Application Layer

Syllabus:
4
Unit-V Application Layer

Syllabus:

• Application Layer Protocols: DNS, FTP, TFTP, HTTP/HTTPS, SMTP, POP, IMAP.

• Wireless LANs: Architectural Comparison, Characteristics, Access Control,

• IEEE 802.11: Architecture, MAC Sub Layer, Addressing Mechanism, Physical Layer,

• Bluetooth: Architecture, Layers.

• Introduction to Industrial Protocols: LoRA, NB-IoT, SiGFOX, OPC-UA, Zigbee

MIT ADT University SOE Department of Computer Science and Engineering Computer Networks
 Course Outcomes

? After completion of the course students are able to:

? Explain the different protocols used at application layer i.e. HTTP, SNMP, SMTP,
FTP, TELNET and IMAP

? Illustrate concepts of Wireless LAN’s.

? Define different Industrial protocols.

6

Application Layer Protocols

Applications Layer : allows user to interface with the
network
Application Layer: Provides the interface between the
applications on either end of the network.
 Processes communicating
Process:
program running within a host

Client process:
initiates communication
Server process:
waits to be contacted

process sends/receives messages to/from its socket

identifier includes both IP address and port numbers

associated with process on host.
 App-layer protocol defines

• Types of messages exchanged,

• e.g., request, response
• Message syntax:
• what fields in messages & how fields are delineated
• Message semantics
• meaning of information in fields
• Rules for when and how processes send & respond to messages
Public-domain protocols: Proprietary protocols:
♦ defined in RFCs ♦ e.g., Skype
♦ allows for interoperability
♦ e.g., HTTP, SMTP
Protocols and networks
 Protocols

▪ DNS : Matches domain names with IP addresses

▪ HTTP/HTTPS : Used to transfer data between clients/servers using a
web browser
▪ SMTP & POP3 : used to send email messages from clients to servers
over the internet
▪ FTP/TFTP : allows the download/upload of files between a
client/server
▪ Telnet : allows users to login to a host from a remote location and take
control as if they were sitting at the machine (virtual connection)
▪ DHCP : assigns IP addresses, subnet masks, default gateways, DNS
servers, etc. To users as they login the network
 Application layer software
There are two types
▪ Applications: Provide the human (user) interface. Relies on lower layers to
complete the communication process.
▪ Services: Establish an interface to the network where protocols provide the
rules and formats that govern how data is treated..

How data requests occur & are filled

❑ Client/server model
Advantages:
Centralized administration
Security is easier to enforce
❑ Peer-to-peer networking and applications
 Client/Server Model
Client
device requesting information (initiates the data exchange) Can also UPLOAD data to
the servers
Server : device responding to the request
How does it handle multiple request from multiple users and keep everything in order?
Relies on support from the lower layer functions to distinguish between services and
conversations.
Server relies on a service called a server daemon – runs in the background and ‘listens’
for requests for that service. It can then exchange messages as appropriate & send
requested data.
Examples:
E-mail Client on an employee computer issues a request to the e-mail server for any
unread e-mail. The server responds by sending the e-mail to the client.
Conversations can originate with either party.
 Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Network Model

▪ Two or more computers are connected and are able to share resources
without having a dedicated server
▪ Every end device can function as a client or server on a ‘per request’
basis
▪ Resources are decentralized (information can be located anywhere)
▪ Difficult to enforce security and policies
▪ User accounts and access rights have to be set individually on each peer
device
Common Port Numbers
❑ TCP
FTP – 20-21
Telnet – 23
SMTP – 25
DNS – 53 (Both TCP & UDP)
HTTP – 80
❑ UDP
DHCP – 67 & 68
POP – 110
 Domain Name System (DNS)
Each terminal in network has an unique IP address and a name (name
space).
A name space that maps each address to a unique name can be organized
in two ways: flat or hierarchical
In a flat name space, a name is assigned to an address. A name in this
space is a sequence of characters without structure.
In a hierarchical name space, each name is made of several parts.

An example given below in which TCP/IP uses a DNS client and a DNS server
to map a name to an address. A user wants to use a file transfer client to access
the corresponding file transfer server running on a remote host. The user knows
only the file transfer server name, such as afilesource.com. However, the
TCP/IP suite needs the IP address of the file transfer server to make the
connection. The following six steps map the host name to an IP address:
▪ The user passes the host name to the file transfer client.
▪ The file transfer client passes the host name to the DNS client.
▪ Each computer, after being booted, knows the address of one DNS
server. The DNS client sends a message to a DNS server with a query
that gives the file transfer server name using the known IP address of
the DNS server.
▪ The DNS server responds with the IP address of the desired file transfer
server.
▪ The DNS server passes the IP address to the file transfer client.
▪ The file transfer client now uses the received IP address to access the file
transfer Server.
DNS is used for designing hierarchical name space
Example of hierarchical name space: www.staffs.ac.uk,
www.fcet.staffs.ac.uk,
gawains.staffs.ac.uk, blackboard.staffs.ac.uk
In this design the names are defined in an inverted-tree structure
with the root at the top. The tree can have only 128 levels: level
0 (root) to level 127
Domain Name and Label
 Domain Name

▪ Each node in the tree has a domain name. A full domain name is a
sequence of labels separated by dots (.). The domain names are
always read from the node up to the root. The last label is the label
of the root (null). This means that a full domain name always ends in
a null label, which means the last character is a dot because the null
string is nothing.
▪ If a label is terminated by a null string, it is called a fully qualified
domain name (FQDN).
 DNS Server
Stores domain name space information within its domain/subdomain.
 DSN Services and Protocol

DNS Servers resolve names to IP addresses. It would be difficult to remember

the IP address of every website we like to visit, but we can remember names.
World Wide Web
❑ The Web is a repository of information in which the documents, called
web pages, are distributed all over the world and related documents are
linked together.
❑ The WWW is a distributed client-server service, in which a client using
a browser can access a service using a server. However, the service
provided is distributed over many locations called sites. Each site holds
one or more web pages. Each web page, however, can contain some
links to other web pages in the same or other sites
• Web Client (Browser):
Each browser usually consists of three parts: a controller, client
protocols, and interpreters. The controller receives input from the
keyboard or the mouse and uses the client programs to access the
document. After the document has been accessed, the controller uses
one of the interpreters(HTML, Java, or JavaScript) to display the
document on the screen. The client protocol can be one of the protocols
such as HTTP or FTP.
• Web Server
The web page is stored at the server. Each time a request arrives, the
corresponding document is sent to the client.
• Web Documents
The documents in the WWW can be grouped into three broad
categories:
–Static
–Dynamic
–active
❑ Static Documents
Static documents are fixed-content documents that are created and stored in a server.
The client can get a copy of the document only. In other words, the contents of the file
are determined when the file is created, not when it is used.
❑ Dynamic Documents
A dynamic document is created by a web server whenever a browser requests the
document. When a request arrives, the web server runs an application program or a
script that creates the dynamic document. The server returns the result of the
program or script as a response to the browser that requested the document. Because a
fresh document is created for each request, the contents of a dynamic document may
vary from one request to another. A very simple example of a dynamic document is the
retrieval of the time and date from a server.
29

❑ Active Documents
? For many applications, a program or a script needs to be run at
the client site. These are called active documents. For example,
suppose a program that creates animated graphics on the screen
or a program that interacts with the user. When a browser
requests an active document, the server sends a copy of the
document or a script. The document is then run at the client
(browser) site.

MIT ADT University SOE Department of Computer Science and Engineering Computer
Networks
HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
▪ The Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is used to define how the
client-server programs can be written to retrieve web pages from the Web. An
HTTP client sends a request; an HTTP server returns a response. The server
uses the port number 80.
▪ HTTP uses the services of TCP. This means that, before any transaction
between the client and the server can take place, a connection need s to be
established between them. After the transaction, the connection should be
terminated.
 WWW Service and HTTP
Steps:
1. URL is typed in the address bar.
2. Browser checks with DNS server to convert it to an IP address
3. Connects to the server requested
4. Using HTTP or HTTPS protocol requirements, the browser sends a GET
request to the server to ask for the desired html document (usually index.html)
5. The server sends the HTML code for the web page to the browser.
6. The browser interprets the HTML code and formats the page to fit the browser
window.
Parameter HTTP HTTPS
32 It is hypertext transfer It is hypertext transfer protocol
Protocol
protocol. with secure.
It is designed to prevent
It is less secure as the data hackers from accessing
Security
can be vulnerable to hackers. critical information. It is secure
against such attacks.
Port It uses port 80 by default It was use port 443 by default.
Starts with HTTP URLs begin with http:// HTTPs URLs begin with https://
If the website needs to collect
It’s a good fit for websites
the private information such
Used for designed for information
as credit card number, then it
consumption like blogs.
is a more secure protocol.
HTTPS scrambles the data
HTTP does not scramble the before transmission. At the
data to be transmitted. That’s receiver end, it descrambles
Scrambling why there is a higher chance to recover the original data.
that transmitted information is Therefore, the transmitted
available to hackers. information is secure which
MIT ADT University SOE Department of Computer Science and Engineering Computer
Networks can’t be hacked.
33

Parameter HTTP HTTPS

HTTPS does not have any
separate protocol. It
Protocol It operates at TCP/IP level. operates using HTTP but
uses encrypted TLS/SSL
connection.
HTTP website do not need HTTPS requires SSL
Domain Name Validation
SSL. certificate.
HTTP website doesn’t use HTTPS websites use data
Data encryption
encryption. encryption.
HTTP does not improve HTTPS helps to improve
Search Ranking
search rankings. search ranking.
Speed Fast Slower than HTTP
It Is highly secure as the
Vulnerability Vulnerable to hackers data is encrypted before it
MIT ADT University SOE Department of Computer Science and Engineering Computer
Networks is seen across a network.
 WWW Service and HTTP

HTTP/HTTPS are some of the MOST used application protocols!

 E-mail services and SMTP/POP protocols
▪ E-mail is the most popular network service.
▪ E-mail client (when people compose e-mail) is called Mail User Agent (MUA)
▪ MUA allows messages to be sent/retrieved to and from your mailbox
▪ Requires several applications and services POP or POP3 – deliver email from
server to client (incoming messages) SMTP – handles outbound messages from
clients
 E-mail services and SMTP/POP protocols
What do servers require?
1. Must be running SMTP!
2. Also operates
a. Mail Transfer Agent (MTA) – used to forward email
▪ Receives email from the clients MUA
▪ Uses SMTP to route email between SERVERS!
▪ Passes email to the MDA for final delivery
b. Mail Delivery Agent (MDA) – receives messages from MUA or from
the MTA on another server
3. For two e-mail servers to talk – MUST run SMTP and MTA in order
to transfer mail between the 2 servers!
E-mail services and SMTP/POP protocols
 FTP/TFTP
▪ Commonly used application layer protocol
▪ Allows for the transfer of files between clients/servers.
▪ Requires 2 connections to the server
1. Commandes – uses TCP port 21
2. Actual data – uses TCP port 20

Both the File Transfer Protocol (FTP) and the Trivial File Transfer Protocol
(TFTP) are used to transfer files between systems. FTP is a widely used protocol
that allows the remote user to navigate the server's file structure and upload and
download files. TFTP is a simplified alternative to FTP that provides no
authentication and is most often used to transfer configurations to and from
network devices.
39

? FTP is used for copying files from one host to another host
location. FTP works on Port 20 and 21. Port 20 is used for data
and Port 21 is used for connection control.
? TFTP is lighter than FTP and is used when a file transfer
functionality is needed without FTP features. It works on Port 69
and follows the UDP protocol.
40 Key FTP TFTP

Stands For FTP stands for File Transfer Protocol. TFTP stands for Trivial File
Transfer Protocol.

Software Size FTP software is heavier than TFTP. TFTP is lightweight.

Ports FTP works on ports 20 and 21. TFTP works on port 69.

Protocol used FTP is based on TCP. TFTP is based on UDP.

Complexity FTP is more complex than TFTP. TFTP is less complex than FTP.

Commands FTP has lots of commands or messages. TFTP has only five messages.

Authentication Authentication is must for FTP. Authentication is not required

in case of TFTP.
Key FTP TFTP
 DHCP
❑ Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol – enables devices to obtain IP addresses,
subnet masks, gateways, DNS server information, etc. from a DHCP server.
❑ An IP address that is not being used is assigned from a range of available
addresses
❑ Not permanently assigned – only leased for a specific period of time (usually 24
hours – 7 days)
❑ If the host logs off or the power is lost, the IP address they were using is returned
to the pool to be re-assigned to another host when needed.
❑ This is how you are able to use Wi-Fi at various places in the world!
❑ Don’t use DHCP for devices such as servers, printers, routers, switches, etc. These
should be statically assigned.
 Telnet
Developed in the early 1970’s – among the oldest of the application layer
protocols and services in the TCP/IP protocol suite.
Allows users to follow text-based terminal devices over the network using
software.
A connection is known as a ‘virtual terminal (vty)’ session.
Can be run from the command prompt on a PC.
You can use the device as if you were sitting there with all the rights and
priorities that you username will offer you.
TELNET requires a logging name and password, it is vulnerable to hacking
because it sends all data including the password in plaintext (not encrypted).
A hacker can eavesdrop and obtain the logging name and password. Because of
this security issue, the use of TELNET has diminished in favor of another
protocol, Secure Shell (SSH).
44
Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP)

Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) is a protocol for accessing

email or bulletin board messages from a (possibly shared) mail server or
service. IMAP allows a client e-mail program to access remote message
stores as if they were local.
Features of IMAP :
•It is capable of managing multiple mailboxes and organizing them into
various categories.
•Provides adding of message flags to keep track of which messages are
being seen.
•It is capable of deciding whether to retrieve email from a mail server
before downloading.
•It makes it easy to download media when multiple files are attached.
45

Working of IMAP

IMAP follows Client-server Architecture and is the most commonly used

email protocol. It is a combination of client and server process running
on other computers that are connected through a network. This protocol
resides over the TCP/IP protocol for communication. Once the
communication is set up the server listens on port 143 by default which
is non-encrypted. For the secure encrypted communication port, 993 is
used.
46
 Wireless Local Area Networks
47

The proliferation of laptop computers and other mobile devices (PDAs

and cell phones) created an obvious application level demand for wireless
local area networking.
Companies jumped in, quickly developing incompatible wireless products
in the 1990’s.
Industry decided to entrust standardization to IEEE committee that
dealt with wired LANs
– namely, the IEEE 802 committee!!
48
49
Characteristics of WLANs

•Flexibility: Within radio coverage, nodes can communicate without

further restriction. Radio waves can penetrate walls, senders and
receivers can be placed anywhere (also non-visible, e.g., within devices,
in walls etc.).
•Planning: Only wireless ad-hoc networks allow for communication
without previous planning, any wired network needs wiring plans.
•Design: Wireless networks allow for the design of independent, small
devices which can for example be put into a pocket. Cables not only
restrict users but also designers of small notepads, PDAs, etc.
50 Characteristics of WLANs

•Robustness: Wireless networks can handle disasters, e.g., earthquakes,

flood etc. whereas, networks requiring a wired infrastructure will usually
break down completely in disasters.
•Cost: The cost of installing and maintaining a wireless LAN is on
average lower than the cost of installing and maintaining a traditional
wired LAN, for two reasons. First, after providing wireless access to the
wireless network via an access point for the first user, adding additional
users to a network will not increase the cost. And second, wireless LAN
eliminates the direct costs of cabling and the labor associated with
installing and repairing it.
•Ease of Use: Wireless LAN is easy to use and the users need very little
new information to take advantage of WLANs.
51
Classification of Wireless Networks

? Base Station :: all communication through an Access

Point (AP) {note hub topology}. Other nodes can be
fixed or mobile.
? Infrastructure Wireless :: AP is connected to the
wired Internet.
? Ad Hoc Wireless :: wireless nodes communicate directly
with one another.
? MANETs (Mobile Ad Hoc Networks) :: ad hoc nodes are
mobile.
 Architectural Comparison

Let us first compare the architecture of wired and

wireless LANs to give some idea of what we need to
look for when we study wireless LANs.
 Isolated LANs: wired versus wireless

15.53
 Connection of a wired LAN and a wireless LAN to other networks

15.54
 Access Control
- How a wireless host can get access to the shared
medium (air)

- The CSMA/CD algorithm does not work

in wireless LANs for such reasons:

- Send and receiving signal power

- The hidden station problem prevents

collision detection

15.55
 Hidden station problem

15.56
 IEEE 802.11 PROJECT

- IEEE has defined the specifications for a wireless

LAN, called IEEE 802.11, which covers the physical
and data-link layers
- In some countries, including the United States, the public
uses the term WiFi (short for wireless fidelity) as a
synonym for wireless LAN.
- WiFi, however, is a wireless LAN that is certified by the
WiFi Alliance.

15.57
 IEEE 802 Standards Working Groups
58

802.15.4 ZigBee
59

Computer Networks: Wireless Networks

 Architecture

The standard defines two kinds of services: the basic

service set (BSS) and the extended service set
(ESS).
 Basic service sets (BSSs)

15.61
 Extended service set (ESS)

15.62
 Wireless Physical Layer
63
? Physical layer conforms to OSI (five options)
? 1997: 802.11 infrared, FHSS, DSSS {FHSS and DSSS run in the 2.4GHz band}
? 1999: 802.11a OFDM and 802.11b HR-DSSS
? 2001: 802.11g OFDM
? 802.11 Infrared
? Two capacities: 1 Mbps or 2 Mbps.
? Range is 10 to 20 meters and cannot penetrate walls.
? Does not work outdoors.
? 802.11 FHSS (Frequence Hopping Spread Spectrum)
? The main issue is multipath fading.
? [P&D] The idea behind spread spectrum is to spread the signal over a
wider frequency to minimize the interference from other devices.
? 79 non-overlapping channels, each 1 Mhz wide at low end of 2.4 GHz ISM
band.
? The same pseudo-random number generator used by all stations to start the
hopping process.
? Dwell time: min. time on channel before hopping (400msec).
 Wireless Physical Layer
? 802.11 DSSS (Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum)
? The main idea is to represent each bit in the frame by multiple bits in the
transmitted signal (i.e., it sends the XOR of that bit and n random bits).
? Spreads signal over entire spectrum using pseudo-random sequence (similar to
CDMA see Tanenbaum sec. 2.6.2).
? Each bit transmitted using an 11-bit chipping Barker sequence, PSK at
1Mbaud.
? This yields a a capacity of 1 or 2 Mbps.

Figure 2.37 Example 4-bit chipping sequence

64
65
Wireless Physical Layer
? 802.11a OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Divisional
Multiplexing)
? Compatible with European HiperLan2.
? 54 Mbps in wider 5.5 GHz band 🡺 transmission range is
limited.
? Uses 52 FDM channels (48 for data; 4 for synchronization).
? Encoding is complex ( PSM up to 18 Mbps and QAM above
this capacity).
? E.g., at 54 Mbps 216 data bits encoded into into 288-bit
symbols.
? More difficulty penetrating walls.
66
Wireless Physical Layer
? 802.11b HR-DSSS (High Rate Direct Sequence Spread
Spectrum)
? 11a and 11b shows a split in the standards committee.
? 11b approved and hit the market before 11a.
? Up to 11 Mbps in 2.4 GHz band using 11 million chips/sec.
? Note in this bandwidth all these protocols have to deal with
interference from microwave ovens, cordless phones and
garage door openers.
? Range is 7 times greater than 11a.
? 11b and 11a are incompatible!!
67 Wireless Physical Layer

? 802.11g OFDM(Orthogonal Frequency Division

Multiplexing)
? An attempt to combine the best of both 802.11a and 802.11b.
? Supports bandwidths up to 54 Mbps.
? Uses 2.4 GHz frequency for greater range.
? Is backward compatible with 802.11b.
68
802.11 MAC Sublayer Protocol
? In 802.11 wireless LANs, “seizing the channel” does
not exist as in 802.3 wired Ethernet.
? Two additional problems:
? Hidden Terminal Problem
? Exposed Station Problem
? To deal with these two problems 802.11 supports two
modes of operation:
? DCF (Distributed Coordination Function)
? PCF (Point Coordination Function).
? All implementations must support DCF, but PCF is
optional.
 MAC Sublayer

IEEE 802.11 defines two MAC sublayers: the

distributed coordination function (DCF) and point
coordination function (PCF).
 MAC layers in IEEE 802.11 standard

15.70
 CSMA/CA and NAV
15.71

NA
V
 Frame format

15.72
 Addressing Mechanism
- The IEEE 802.11 addressing mechanism
specifies four cases, defined by the value of the
two flags in the FC field, To DS and From DS.

- Each flag can be either 0 or 1, resulting in four

different situations.

- The interpretation of the four addresses (address

1 to address 4) in the MAC frame depends on the
value of these flags

15.73
 Addresses

15.74
 Addressing
mechanisms

15.75
 Exposed station
problem

15.76
77
Bluetooth
It is a Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) technology and is used
for exchanging data over smaller distances. This technology was
invented by Ericson in 1994.
It operates in the unlicensed, industrial, scientific and medical (ISM)
band from 2.4 GHz to 2.485 GHz. Maximum devices that can be
connected at the same time are 7. Bluetooth ranges up to 10 meters.
It provides data rates up to 1 Mbps or 3 Mbps depending upon the
version. The spreading technique that it uses is FHSS
(Frequency-hopping spread spectrum).
A Bluetooth network is called a piconet and a collection of
interconnected piconets is called scatternet.
78
Topic/Title

What is bluetooth.
Bluetooth Transmission capacity 720 kbps.
Bluetooth is Wireless.
Bluetooth is Low cost short distance radio communications standard
.
Bluetooth is robust and flexible .
Bluetooth is cable replacement technology that can be used to
connect almost any device to any other device.
The basic architecture unit of a bluetooth is a piconet.

MIT ADT University SOE Department of Computer Science and Engineering Computer Networks
79
Bluetooth Architecture:
The architecture of Bluetooth defines two types of networks:
1. Piconet 2. Scatternet
80
Piconet:
Piconet is a type of Bluetooth network that contains one primary node called the
master node and seven active secondary nodes called slave nodes. Thus, we can say
that there is a total of 8 active nodes which are present at a distance of 10 meters.
The communication between the primary and secondary nodes can be one-to-one or
one-to-many. Possible communication is only between the master and slave;
Slave-slave communication is not possible. It also has 255 parked nodes, these are
secondary nodes and cannot take participation in communication unless it gets
converted to the active state.
Scatternet:
It is formed by using various piconets. A slave that is present in one piconet can act
as master or we can say primary in another piconet. This kind of node can receive a
message from a master in one piconet and deliver the message to its slave in the
other piconet where it is acting as a slave. This type of node is referred to as a
bridge node. A station cannot be mastered in two piconets.
81

MIT ADT University SOE Department of Computer Science and Engineering Computer Networks
 Protocols in the Bluetooth Protocol Architecture
82
•Physical Layer − This includes Bluetooth radio and Baseband (also in the data link
layer.
• Radio − This is a physical layer equivalent protocol that lays down the physical
structure and specifications for transmission of radio waves. It defines air
interface, frequency bands, frequency hopping specifications, and modulation
techniques.
• Baseband − This protocol takes the services of radio protocol. It defines the
addressing scheme, packet frame format, timing, and power control algorithms.
•Data Link Layer − This includes Baseband, Link Manager Protocol (LMP), and
Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP).
•Link Manager Protocol (LMP) − LMP establishes logical links between Bluetooth
devices and maintains the links for enabling communications. The other main
functions of LMP are device authentication, message encryption, and negotiation of
packet sizes.
•Logical Link Control and Adaptation Protocol (L2CAP) − L2CAP provides adaption
between upper layer frame and baseband layer frame format. L2CAP provides support
for both connection-oriented as well as connectionless services.
83
Topic/Title

•Middleware Layer − This includes Radio Frequency Communications (RFComm) protocol,

adopted protocols, SDP, and AT commands.
• RFComm − It is short for Radio Frontend Component. It provides a serial interface
with WAP.
• Adopted Protocols − These are the protocols that are adopted from standard
models. The commonly adopted protocols used in Bluetooth are Point-to-Point
Protocol (PPP), Internet Protocol (IP), User Datagram Protocol (UDP), Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP), and Wireless Application Protocol (WAP).
• Service Discovery Protocol (SDP)− SDP takes care of service-related queries like
device information so as to establish a connection between contending Bluetooth
devices.
• AT Commands − ATtention command set.
•Applications Layer − This includes the application profiles that allow the user to interact
with the Bluetooth applications.

MIT ADT University SOE Department of Computer Science and Engineering Computer Networks
84
LoRa
What is LoRa?
LoRa technology was developed by a company called Semtech and it is a new wireless protocol
designed specifically for long-range, low-power communications. LoRa stands for Long Range
Radio and is mainly targeted for M2M and IoT networks. This technology will enable public or
multi-tenant networks to connect a number of applications running on the same network.

LoRa Alliance was formed to standardize LPWAN (Low Power Wide Area Networks) for IoT and
is a non-profit association which features membership from a number of key market shareholders
such as CISCO, actility, MicroChip, IBM, STMicro, SEMTECH, Orange mobile and many more.
This alliance is key to providing interoperability among multiple nationwide networks.

Each LoRa gateway has the ability to handle up to millions of nodes. The signals can span a
significant distance, which means that there is less infrastructure required, making constructing a
network much cheaper and faster to implement.
LoRa also features an adaptive data rate algorithm to help maximize the nodes battery life and
network capacity. The LoRa protocol includes a number of different layers including encryption
at the network, application and device level for secure communications.
85
86
Specification LoRa Feature

Range 2-5Km Urban (1.24-3.1 mi),

15Km suburban (9.3 mi)
Frequency ISM 868/915 MHz

Standard IEEE 802.15.4g

Modulation Spread spectrum modulation type

based on FM pulses which vary.
Capacity One LoRa gateway takes
thousands of nodes
Battery Long battery life

LoRa Physical layer Frequency, power, modulation

and signalling between nodes and
gateways
87
NB-IoT

? Narrowband IoT or NB-IoT is a wireless communication standard for

the Internet of Things in its different forms. NB-IoT belongs to the category of
low-power wide-area networks (LPWAN), enabling to connect devices that need
small amounts of data, low bandwidth, and long battery life. This makes it
suitable for a variety of applications and use cases for IoT.
? NB-IoT (Narrowband-IoT) is a narrowband radio technology for M2M and
Internet of Things (IoT) devices and applications requiring wireless
transmission over a more extended range at a relatively low cost and using little
power for long battery lives.
88
89
? In NB-IoT applications, typically small data volume amounts need to be
infrequently transmitted. NB-IoT became a standard for this type of wireless
communications in 2016, and in recent years mobile operators have been, and
many still are deploying network capabilities enabling narrowband-IoT
coverage for their customers.
? NB-IoT is, among others, also referred to as LTE Cat-NB. Other terms such as
LTE Cat-NB1 and Cat N1 apply to the NB-IoT specification released in 2016.
Today, there are also Cat N2 or Cat NB2 devices that use the enhanced NB-IoT
specifications that came later and are currently on the road towards
commercialization.
? NB-IoT falls under the category of LPWA network standards and
protocols (LPWAN). That’s the name used for many types of wireless
IoT communication standards in the IoT stack that enable to use devices with
batteries for transmission over a wide area (wide area network or WAN, in this
case WWAN or wireless WAN) with relatively low power (hence the ‘LP’) for
infrequent, mainly small data volume, transmissions.
90
Sigfox

Sigfox is a long range cellular wireless communication that offers custom

solutions primarily for low-throughput Internet of Things
(IoT) and M2M applications by availing its end-to-end IoT connectivity
services using it's patented technologies. The Sigfox network protocol
has patented base stations that are integrated with software defined
radios. The end devices use binary phase-shift keying
(BPSK) modulation to connect to the base stations.
91 ? The Sigfox protocol focuses on:
• Autonomy. Extremely low energy consumption, allowing years of
battery life.
• Simplicity. No configuration, connection request or signaling.
Your device is up and running within minutes!
• Cost efficiency. From the hardware used in the devices to our
network, we optimize every step to be as cost-effective as possible.
• Small messages. No large assets or media allowed on the network,
only small notifications: up to 12 bytes.
• Complementarity. Thanks to its low cost and ease of
configuration, you can also use Sigfox as a secondary solution to
any other type of network, e.g.: Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, GPRS, etc.
92
93
94
OPC UA
OPC UA (short for Open Platform Communications United Architecture)
is a data exchange standard for industrial
communication (machine-to-machine or PC-to-machine
communication). This open interface standard is independent of the
manufacturer or system supplier of the application, of the programming
language in which the respective software was programmed, and of the
operating system on which the application is running.

The OPC Unified Architecture (UA), released in 2008, is a platform

independent service-oriented architecture that integrates all the
functionality of the individual OPC Classic specifications into one
extensible framework.
OPC UA provides the necessary infrastructure for interoperability across
the enterprise, from machine-to-machine, machine-to-enterprise and
everything in-between.
95
Benefits of OPC UA
Self service
As no coding is required, operational teams can easily connect to any
OPC UA server. And they can use device auto-discovery to fully
automate the detection and integration of devices with Cumulocity IoT.
Support for generic device types
You only need to define each device once. The device type definition
defines the mapping from a machine to the corresponding IoT asset and
the configuration—for example, which data to synchronize at which
frequency.
Cloud-based configuration
We provide zero-touch installation of the OPC UA IoT gateway by a
field engineer, through cloud-based remote configuration. So, no matter
where engineers are, they can connect to different devices, without
needing to be in the same room.
96

The multi-layered architecture of OPC UA provides a “future proof ”

framework. Innovative technologies and methodologies such as new
transport protocols, security algorithms, encoding standards, or
application-services can be incorporated into OPC UA while maintaining
backwards compatibility for existing products. UA products built today
will work with the products of tomorrow.
97
98
ZigBee

ZigBee is a Personal Area Network task group with low rate task group
4. It is a technology of home networking. ZigBee is a technological
standard created for controlling and sensing the network. As we know
that ZigBee is the Personal Area network of task group 4 so it is based
on IEEE 802.15.4 and is created by Zigbee Alliance.
ZigBee is a standard that addresses the need for very low-cost
implementation of Low power devices with Low data rates for
short-range wireless communications
99
Types of ZigBee Devices:
•Zigbee Coordinator Device: It communicates with routers. This device is
used for connecting the devices.
•Zigbee Router: It is used for passing the data between devices.
•Zigbee End Device: It is the device that is going to be controlled.
100
General Characteristics of Zigbee Standard

•Low Power Consumption

•Low Data Rate (20- 250 kbps)
•Short-Range (75-100 meters)
•Network Join Time (~ 30 msec)
•Support Small and Large Networks (up to 65000 devices (Theory); 240
devices (Practically))
•Low Cost of Products and Cheap Implementation (Open Source
Protocol)
•Extremely low duty cycle.
•3 frequency bands with 27 channels.
101
Advantages of Zigbee

1.Designed for low power consumption.

2.Provides network security and application support services operating on
the top of IEEE.
3.Zigbee makes possible completely networks homes where all devices are
able to communicate and be
4.use in smart home
5.easy implementation
6.Adequate security features.
102
Architecture of Zigbee:

Zigbee architecture is a combination of 6 layers

.
103 •Physical layer: The lowest two layers i.e the physical and the MAC
(Medium Access Control) Layer are defined by the IEEE 802.15.4
specifications. The Physical layer is closest to the hardware and directly
controls and communicates with the Zigbee radio. The physical layer
translates the data packets in the over-the-air bits for transmission and
vice-versa during the reception.
• Medium Access Control layer (MAC layer): The layer is responsible for
the interface between the physical and network layer. The MAC layer is
also responsible for providing PAN ID and also network discovery
through beacon requests.
•Network layer: This layer acts as an interface between the MAC layer
and the application layer. It is responsible for mesh networking.
•Application layer: The application layer in the Zigbee stack is the highest
protocol layer and it consists of the application support sub-layer and
Zigbee device object. It contains manufacturer-defined applications.
104

Thank You

MIT ADT University SOE Department of Computer Science and Engineering Computer Networks