GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR ANALYSIS & DESIGN OF A BRIDGE STRUCTURE

PROCEDURE FOR PREPARATION OF GENERAL ARRANGEMENT DRAWING

OF A BRIDGE :

I. First of all the required formation level is found out. On knowing this the
permissible structural depth is established. This is done after taking into account the
following two things : ( i ) Minimum vertical clearance required taking into account the
difference between the affluxed high flood level and the soffit of the
deck. ( ii ) Thickness of wearing coat required below the formation level.
II. Considering the depth of foundations, the height of deck above the bed level and
low water level, average depth of water during construction season, the type of bridge,
span lengths, type of foundations, cross section of the deck, method of construction and
loading sequence.
III. Trial cross sections of the deck, sizes of various elements of the substructure
and superstructure are decided upon and drawn to arrive at the preliminary general
arrangement of the bridge. Various trials lead to a structural form with optimum
placements of its load masses.Relative proportions and sizes of certain members as
well as their shapes are decided upon and drawn to a certain scale on this drawing. The
type of bearing to be used along with their locations depending the support system is
also established. The main basis of the general arrangement drawing of a bridge
structure is a quick preliminary analysis and design of the member sections.This is
essential for forming the basis of the detailed to be carried later on depending upon the
requirements of the project.

GENERAL PROCEDURE FOR DESIGN OF SUPERSTRUCTURE OF A BRIDGE :

Analyse and design the transverse-deck-slab and its cantilever portions, unless the
superstructure is purely longitudinally reinforced solid slab with no cantilevering
portions. This is necessitated so as to decide the top flange thickness of the deck
section which is essential to work out the deck section properties for the subsequent
longitudinal design.
Compute the dead load and live load bending moments at each critical section
usually taken as 1/2, 1/4 and 1/8th span sections in simply supported spans upto
about 30 m ; one tenth span sections for longer spans particularly in continuous and
balanced cantilever decks, in the longitudinals of the deck.
In order to determine the maximum and minimum live load effects that a particular
longitudinal can receive, carry out the transverse load distribution for live load placed
in various lanes for the following three cases i.e. maximum, minimum and most
eccentric placements). This may be done by the simple wheel-spacing method given
in the 1983. AASHTO specifications or by Dr.Courbon's method (essentially if span to
width ratio is between 2 and 4) or by Little and Morice's method, which basically is the
 Guyon-Massonet method. A somewhat similar method suggested by Hendry and
Jaeger may also be used. Alternatively, use may be made to the Plane-Grid method
which involves using one of the many standard computer programs (.e.g. STAAD
program). The Plan Grid method is basically a finite element method. Though time
consuming in writing the input data, it is nevertheless very useful for the purpose of
analysis. For wide and multi-cell boxes and transverse live load distribution may be
studied by the finite element method but it is time consuming. Alternatively, the total
live load effect on them may be suitably increased (generally by 10-15%, depending
on width and number of cells) and taken as acting on the modified box section
properties mentioned above.
Design against bending the above mentioned critical sections, in reinforced or in
prestressed concrete as the case may be. In case of reinforced concrete - first a quick
approximate design and detailing may be made and then the stresses and crack-
widths checked accurately and then the ultimate moment capacities ensured,
modifying the detailing appropriately.
Work out dead load and live load shear forces at each critical section (e.g. at face of
end-block (which in reinforced concrete deck may be taken at a distance equal to
effective depth from centre of bearing) at 1/8th and 1/4th span sections and sections
near intermediate supports) in the longitudinals of the deck.
Design the sections and reinforcements for effects of torsion and shear, if required.

V.

Design of RCC T- Girder type superstructure.

The T-beam bridge is by far the most commonly adopted type in the span range
of 10 to 25 m. The structure is so named because the main longitudinal girders are
designed as T-beams integral with part of the deck slab, which is cast monolithically
with the girders. Simply supported T-beam span of over 30 m are rare as the dead load
then becomes too heavy.

 The superstructure may be arranged to conform to one of the following three

types :

a. Girder and slab type, in which the deck slab is supported on the cast
monolithically with the longitudinal girders. No cross beams are provided. In this case,
the deck slabs designed as a one way slab spanning between the longitudinal girders.
The system does not possess much torsion rigidity and the longitudinal girders can
spread laterally at the bottom level.
b. Girder, slab and diaphragm type, wherein the slab is supported on the cast
monolithically with the longitudinal girders. Diaphragms connecting the longitudinal
girders are provided at the support locations and at one or more intermediate locations
within the span. But the diaphragms do not extend upto the deck slab and hence the
 deck slab behaves as an one-way slab spanning between the longitudinal girders. This
type of superstructure possesses a greater torisonal rigidity than the girder and slab
type.
c. Girder, slab and cross beam type, in which the system has at least three cross
beams extending upto and cast monolithically with the deck slab. The panels of the floor
slab are supported along the four edges by the longitudinal and cross beams. Hence
the floor slab is designed as a two way slab. This leads o more efficient use of the
reinforcing steel and to a reduced slab thickness and consequently to reduced dead
load on the longitudinal girders. The provisions of cross beams stiffens the structure to a
considerable extent, resulting in better distribution of concentrated loads among the
longitudinal girders. With two way slab and cross beams, the spacing of longitudinal
girders can be increased, resulting in less number of girders and reduced cost of
formwork.

The arrangement of type c is generally recommended for adoption, wherever possible

because of lesser magnitude of deflection, better transverse load distribution and higher
value of ultimate load capacity as compared to the other two given arrangements.

MAIN COMPONENTS OF A T- BEAM SUPERSTRUCTURE

The T-beam superstructure consists of the following components :

i. Deck slab
ii. Cantilever slab portion
iii. Footpaths, if provided, kerbs and handrails or crash barriers.
iv. Longitudinal girders, considered in design to be of T-section
v. Cross beams or diaphragms, intermediate and end ones.
vi. Wearing coat

DESIGN OF DECK SLAB

If the deck slab is spanning in one direction, the bending moments for dead load may be
computed as in a continuous slab, continuous over the longitudinal girders. For
concentrated loads, the bending moment per unit width of slab may be computed using
the effective width formula given in clause 305. 13.2 of IRC 21 for each concentrated
load. The slab supported on four sides may be designed as a two way slab using
Pigaeut's theory.Curves useful for design by this method are available. The curves are
intended for slabs simply supported at the four sides. In order to allow for continuity, the
values of maximum positive moments are multiplied by a factor of 0.8. In design
computations, the effective span is taken as the clear span.

CANTILEVER PORTION :
The cantilever portion usually carries the kerb, handrails, footpath or crash barriers, if
provided and a part of the carriageway. The critical section for bending moment is the
vertical section at the junction of the cantilever portion and the end longitudinal
girder.For the computation of bending moment due to live load, the effective width for
cantilever is assessed from the formula given in Clause 305.13.2 of the IRC 21.

The reinforcement should be so detailed that the cranked bars from the deck slab could
be used as half of the main reinforcement for the cantilever. The top bars of deck slab
may be extended to the cantilever to provide the other half. This step in design would
facilitate easier placing of reinforcement. The distributors for the cantilever portion are
computed as corresponding to a moment of 0.2 times dead load moment plus 0.3 times
the live load moment.

KERBS, HAND RAILS, CRASH BARRIERS AND WEARING COAT :

Standard details are used for kerbs and hand rails or crash barriers. The width of the
kerb may vary from 475 mm to 600 mm.

NUMBER AND SPACING OF MAIN GIRDERS :

Simply supported RC T beam is normally adopted for spans upto 25 m. Span depth
ratio is generally kept as 10 for simple spans and 12 and 15 for continuous spans.
Higher ratios are possible but riding qualities are affected by creep characteristics of
concrete. The girders spacing h may vary justified by comparing the cost of
corresponding slab thickness. The usual range of spacing h is between 2 to 3 m for
these bridges. The stem width is kept about 300 mm This stem or web width is
increased to between 500 to 625 mm at the bottom, forming a bulb to accommodate a
large number of reinforcement bars there. The stem width `b' is increased in the the end
region to take care of large shears occurring there. The number of main girders are
usually three for two lane carriageway (7.5m wide) bridges and four for three lane
carriageway (11.0m wide) bridges. The lateral spacing of the longitudinal girders will
affect the cost of the bridge. Hence in any particular design, the comparative estimates
of several alternative arrangements of girders should be studied before adopting the
final design. With closer spacing the number of girders will be increased, but the
thickness of deck slab will be decreased. Usually this may result in smaller cost of
materials. But the cost of formwork will increase due to large number of girder forms, as
also the cost of vertical support and bearings. Relative economy of two arrangement
with different girder spacing depends upon the relation between the unit cost of
materials and the unit cost of formwork. The aim of the design should be to adopt a
system which will call for the minimum total cost. For the conditions in India, a three-
girder system is usually more economical than a four girder system for a bridge of two
lane carriageway.
 CROSS BEAMS

Cross beams are provided mainly to stiffen the girders and to reduce torsion in the
exterior girders. These are essential over the supports to prevent lateral spread of the
girders at the bearings. Another function of the cross beams is to equalize three
deflections of the girders carrying heavy loading with those of the girders with less
loading. This is particularly important when the design loading consists of concentrated
wheel loads, such as Class 70 R or Class AA wheeled vehicles, to be placed in the
most unfavourable position. When the spacing of cross beams is less than about 1.8
times that of longitudinal girders, the deck slab can be designed as a two way slab.

Earlier T-beam bridges had been built without any cross beams or diaphragms,
necessitating heavy ribs for the longitudinal beams. In some cases, only two cross
beams at the end have been used. The provision of cross beams facilitates adoption of
thinner ribs with bulb shape at bottom for the main beams. The current Indian practice is
to use one cross beam at each support and to provide one to three intermediate cross
beams. Diaphragms are used instead of cross beams in some cases. Provision of one
cross beam at each end and one at the centre is definitely advantageous in reducing
deflection and increasing ultimate load capacity, though the additional benefit in
providing more than three cross beams is not significant.

WEARING COAT :

Wearing coat can be of asphaltic concrete of average thickness 80 mm or of cement

concrete of 1:1.5:3 mix by volume for an average thickness of 75 mm. In case of asphalt
as wearing coat, thickness may be 56mm or 65mm including 25mm of mastic asphalt.
Footpaths of about 1.5 m width are to be provided on one or both sides for bridges
located in municipal areas and these may be omitted for bridges on rural stretches of
roads or major highways like National highways and Expressways. It is, however,
desirable to provide footpaths even for a bridge on a rural section, if the overall length of
the bridge is large.

LONGITUDINAL GIRDERS :

The longitudinal girders are provided with straight T-ribs when cross beams are not
used. When multiple cross beams are used, the rib is made thinner and the bottom of T-
rib is widened to an extent sufficient o accommodate the tensile reinforcing bars.
However, straight ribs are convenient for cranking of main bars and would facilitate
easier formwork. Hence straight ribs may only be preferred for spans less than 18 m.

VI.