INTRODUCTION

Simple structures
Equations of Motion

TEXT BOOK: DYNAMICS OF STRUCTURES BY CHOPRA

 1.1 SIMPLE STRUCTURES

Simple structure is a structure that can be idealized as a

concentrated or lumped mass m supported by a massless structure
with stiffness k in the lateral direction.
EXAMPLE OF SIMPLE STRUCTURES

Definition of simple structure:

a structure that can be idealized as
a lumped mass m supported by a
massless structure with stiffness k
in the lateral direction.
1.2 DEGREES OF FREEDOM

▪ For dynamic analysis, the number of degrees of

freedom (DOFs) is the number of independent
displacements required to define the displaced
positions of all the masses relative to their original
position.
▪ More DOFs are typically necessary to define the
stiffness properties of a structure compared to the
DOFs necessary for dynamic analysis.
SINGLE-DEGREE-OF-FREEDOM SYSTEM
This one-story frame is constrained to move only in the direction of the
excitation.

Static analysis problem:

three DOFs – lateral
displacement and two joint
rotations – to determine the
lateral stiffness of the frame.

Dynamic analysis: structure

has only one DOF – lateral
displacement.
Examples of structures modeled as one-
degree-of-freedom systems.
Alternate representations of mathematical models
for one-degree-of-freedom systems
c

F(t)

m - mass and inertial property

spring k - elasticity
damper c - only dissipates energy
force F(t) - external forces acting on the structure and is a function of time
TWO(2) TYPES OF DYNAMIC EXCITATION

Single-degree-of-freedom system Single-degree-of-freedom system

excited by external force p(t) excited by earthquake-induced
ground motion ugt(t).
 1.3 FORCE-DISPLACEMENT RELATION

The internal force resisting the

This system has no dynamic displacement u is equal and opposite to
excitation acting to it. Instead, the the external force fs
system is subjected to an externally
applied static force fs along the DOF u
Relationship between the force fs and the
relative displacement u
Linear system

f s = ku

k is the lateral stiffness of the system;

its units are force/length.
This force–displacement relation would be
linear at small deformations but would Linear system is only for elastic
become nonlinear at larger deformations system
Consider this frame
L = bay width ,
h = height
E = elastic modulus
Ib = moment of inertia for beam
Ic = moment of inertia for columns

The columns are clamped (or fixed) at

the base.
Lateral stiffness of the frame:
Case I: Beam is rigid [flexural rigidity EIb = ꝏ]

12𝐸𝐼𝑐 12𝐸𝐼𝑐 𝐸𝐼𝑐

k= + = 24
ℎ3 ℎ3 ℎ3
Lateral stiffness of the frame:
Case II: Beam has no stiffness [flexural rigidity EIb = 0]

3𝐸𝐼𝑐 3𝐸𝐼𝑐 𝐸𝐼𝑐

k= + = 6 3
ℎ3 ℎ3 ℎ
 Calculation of lateral stiffness
Case III: Intermediate, realistic stiffness of the beam
Standard procedures of static structural Alternate method:
analysis:

1. The stiffness matrix of the frame is

formulated with respect to three DOFs:
the lateral displacement u and the
rotations of the two beam-column joints.

2. By static condensation or elimination of

the rotational DOFs, the lateral force-
displacement relation of 𝑓𝑠 = 𝑘𝑢 is
determined.
 1. 4 Damping
• Free vibration due to initial displacement
will be as shown here the oscillation
continue below, forever and these idealized
systems would never come to rest. Idealization of
free vibration

• In reality, the structure would oscillate with

ever-decreasing amplitude and eventually
come to rest.
 DAMPING FORCE

Damping is the process by which free vibration steadily diminishes in

amplitude.

In damping, the energy of the vibrating system is dissipated by various

mechanisms such as thermal effect of repeated elastic straining of the
material and from the internal friction when a solid is deformed, friction at
steel connections, opening and closing of microcracks in concrete, friction
between the structure itself and nonstructural elements such as partition
walls.
DAMPING FORCE
• In a SDF structure, damping is idealized as a linear viscous
damper or dashpot.
• The damping force fD is related to the velocity u across the
linear viscous damper by

f D = cu
constant c = viscous damping coefficient;
Unit of c is force x time/length.
1.5 EXTERNAL FORCE

The idealized one-story frame is

subjected to an externally applied
dynamic force p(t) in the
direction of the DOF u.

This notation, p(t), indicates that

the force p varies with time t.
The resulting displacement of the
mass also varies with time and is
denoted by u(t)
 The elastic force, fs and damping
force, fD are acting in the opposite
direction because they are internal
forces that resist the deformation
and velocity, respectively.
p(t) = external force
The resultant force along the x-axis:
fs = the elastic (or inelastic) p − fs − fD
resisting force
fD = damping force

The external force, p(t), the displacement u(t), velocity 𝑢(t),

ሶ and acceleration ü(t) are
positive in the direction of the x-axis.
Newton’s second law of motion

F = ma

p − f s − f D = mu
 mu + f D + f s = p(t ) equation of motion
1.6 MASS—SPRING-DAMPER SYSTEM
Assume: the spring and damper to be massless,
the mass to be rigid, and all motion to be in the
direction of the x-axis
 The resultant force along the x-axis:

p(t ) − ku − cu

Newton’s second law of motion (F=ma) gives

F = ma
 p (t ) − ku − cu = mu

 mu + cu + ku = p (t ) equation of motion

1.7 METHODS OF SOLUTION OF THE
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
 + cu + ku = p(t )
The equation of motion for a linear SDF system : mu

• The initial displacement 𝑢 0 and initial velocity 𝑢ሶ 0 at time zero

must be specified to define the problem completely.

• Typically, the structure is at rest before the onset of dynamic

excitation, so that the initial velocity and displacement are zero.

• There are four methods of solution to obtain the response u and 𝑢.ሶ
 Method 1: Classical Solution
• Complete solution of the linear differential equation of motion
consists of the sum of the complementary solution 𝑢𝑐 𝑡 and the
particular solution 𝑢𝑝 𝑡 , that is,
𝑢 𝑡 = 𝑢𝑐 𝑡 + 𝑢𝑝 𝑡 .

• Since the differential equation is of second order, two constants of

integration are involved.

• The constants are determined from a knowledge of the initial

conditions.
 + cu + ku = p(t )
The equation of motion for a linear SDF system : mu
Example 1.5 Consider a step force: p(t ) = p0 ; t0
In this case, the differential
equation of motion for a
The particular solution for Eq. (a) is
u p (t ) =
system without damping p0
(i.e., c = 0) is k

mu + cu + ku = p(t ) The complementary solution is

 mu + (0)u + ku = p0 u(t ) = A cosn (t ) + B sin n (t )

 mu + ku = p0 ….Eq. (a)

where A and B = constants of integration

= k m

u (t ) = A cos n (t ) + B sin n (t ) +
p0
The complete solution is:
k
If the system is initially at rest, u(0) = 0 and 𝑢ሶ = 0 at t = 0. For these initial
conditions the constants A and B can be determined
p0
A=− ;B=0
k

u (t ) = A cos n (t ) + B sin n (t ) +
p0
k

 u (t ) = (1 − cos n t )
p0
RETURN TO SLIDE 53
k
The classical solution is always used in solving the differential equation
for free vibration and for excitations, which can be described
analytically, such as harmonic, step, and pulse forces.
Method 2: Duhamel’s Integral

Duhamel’s Integral is a well-known approach to the solution of linear

differential equations.

Duhamel’s integral is based on representing the applied force as a sequence

of infinitesimally short impulses.

The response of the system to an applied force, p(t), at time t is obtained by

adding the responses to all impulses up to that time.
Duhamel’s Integral

Duhamel integral for an

u (t ) =  p( )sin  (t −  )d
1 t

undamped SDF system: mn

n
0

where n = k m
Example 1.6 : Using Duhamel’s integral, determine the response of an
SDF system, that is assumed to be initially at rest, to a step force,
p(t ) = p0 t0

Duhamel integral for an

( )  p( )sin  (t −  )d
1 t
ut =
undamped SDF system: mn
n
0

u (t ) = 0  sin  (t −  )d
p t

mn
n
0

p0  cosn (t −  )d 
 =t

=   =
p0
(1 − cos nt )
mn  n  = 0 k

This result is the same as that obtained in Section 1.10.1 by the

classical solution of the differential equation.
 Method 3: Transform Methods
The Laplace and Fourier transforms can be used to solve the equation of motion for a
linear SDF system.

Fourier transform method, leads to the frequency-domain

The Fourier transform p̂ (i ) of a known excitation function p(t) is defined by

pˆ (i ) = F  p(t ) =  eit p(t )dt



−
 Solving the equation of motion by Fourier transformation

1. Transform the differential equation in variable t into an algebraic equation

in the imaginary-valued variable i.
2. The algebraic equation is readily solved for û (i ) the transform of u(t).
3. Determine the solution u(t) of the differential equation is by an inverse
transformation of û (i. )


u (t ) = H (i )pˆ (i )eit d
1
Inverse transformation formula:
2 
−

where H (i ) is the complex frequency-response function that

describes the response of the system to harmonic excitation.
Method 4: Numerical Methods

• Numerical methods consider the inelastic behavior of structures

anticipated during earthquakes if the ground shaking is intense.

• Numerical methods can also be used to evaluate the response of

linear systems to excitation- applied force p(t) or ground motion
𝑢ሷ 𝑔 𝑡 which is too complicated to be defined analytically.