to the window size, and the receiver acknowledges received
data. The window slides forward after each acknowledgment.

 Acknowledgments: Each packet sent is acknowledged by the receiver. The

acknowledgment number indicates the next expected byte. If a packet is lost or corrupted,
the receiver will not acknowledge it, prompting the sender to retransmit the lost packet.

5. Connection Termination (Four-Way Handshake) (1 mark)

When the communication is complete, the connection is terminated using a four-way handshake:

 Step 1: FIN (Sender to Receiver): The sender sends a FIN (finish) packet to the receiver,
indicating the sender wants to terminate the connection.

 Step 2: ACK (Receiver to Sender): The receiver acknowledges the FIN packet by sending an
ACK back to the sender.
  Step 3: FIN (Receiver to Sender): The receiver sends a FIN packet to the sender to indicate
it is also ready to close the connection.

 Step 4: ACK (Sender to Receiver): The sender sends an ACK to acknowledge the receiver's
FIN packet, and the connection is closed.

Neat Sketch:

 Three-Way Handshake: Show three packets: SYN → SYN-ACK → ACK

 Data Transfer: Show a series of data packets being sent with corresponding ACKs.

 Four-Way Handshake: Show the termination sequence: FIN → ACK → FIN → ACK

Total Marks: 8

Question Breakdown:

You are asked to explain the Sliding Window Protocol in detail for 7 marks. The explanation should
cover the core concepts and working of the sliding window protocol, its types, and how it is
implemented in practice.

Key Points to Cover:

1. Introduction to Sliding Window Protocol (1 mark)

o Brief explanation of what the sliding window protocol is and why it is used.

2. Core Concepts of Sliding Window Protocol (2 marks)

o Explanation of window size, sender and receiver roles, and the flow control
mechanism.

o Emphasize the importance of flow control and error handling.

3. Operation of Sliding Window (2 marks)

o How the sender and receiver interact using the sliding window.

o A detailed step-by-step process of how data is transmitted, acknowledged, and

how the window slides.

4. Types of Sliding Window Protocols (1 mark)

o Go-Back-N (GBN) and Selective Repeat (SR) as examples of sliding window

protocols.

o Brief description of each type and its differences.

5. Advantages of Sliding Window Protocol (1 mark)

o Discuss why sliding window is efficient in terms of handling flow control, error
recovery, and utilizing bandwidth.

Mark Breakdown:

1. Introduction to Sliding Window Protocol: 1 mark

 o Clear and concise definition of the sliding window protocol.

2. Core Concepts of Sliding Window Protocol: 2 marks

o Explanation of window size, sender and receiver's role, flow control, and the use of
sequence numbers.

3. Operation of Sliding Window: 2 marks

o Detailed description of how the sliding window operates in data transmission.

4. Types of Sliding Window Protocols: 1 mark

o Description of Go-Back-N and Selective Repeat protocols.

5. Advantages of Sliding Window Protocol: 1 mark

o Benefits of sliding window, such as efficient bandwidth usage and reliable

communication.

Answer:

1. Introduction to Sliding Window Protocol (1 mark)

The Sliding Window Protocol is a flow control technique used in data communication to manage
the transmission of data between sender and receiver. It is primarily used to prevent congestion,
optimize bandwidth, and ensure reliable data transfer. It allows the sender to send multiple
packets before needing an acknowledgment, thus improving throughput and minimizing idle time.

2. Core Concepts of Sliding Window Protocol (2 marks)

The sliding window protocol works by controlling the flow of data between the sender and
receiver. It uses a window (a set of packets) to manage how much data can be in transit at any
given time.

 Window Size: The window size determines how many frames (or packets) can be sent
without waiting for an acknowledgment. It is a crucial parameter that impacts the flow
control. If the window size is small, fewer packets are in transit at once, leading to lower
throughput. Conversely, a larger window size can increase throughput, but it may also
cause congestion if the receiver cannot handle the incoming data.

 Sender’s Role: The sender is responsible for sending data packets and maintaining a record
of which packets have been sent but not yet acknowledged. The sender is allowed to
transmit up to the number of packets specified by the window size before waiting for an
acknowledgment from the receiver.

 Receiver’s Role: The receiver is responsible for acknowledging received packets. The
receiver does not immediately process all packets, only those within the range of the
current window size. The receiver can also buffer out-of-order packets and deliver them in
the correct order once the missing ones arrive.

 Flow Control: The sliding window protocol ensures that the sender does not overwhelm
the receiver by sending too many packets at once. The window "slides" forward when the
sender receives an acknowledgment, allowing more data to be sent.
  Sequence Numbers: To keep track of the data, each packet in the sliding window has a
sequence number. These numbers are used to ensure that the packets are processed in the
correct order and to detect lost or duplicate packets.

3. Operation of Sliding Window (2 marks)

The sliding window protocol works by allowing the sender to transmit multiple packets before
needing an acknowledgment. As the sender sends packets, the window "slides" forward, and new
packets can be transmitted, while the receiver acknowledges those packets as they are received.

Step-by-Step Process:

1. Initialization:

o The sender has a window that can hold N packets. It begins by sending the first N
packets.

o The receiver has a window that determines how many packets it can accept at
once.

2. Sending Data:

o The sender transmits the first N packets (within the window size).

o The sender keeps track of which packets have been sent and is waiting for
acknowledgments for these packets.

3. Acknowledgment:

o The receiver receives packets and sends acknowledgments (ACKs) back to the
sender, indicating that it has received the packets.

o The acknowledgment typically refers to the next expected sequence number,

indicating that all packets up to that point have been successfully received.

4. Sliding the Window:

o When the sender receives an acknowledgment, it slides the window forward by

one or more positions (depending on how many packets are acknowledged). This
allows the sender to transmit the next packet(s) in the sequence.

5. Handling Lost or Corrupted Packets:

o If a packet is lost or corrupted, the receiver does not acknowledge it, causing the
sender to retransmit the missing packet.

o In case of Go-Back-N, the sender retransmits all packets starting from the lost
packet. In Selective Repeat, only the lost packet is retransmitted.

Example:

Assume the sender has a window size of 4, and the packets are numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6. The
sender sends packets 1, 2, 3, and 4. After receiving acknowledgment for packet 1, the window
slides and the sender can send packet 5. If the receiver acknowledges packet 2 next, the sender
slides the window further and sends packet 6.

4. Types of Sliding Window Protocols (1 mark)

There are two main types of sliding window protocols:

1. Go-Back-N (GBN):

o In Go-Back-N, if a packet is lost, all subsequent packets are retransmitted. This is

because the sender does not know if the lost packet was part of the sliding
window, and the receiver does not buffer out-of-order packets.

o In GBN, the receiver only sends an acknowledgment for the last correctly received
packet.

2. Selective Repeat (SR):

o In Selective Repeat, only the lost or erroneous packet is retransmitted. The receiver
can buffer out-of-order packets and deliver them in the correct order once the
missing packets are received.

o The sender only retransmits the specific packet that was lost, rather than
retransmitting all subsequent packets.

5. Advantages of Sliding Window Protocol (1 mark)

The sliding window protocol offers several advantages:

 Efficient Bandwidth Utilization: By allowing multiple packets to be sent without waiting for
each acknowledgment, the sliding window protocol optimizes the use of the available
bandwidth.

 Flow Control: It ensures that the sender does not overwhelm the receiver, especially when
the receiver has limited buffer space.

 Reliable Communication: It provides error recovery and ensures that lost or corrupted
packets are retransmitted.

 Flexibility: It supports both Go-Back-N and Selective Repeat protocols, providing

adaptability based on the network conditions and requirements.

Total Marks: 7

Q4 (a): i. Point out the function of DVMRP. Narrate in detail. (7 Marks)

1. Introduction to DVMRP (2 Marks):

o Define DVMRP (Distance Vector Multicast Routing Protocol).

o Mention its purpose in multicast routing.

2. Functions of DVMRP (5 Marks):

 o Flooding and Pruning: Initial flooding of data packets and subsequent pruning of
unnecessary paths. (2 Marks)

o Reverse Path Forwarding (RPF): Ensures loops are avoided during multicast
forwarding. (2 Marks)

o Creation of Multicast Trees: Maintains shortest path trees for routing multicast
packets. (1 Mark)

Q4 (b): ii. Describe in detail the operation of OSPF protocol by considering a suitable network. (6
Marks)

1. Introduction to OSPF (1 Mark):

o Define OSPF (Open Shortest Path First).

o Mention that it is a link-state routing protocol.

2. OSPF Operations (4 Marks):

o LSA (Link-State Advertisement): Routers share link-state information.

o Database Synchronization: Build link-state database for path calculation.

o Dijkstra’s Algorithm: Computes shortest paths.

o Areas and Hierarchy: OSPF divides the network into areas to optimize routing.

3. Example Network Scenario (1 Mark):

o Briefly explain how OSPF routes packets in a sample network.

Q15 (b): Use IEEE 802.3 and IEEE 802.11 to generalize the differences between wired and wireless
LANs. (13 Marks)

1. Introduction to IEEE 802.3 and 802.11 Standards (2 Marks)

o 802.3: Wired Ethernet standard.

o 802.11: Wireless LAN standard.

2. Comparison Between Wired and Wireless LANs (10 Marks)

o Medium (2 Marks):

 Wired uses cables (coaxial, twisted pair).

 Wireless uses radio waves.

o Speed (2 Marks):

 Wired LANs often have higher speeds (up to 10Gbps).

 Wireless LANs have variable speeds based on the standard.

o Range (2 Marks):
  Wired has limited range due to cable length restrictions.

 Wireless provides mobility over a larger range.

o Reliability (2 Marks):

 Wired LANs are less prone to interference.

 Wireless LANs can be affected by physical obstacles and other signals.

o Security (2 Marks):

 Wired LANs are inherently more secure.

 Wireless LANs require encryption mechanisms like WPA/WPA2.

3. Conclusion (1 Mark):

o Summarize the importance of both standards for different scenarios.