Name :BRIAN

MATH HL INTERNAL ASSESSMENT​

How Does Modular Arithmetic Enhance the Security of the RSA

Encryption Algorithm?

Word count.

Candidate code
INTRODUCTION
In today's digital world,many people find it difficult to protect information from other.with

the fast rate of digitalization company database have often be invaded by criminal to transfer

information to owner area which poses a problem in society this problem can solve in many

way.One way of solving this problem is using arithmetic enhance of Security of the RSA.

This method involve the uses of encryption and decryption of data.To prevented access to

data by on authorised person.This method was (named after inventors rivest,shamir ,and

adleman)

Figure: Image showing the cumulative property of RSA encryption [2]

With this question, I hope to have a deeper understanding of how modular arithmetic is used

in cryptography and its significance in securing digital communication. Employing small

numbers for illustration, I will present the RSA algorithm step by step, test its commutative
property, and discuss its merits and demerits. This question not only identifies the elegance of

RSA but also highlights the power of mathematics in resolving practical cybersecurity issues.

RATIONALE.
In the modern digital age, information security is more crucial than ever. Encryption schemes,

such as RSA (Rivest Shamir Adleman), guard secret information by rendering it unreadable

to unauthorized individuals. RSA uses modular arithmetic, a branch of mathematics

concerned with remainders, to provide security. The basis for the strength of RSA lies in the

computationally difficult task of factoring large numbers into primes, which with present-day

technology is virtually impossible. This experiment is about how modular arithmetic keeps

RSA safe. With tiny figures, I shall demystify the principal stages of RSA—key creation,

encryption, and decryption—to make it understandable on how it operates. I will also attempt

using the commutative property of RSA, which allows for encryption and digital signing

using the same keys. Such a property plays a fundamental role in processes such as secure

communication and document validation.

AIM.
This research aims to study how modular arithmetic enhances the security of encryption

schemes, such as the RSA algorithm. Specifically, I will:

1)Study the mathematical basis of RSA, i.e., key generation, encryption, decryption, in terms

of modular arithmetic.

2)Demonstrate the RSA algorithm step-by-step with small primes to outline the process of

encryption and decryption.

3)Test the RSA commutative property, i.e., if the same keys can be used for encryption and

also digital signatures.

4)Assess the strengths and weaknesses of RSA, particularly that it relies on the difficulty of

factoring large numbers and also its vulnerability to quantum computing.

5)Show practical examples of the use of RSA, e.g., secure messaging and digital signatures,

and analyze its importance in modern cybersecurity.

By achieving these objectives, I will gain a deeper appreciation of the role played by modular

arithmetic in cryptography and how it helps ensure the security of digital communication.

METHODOLOGY.
In this solution, I will outline the methods used to study RSA encryption and decryption

using modular arithmetic. To facilitate computation in this study, I am applying small

numbers for simplicity and readability, but the same principle applies to large numbers used

in our world applications.

Table of formulas and values

Variable Description Formula/Relationship

p,q Two distinct prime numbers n=p×q

Modulus used in encryption and

n n=p×q
decryption

Ф(n) Euler’s totient function ϕ(n) = (p − 1)(q − 1)

Public key exponent (must be

e coprime with 1< e < ϕ(n), gcd(e,ϕ(n)) = 1
ϕ(n))
 Private key exponent (must be
d coprime with d×e ≡ 1(modϕ(n))
ϕ(n))

M Plaintext message (integer) 0 ≤ M <n

C Ciphertext (encrypted message) C ≡ M (mod n)
e

M
Decrypted message (original
plaintext)
M ≡ C (modn)
d

Table 1: Table showing values and formulas used [1].

A)​Key Generation.

Two prime numbers, p, and q, are chosen to generate the key.​

These numbers are computed to make n, the modulus in encryption

n=p×q
ϕ(n) = (p -- 1)(q -- 1)
The public key, e, is computed with d(the private key) using the modular inverse equation:

d × e ≡ 1(modϕ(n))
B)​Encryption.

The message, M, is then converted to cipher text, C using the formula:

C≡M e
(mod n)

Although the calculation is simple, a tremendous amount of computer power is required to

perform this operation with very large numbers (hundreds or thousands of digits). Since

modular exponentiation is not particularly difficult, it is extremely hard to do this

backwards—that is, determine M from C, e, and n—without the private key. This is the basis

of RSA's security.

Decryption

To break the cipher text, C, and reveal the original message, M, I will use the private key

exponent, d, which is mathematically equivalent to the public key exponent, e, and the

modulus, n.

M ≡ C (mod n)
d

The above decryption equation tells us that the plaintext message, M, is obtained by raising

the cipher text, C, to the power of the private key exponent, d, and then multiplying it by the

division remainder when divided by the modulus, n.

C)​Testing the cumulative property of RSA encryption.​

Cumulative property in RSA means that a message, M, can be encrypted with a public

key e and decrypted with a private key, d. Similarly, it also means that M can be

encrypted with the private key and decrypted with the public key. To show that any of

the keys can be employed for encryption while the other is employed for decryption, I

will show that​

(M e)d ≡
M (mod n) and (M e)d ≡
M (mod n)

Step 1: Recalling the key relationships.​

The public key e and private d key are related by

 e⋅d ≡ 1 (modϕ(n))
This means:

e⋅d ≡ k ⋅ ϕ(n) + 1 for some interger k

Step 2: Applying Euler’s theorem.​

Euler's theorem informs us that if M and n are coprime, then

M ϕ(n) ≡1(mod n)
Even when M and n are not coprime, the proof holds because of the nature of modular

arithmetic in RSA. The message, M, is not necessarily coprime with n in RSA. Still, the RSA

works. The reason is the specific design of 'n' being the product of two enormous prime

numbers, 'p' and 'q'.

n = p∗q
ϕ(n) = ( p−1 ) ( q−1 )

The encryption and decryption steps are designed in a way that the nature of modular

arithmetic allows us to recover the message even if it is not coprime with n.

Step 3: Proving that (M e)d ≡

M (mod n).

To do this, I will start by separating the powers in (M e)d:

(M e)d = (M e*d )

Then substitute e⋅d ≡ k ⋅ ϕ(n) + 1 from step 1 above:

M e*d = M k * ϕ(n) + 1

M e*d = M k * ϕ(n) (M 1)

Simplifying the Euler’s theorem:​

M e*d = ( M ϕ(n) ) k (M 1)

M e*d = ( 1 ) k (M 1)

M e*d = M (mod n )

This will therefore prove that: (Me)d ≡

M (mod n)
Step 4: Proving that (Md)e ≡
M (mod n)

Using the cumulative property of multiplication between the powers implies that:

(Md)e = M d*e​

(Md)e = M e*d​

Substituting M e*d = M (mod n ) from step 3 above:

( M d )e = M (mod n

The 4 steps above will be followed systematically to test the cumulative property of the RSA

encryption using an example calculation below.

Figure 2: Image showing the cumulative property of RSA encryption [2]

Application/ Sample calculation.

 A)​Key Generation.

For the key generation, I chose 2 prime numbers.

Let p = 3 and q = 11

‘These numbers are then multiplied to give n

n=p×q

n = 3 × 11

n = 33

The values of p and q are then computed using the totient formula to form the totient of

n(ϕ(n)).

ϕ(n) = (p − 1)(q − 1)

ϕ(n) = (3 − 1)(11 − 1)

ϕ(n) = (2 × 10)

ϕ(n) = 20

Choosing the public key exponent e must satisfy the condition:

1< e < ϕ(n) and gcd(e,ϕ(n)) = 1.

In other words, e and ϕ(n) are both prime numbers with the greatest common factor of 1

Let e = 3 (since gcd(3, 20) = 1).

Computing the modular inverse of e using modulo phin:​

d × e ≡ 1(mod ϕ(n))
3(d) ≡ 1(mod 20)
Using the extended Euclidean formula algorithm:

20 = 6 × 3 + 2

3=1 ×2 + 1

2=2 ×1 + 0

Working backward in order to get d:

1=3 −3 × 2

1 = 3 − 3 × (20 − 6 × 3)

1 = 7 × 3 − 1 × 20

Thus, d = 7

Public key: (e, n) = (3, 33)

Private key:(d, n) = (7, 33)

B)​Encryption.

Let the message, M = 5 which satisfies ( 0 ≤ 𝑀 < 𝑛).

Encrypting M using the public key:

𝐶 ≡ 𝑀e (mod n)

𝐶 ≡ 53 (mod 33)
 𝐶 ≡ 125 (mod 33)

𝐶 ≡ 125 − 3 × 33 (mod 33)

𝐶 ≡ 26

So, the ciphertext C = 26.

C)​Decryption.

i)Simplifying 267 (mod 33) using modular exponentiation.

I applied the modular exponentiation approach to calculate 267 (mod 33). This simplifies the

calculation by dividing the exponent into powers of two. I computed 262 (mod 33) first,

followed by 264 (mod 33), and then I added up the results to get 267 (mod 33).

M ≡ C (modn)
d

M ≡ 267 (mod 33)

267 (mod 33) ≡ (262 (mod 33)) × (264 (mod 33)) ×( 26 (mod 33))

267=264× 262× 261 (mod 33)

262 ≡ 676 (mod 33) 264 ≡ (262)2

262 ≡ 676 – 20 × 33 264 ≡ 162 (mod 33)

262 ≡ 676 – 660 264 ≡ 256 – 7 × 33

262 ≡ 16 (mod 33) 264 ≡ 25 (mod 33)

 267=264× 262× 261 (mod 33)

Next, I performed the modular multiplications step-by-step. First, I multiplied 25 and 16, then

took the result modulo 33. Following this, I multiplied the result by 26 and again took the

result modulo 33.

(25×16) (mod 33) = 400 (mod 33)

= 400 − 12 × 33

=4(mod33)

(4×26) (mod 33 ) = 104 (mod 33)

≡ 104 − 3 × 33

= 5(mod33)

Therefore, M ≡ 5 (mod33), which confirms that the decrypted message is 5, matches the

original message.

M ≡ 5(mod33)

E) Testing the commutative property.

I carried out the decryption and encryption operations in reverse order to illustrate the

commutative property of decryption and encryption in RSA. I used the private key, d, to

encrypt the original message, M = 5, first and then used the public key, e, to decrypt the
ciphertext produced. If the commutative property is true, this operation should result in the

original message.

i) Encryption with d( the decryption key)

I encrypted M = 5 using the private key, d = 7, and the modulus, n = 33, using the formula for

encryption with the decryption key, d, instead of e, the encryption key.

Cd ≡ M (mod n). This resulted in C′ ≡ 57

(mod 33).

Cd ≡ M d (mod n)

Cd ≡ 57 (mod 33)

To compute 57 (mod 33), I again used modular exponentiation. I calculated 52 (mod 33), then

54 (mod 33 ), and finally combined these results to find 57 ( mod 33).

52 ≡ 25 (mod33)

54 ≡ (52)2

54 ≡ 252(mod33)
 54 ≡ 625(mod33)

54 ≡ 625 − 18×33

54 =31(mod 33)

57 ≡ 54 × 5 2× 5(mod 33)

57 ≡ 31 × 25 × 5 (mod 33)

I then performed the modular multiplications step-by-step. First, I multiplied 31 and 25, then

took the result modulo 33. Following this, I multiplied the result by 5 and again took the

result modulo 33.

31 × 25 = 775

31 × 25 ≡ 775 −23 × 33

31 × 25 = 775 − 759

31 × 25 = 16 (mod33)

16 × 5 = 80 ≡ 80 − 2 × 33

16 × 5 = 14(mod33)
Thus, Cd = 14.

Cd = 14

ii) Decryption with e

Next, I decrypted Cd =14 using the public key, e = 3, and the modulus, n

=33, with the use of the formula M ≡ Ce (mod n) but using the cipher

t. This resulted in M ≡ 143(mod 33).

M ≡ Cd (modn)

M ≡ 143 (mod33)

M ≡ 2744 ( mod33 )

M ≡ 2744 − 83 × 33

M = 2744 − 2739

M = 5( mod33 )

Therefore, M ≡ 5(mod 33), which matches the original message. This confirms the

commutative property of RSA encryption and decryption.

 M ≡ 5(mod33)

F) Analysis and Evaluation.

Analysis of the RSA algorithm.

I was able to adequately illustrate the RSA algorithm in this research by the use of small

prime numbers. The correctness of the algorithm was guaranteed from the results derived

from the stepwise key generation, encryption, and decryption processes. Using the public key

(e, n) = (3, 33), the original message M = 5 was enciphered as C = 26 and was deciphered

again as M = 5 from the private key (d, n) = (7, 33). This verified that the RSA algorithm was

working correctly.

I also used the private key d = 7 to encrypt the message M = 5 and the public key e = 3 to

decrypt it in an attempt to demonstrate the commutative property of RSA. The original

message

M = 5 was the outcome, which confirmed that RSA satisfies the commutative property. This

property is essential in applications such as digital signatures, where a message is encrypted

(signed) using the private key and decrypted (verified) using the public key.

i) Strength of the RSA

Relying on the difficulty of factoring big numbers is one of RSA's key advantages. I used the

small prime numbers p = 3 and q = 11 in my investigation for simplicity's sake, but in

practical applications, p and q are incredibly large (hundreds or thousands of digits). The

product n = p × q cannot be factored into its prime components using current technology,

which makes RSA extremely secure.

An additional advantage is the algorithm's mathematical elegance. The encryption and

decryption procedures are made safe and effective by utilizing Euler's theorem, modular

arithmetic, and the characteristics of prime numbers. Because of its commutative property,

RSA is even more versatile and can be used for digital signatures as well as encryption.​

ii) Limitations of the RSA

RSA has certain drawbacks in spite of its advantages. Its computational complexity,

particularly for large keys, is one of its main drawbacks. Modular exponentiation, which is

used in the encryption and decryption procedures, can be computationally costly for very

large numbers. Because of this, RSA is slower than symmetric-key algorithms like AES,

particularly when encrypting large volumes of data.

Its susceptibility to quantum computing is another drawback. Quantum computers may be

able to crack RSA by effectively factoring big numbers using Shor's algorithm, even though

RSA is safe from classical computers. As a result, post-quantum cryptography was developed

with the goal of developing encryption algorithms that are impervious to quantum attacks.

iii) Real-world applications

RSA has certain drawbacks in spite of its advantages. Its computational complexity,

particularly for large keys, is one of its main drawbacks. Modular exponentiation, which is

used in the encryption and decryption procedures, can be computationally costly for very

large numbers. Because of this, RSA is slower than symmetric-key algorithms like AES,

particularly when encrypting large volumes of data.

Its susceptibility to quantum computing is another drawback. Quantum computers may be

able to crack RSA by effectively factoring big numbers using Shor's algorithm, even though
RSA is safe from classical computers. As a result, post-quantum cryptography was developed

with the goal of developing encryption algorithms that are impervious to quantum attacks.

iv) Reflection on the exploration

I now have a better understanding of how modular arithmetic serves as the basis for RSA

encryption thanks to this investigation. I was able to better understand the algorithm's

underlying mathematical concepts, including Euler's theorem and prime number properties,

thanks to the detailed computations. I also learned about the possible dangers of quantum

computing and how crucial key size is to maintaining security.

Using modular exponentiation to simplify large exponents was one of the challenges I

encountered. At first, I had trouble breaking down 2 6 7 (m o d 33) 26 7 (mod33) into smaller

steps, but I was able to successfully simplify the calculation by applying the exponentiation

by squaring method. The significance of effective algorithms in cryptography was brought

home by this experience.

Conclusion
In summary, the mathematical underpinnings of the RSA algorithm and its use in encryption

and decryption were illustrated by this investigation. In addition to analyzing the algorithm's

advantages and disadvantages, the commutative property of RSA was successfully

confirmed. RSA's weaknesses in quantum computing underscore the necessity of continuous

research into new cryptographic techniques, even though it is still a fundamental component

of contemporary cryptography. My understanding of modular arithmetic and its crucial role

in cybersecurity has grown as a result of this investigation.

References
[1] Formulae for RSA cryptography taken from

( https://www.geeksforgeeks’.org/rsa-algorithm-cryptography )

[2] Image showing the cumulative property of RSA encryption

( https://dcmsys.com/project/dicom-encryption-anonymization/ )