Chapter I

Introduction

Structural analysis is a fundamental aspect of civil and structural engineering, focusing on determining the
effects of loads, forces, and deformations on structures. It ensures the design's safety, functionality, and
cost-efficiency by predicting a structure's behavior under various conditions. This process involves
evaluating stresses, strains, and displacements, adhering to material and structural mechanics principles.

Key elements in structural analysis include:

1. Loads: These include dead loads (permanent/static), live loads (variable), wind loads, seismic
loads, etc.
2. Material Properties: Knowledge of material characteristics such as elasticity, plasticity, and
ductility.
3. Support Conditions: Fixed, pinned, roller, or other boundary conditions.
4. Structural Behavior: Elastic and inelastic responses, buckling, fatigue, and fracture.

1.1 Difference between static and dynamics analysis

The primary difference between static and dynamic loading lies in how the load is applied and the resulting
structural response. Here's a detailed comparison:

Static Loading

• Definition: Static loads are constant or change very slowly over time, such that inertial effects
(caused by acceleration) can be neglected. Examples: Dead Loads: Self-weight of a structure,
furniture, or stationary equipment; Live Loads: Slowly varying loads, such as occupancy or stored
goods; Snow Loads: Gradual accumulation of snow.
• Key Characteristics:

o Time-independent or quasi-static in nature.

o The structure reaches equilibrium without considering time-dependent effects.
o No significant acceleration occurs.
o Inertial and damping effects are negligible.
o Equilibrium is governed by:

The sum of Forces (or Moments) = 0

• Analysis:
o Assumes the structure is in a state of quasi-static equilibrium.
o Only considers stiffness and applied forces to calculate displacements and stresses.
Examples: Designing beams for dead and live loads in a building; Analysing soil pressure
against a retaining wall.
Dynamic Loading

• Definition: Dynamic loads vary with time and can induce acceleration in the structure, leading to
inertial forces. Examples: Earthquakes, wind gusts, machinery vibrations, moving vehicles, and
impacts.
• Key Characteristics:

o Time-dependent, with potentially rapid changes in magnitude or direction.

o The structural response is influenced by mass, stiffness, damping, and the characteristics
of the load.
o Inertial forces, proportional to mass and acceleration (F=ma), play a significant role.
o Damping effects reduce vibrations over time.
o Requires solving equations of motion:

• Analysis:
o Consider natural frequencies, mode shapes, and damping.
o May involve time-domain (transient analysis) or frequency-domain (harmonic analysis)
methods.
o Examples of dynamic analysis:
- Seismic design of a high-rise building using response spectrum analysis.
- Vibration analysis of a bridge subjected to a moving train.
- Blast resistance design of critical infrastructure.
Key insights

• Static analysis: Simple and faster but unsuitable for time-varying loads.
• Dynamic Analysis: More complex, accounting for inertia and damping, essential for transient or
oscillatory loads.
Understanding the distinction helps engineers determine the appropriate approach to ensure structural
safety and performance under various loading scenarios.

Aspect Static Loading Dynamic Loading

Time dependence Time-independent or very slow Time-varying, often rapid changes.
Inertia Effects Neglected. Significant due to accelerations.
Equations Used Static equilibrium equations Equations of motion with mass,
damping, etc.
Response Proportional to the applied load Depends on load frequency, damping,
etc.
Design considerations Stiffness and strength. Stiffness, strength, damping,
resonance.
1.2 Structural dynamics with key components

Structural dynamics is a branch of structural analysis examining how structures behave when subjected to
dynamic loads involving high acceleration. The main goal of structural dynamics is to analyze the stresses
and deflections that occur in various structures under arbitrary dynamic loading. This field focuses on how
structures respond to time-varying loads, such as those generated by earthquakes, wind, waves, explosions,
or moving vehicles.

The analysis considers several factors, including inertia, damping, and stiffness. The objective of structural
dynamics can be viewed as an extension of traditional structural analysis methods, which typically address
only static loading. In this context, static loading can be seen as a specific case of dynamic loading.

For linear structures, it is helpful to differentiate between static and dynamic components of the applied
loads. We can then combine the two response components to determine their total effect by evaluating the
response to each loading type separately. The static and dynamic analysis methods are fundamentally
different when approached this way.

The term "dynamic" can be defined simply as time-varying. Therefore, a dynamic load is any load whose
magnitude, direction, and/or position changes over time. Similarly, the structural response to a dynamic
load—meaning the resulting stresses and deflections—is also time-varying.

Key components of structural dynamics include:

1. Dynamic Loads: Forces or displacements that vary with time, including harmonic, impulsive, and
random loads.
2. Natural Frequencies: The inherent frequencies at which a structure vibrates when disturbed.
3. Mode Shapes: The patterns of deformation associated with each natural frequency.
4. Damping: The energy dissipation mechanism within a structure that reduces vibration amplitude
over time.
5. Response Analysis: Determining the structure's displacement, velocity, and acceleration under
dynamic loads.

The principles of structural dynamics are crucial for designing safe and resilient structures that can
withstand dynamic events without catastrophic failure.

1. Dynamic Loads

These are time-varying forces or motions applied to a structure. They can be classified into:

• Harmonic Loads: Sinusoidal forces or vibrations, such as those from rotating machinery.
• Impulsive Loads: Short-duration forces like blasts or impacts.
• Periodic Loads: Repeated forces occurring regularly, such as from traffic or wind gusts.
• Random Loads: Unpredictable forces with varying magnitudes and frequencies, such as
earthquakes or turbulence.

Significance: The dynamic response of a structure depends heavily on the type and characteristics of the
applied load.
2. Natural Frequencies

Each structure has a set of natural frequencies, which are the frequencies at which it vibrates freely when
disturbed.

• Definition: These are determined by the mass and stiffness distribution of the structure.
• Calculation:

Significance:

• If the frequency of the dynamic load matches the natural frequency, resonance can occur, causing
significant amplitude vibrations and potential structural damage.

3. Mode Shapes

• Definition: The unique deformation patterns of a structure at each of its natural frequencies.
• Mode shapes depend on the structure's geometry, boundary conditions, and material properties.
• Visualization: For example, the mode shapes of a cantilever beam include bending patterns that
differ at each natural frequency.

Significance:
Understanding mode shapes helps identify critical areas of stress or deflection and informs design strategies
to mitigate resonance effects.

4. Damping

• Definition: Damping refers to the dissipation of vibrational energy within the structure or through
its interaction with the environment.
• Sources:
o Material Damping: Energy dissipation due to internal friction in the material.
o Structural Damping: Losses at connections or joints.
o External Damping: Interaction with surrounding media (e.g., air or water).
• Types:
o Viscous Damping: Proportional to velocity.
o Coulomb Damping: Constant frictional resistance.

Significance:
Damping reduces the amplitude of oscillations and prevents excessive vibrations, enhancing structural
stability and comfort.
5. Response Analysis

This involves determining how a structure reacts to dynamic loads regarding displacement, velocity, and
acceleration.

• Methods:
o Time-Domain Analysis: Tracks response over time using numerical integration methods
(e.g., Newmark-beta).
o Frequency-Domain Analysis: Examines how different frequencies contribute to the
response using Fourier transforms.
o Modal Analysis: Break down the response into contributions from individual modes.
• Outputs:
o Displacement: Changes in position due to the load.
o Velocity: Rate of change of displacement.
o Acceleration: Rate of velocity change, critical for evaluating inertial forces.

Significance:
Accurate response analysis ensures that a structure can withstand dynamic effects without exceeding
allowable stress, deformation, or comfort limits.

Understanding these components allows engineers to design and analyze structures that can safely and
efficiently resist dynamic effects, ensuring durability and functionality under varied operating conditions.

Applications

• Static Analysis: Used for structures with constant or slowly varying loads, like buildings under
dead/live loads.
• Dynamic Analysis: Crucial for structures exposed to transient or cyclic loads, such as bridges,
towers, or earthquake-prone constructions.
1.3 Deterministic and non-deterministic analysis
Two basically different approaches are available for evaluating structural response to dynamic loads:
deterministic and non-deterministic. The choice of method to be used in any given case depends upon how
the loading is defined. If the time variation of loading is fully known, even though it may be highly
oscillatory or irregular in character, it will be referred to herein as prescribed dynamic loading; and the
analysis of the response of any specified structural system to a prescribed dynamic loading is defined as a
deterministic analysis. On the other hand, if the time variation is not completely known but can be defined
in a statistical sense, the loading is termed as random dynamic loading; and its corresponding analysis of
responses defined as a non-deterministic analysis. Random dynamic loading is essential in analyzing
structures exposed to uncertain and time-varying forces, such as wind, earthquakes, or traffic.
In general, structural response to any dynamic loading is expressed basically in terms of the displacements
of the structure. Thus, a deterministic analysis leads directly to displacement time-histories corresponding
to the prescribed loading history; other related response quantities, such as stresses, strains, internal forces,
etc., are usually obtained as a secondary phase of the analysis. On the other hand, a non-deterministic
analysis provides only statistical information about the displacements resulting from the statistically defined
loading; corresponding information on the related response quantities are then generated using independent
non-deterministic analysis procedures.

Periodic loading: In this type of loading, the loads exhibit the same time variation successively for a large
number of cycles. Since periodic loads have a defined and predictable pattern, deterministic methods are
used to analyze the system's response. The governing equations and responses can be solved explicitly. The
simplest form of periodic loading is a sinusoidal variation which is termed as ‘simple harmonic’. By means
of Fourier series, any periodic loading can be represented as the sum of a series of simple harmonic
components. E.g. Vibrations caused by rotating machinery, oscillations due to harmonic excitation etc.
Hence the analysis of response to any periodic loading follows the same general procedure.
Figure 1.1 shows the example of periodic loading.

Non-periodic or aperiodic loading: In this type of loading, the loads do not exhibit the same time variation
successively, i.e., they may be either short-duration or long-duration impulsive loadings. Non-periodic
loads have uncertain or random characteristics, requiring probabilistic or stochastic methods to predict the
response. A blast or explosion is a typical source of impulsive loads: for short-duration, special’ simplified
forms of analysis may be employed, i.e. Duhamel’s integral may be used. On the other hand, a general long-
duration loading might result from an earthquake and can be treated only by complete general dynamic
analysis procedures. Figure 1.2 shows examples of non-periodic loading. Seismic analysis using random
ground motion, wind dust affects tall structures, impact or blast loading with unpredictable forces re the
examples of non-periodic loading.

1.4 Degree of freedom

The number of degrees of freedom that a vibrating system has will greatly affect how it vibrates. In every
structure, mass is continuously distributed throughout in a complex manner. It is necessary to define the
position of every mass point during vibration. A simple definition of degrees of freedom is the number of
coordinates necessary to specify the position or geometry of a mass point at any instant during its vibration.
All real structures possess an infinite number of dynamic degrees of freedom. Hence, an infinite number of
coordinates is necessary to specify the position of the structure completely at any instant. Each degree of
freedom has a corresponding natural frequency. Therefore, a structure possesses as many natural
frequencies as it has the degrees of freedom. For each natural frequency, the structure has its own way of
vibration. The vibrating shape is known as the characteristic shape or mode of vibration.
Consider a rigid block, as shown in Figure 1.3 that is free to move in 3-dimensional space, which may move
without rotation in the three directions: X, Y and Z. These are called the three degrees of translation.
The block may also rotate about its own axes, called the three degrees of rotation.

Thus, to uniquely define the block's position in space, we need to define six coordinates, i.e. three for
translation and three for rotation.
The vibratory system is divided into the following categories depending on the independent coordinates
required to describe the motion.
I. Single Degree of Freedom system (SDOF system)
II. Multiple Degrees of Freedom system (MDOF system)
III. Continuous system
If a single coordinate is sufficient to define the position or geometry of the mass of the system at any instant
of time, it is known as a single or one-degree-of-freedom system. Examples of the SDOF system are given
in Figure 1.4.
If more than one independent coordinate is required to completely specify the position or geometry of
different masses of the system at any instant of time, it is called multiple degrees of freedom system.
Examples for MDOF system are given in figure 1.5.

If the mass of a system may be considered to be distributed over its entire length as shown in figure 1.6, in
which the mass is considered to have infinite degrees of freedom, it is referred to as a continuous system.
It is also known as a distributed system.

1.5 Time depending problems in structural analysis

Time-dependent problems in structural engineering involve scenarios where loads, material behavior, or
structural responses vary with time. These problems require understanding the interplay of inertia, damping,
and stiffness and often need dynamic analysis methods to predict the behavior accurately. Below are
common time-dependent problems with examples:

i. Dynamic Loading on Structures

These are problems where external forces vary with time, causing structural vibrations.

Examples:

• Seismic Loading:
o Earthquakes induce ground accelerations that vary rapidly, affecting buildings, bridges, and
other structures.
o Example: Predicting the response of a high-rise building during an earthquake using time-
history analysis.
• Wind Loading:
o Gusting winds create fluctuating forces on tall buildings and towers.
 o Example: Analyzing the oscillatory response of a suspension bridge to turbulent wind
forces.
• Impact Loads:
o Short-duration forces, like a vehicle collision with a bridge pier.
o Example: Determining the damage to a pier after a ship collision.

ii. Transient Vibrations

These occur when a structure is subjected to a short-duration force that induces oscillations, which decay
over time.

Examples:

• Blast Loads:
o Explosions generate pressure waves that create transient forces on nearby structures.
o Example: Designing a reinforced concrete wall to withstand the transient load from a blast.
• Machinery Start-Up/Shut-Down:
o Rotating equipment causes transient vibrations during speed changes.
o Example: Evaluating vibration levels in a turbine foundation during start-up.

iii. Long-Term Material Behavior

Time-dependent material properties, such as creep, shrinkage, or fatigue, affect structural performance over
extended periods.

Examples:

• Creep in Concrete:
o Sustained loads cause gradual deformation in concrete.
o Example: Predicting deflection in a prestressed concrete beam over decades.
• Fatigue in Steel:
o Repeated cyclic loading can lead to fatigue cracks in steel components.
o Example: Assessing the lifespan of a railway bridge subjected to repeated train loads.
• Shrinkage in Concrete:
o Moisture loss over time causes concrete to shrink, affecting structural integrity.
o Example: Analyzing stresses induced by differential shrinkage in a composite steel-
concrete deck.

iv. Moving Load Problems

Loads that change position over time induce varying structural responses.

Examples:

• Traffic on Bridges:
o Moving vehicles cause dynamic forces that vary in magnitude and location.
o Example: Calculating dynamic amplification factors for a bridge under heavy truck traffic.
• Cranes and Gantries:
o Loads shift dynamically as the crane operates.
 o Example: Designing a gantry system to handle time-varying loads safely.

v. Thermal Effects

Time-dependent temperature variations can cause thermal stresses and deformations.

Examples:

• Daily Temperature Cycles:

o Expansions and contractions from temperature changes can stress structures.
o Example: Evaluating the thermal stress in a long steel pipeline exposed to daily temperature
fluctuations.
• Fire Loading:
o Rapid temperature rise during a fire causes structural weakening and deformation.
o Example: Modeling the collapse mechanism of a steel frame during a fire.

vi. Fluid-Structure Interaction (FSI)

Structures interacting with fluids experience time-varying forces from fluid motion.

Examples:

• Offshore Structures:
o Wave action induces oscillatory forces on oil platforms.
o Example: Analyzing the dynamic response of an offshore wind turbine to wave and wind
loads.
• Dam Spillways:
o Water flow causes fluctuating pressure on dam surfaces.
o Example: Predicting vibration levels in a spillway gate during high flow rates.

vii. Time-Dependent Load Combinations

Some problems involve simultaneous action of loads that vary independently over time.

Examples:

• Bridge Under Traffic and Wind:

o Combined effects of moving vehicles and gusty winds on a suspension bridge.
o Example: Evaluating stability using coupled dynamic analysis.
• Earthquake-Induced Landslides:
o Simultaneous seismic ground motion and sliding soil forces.
o Example: Assessing the safety of retaining walls during seismic events.

viii. Time-Dependent Control Systems

Modern structures may use active or passive control systems to mitigate dynamic effects.
Examples:

• Tuned Mass Dampers (TMD):

o Used in skyscrapers to reduce oscillations caused by wind.
o Example: Simulating the real-time response of a building equipped with a TMD during a
storm.
• Seismic Isolation Systems:
o Bearings or dampers that decouple a building from ground motion.
o Example: Time-history analysis of a base-isolated hospital during an earthquake.

In conclusion, Time-dependent problems are critical in structural engineering as they account for real-
world scenarios where loads and responses vary over time. Addressing these problems requires specialized
techniques like time-history analysis, modal analysis, and numerical simulations to ensure safety and
performance under varying conditions.

Time-dependent problems refer to scenarios where the behaviour or response of a system changes over
time, influenced by factors like loads, material properties, environmental conditions, or dynamic effects.
These problems are crucial in engineering, especially in structural and material sciences, as they capture
systems' transient or evolving nature.

Key Analysis Methods for Time-Dependent Problems

1. Time Integration Techniques: Methods like the Newmark-beta or Runge-Kutta for solving
differential equations of motion.
2. Finite Element Analysis (FEA): Tools to model creep, fatigue, or transient heat transfer.
3. Dynamic Modal Analysis: Breaking down a structure’s dynamic response into modes to study
vibrations.
4. Environmental Degradation Models: Predicting long-term effects of corrosion, fatigue, or creep.

By addressing time-dependent problems with advanced analytical methods, engineers can design structures
and materials that remain safe and functional throughout their lifespans.