UNIT-1

1. Definition, Composition, and Generation of E-waste

Definition of E-waste

E-waste (Electronic Waste) refers to discarded electrical or electronic devices that are no longer useful, wanted, or
functioning. It includes everything from old computers and mobile phones to refrigerators, televisions, and lighting
equipment. Once these items reach the end of their life or are replaced due to newer technology, they become
e-waste.

It is also referred to as:

●​ WEEE: Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment​

●​ E-scrap or End-of-Life (EoL) electronics​

Examples of E-waste

●​ Large equipment: Refrigerators, washing machines, air conditioners​

●​ Small equipment: Toasters, irons, hair dryers​

●​ IT and telecom: Computers, laptops, tablets, mobile phones​

●​ Consumer electronics: Televisions, radios, DVD players​

●​ Lighting: LED and CFL bulbs, tube lights​

●​ Medical and monitoring devices: Thermometers, non-infectious diagnostic machines​

Why E-waste is a Concern

●​ E-waste is the fastest-growing solid waste stream globally due to rapid technological advancements and
product obsolescence.​

●​ It contains hazardous substances that can cause pollution if not disposed of properly.​

●​ Informal handling, especially in developing countries, leads to serious environmental and health issues.​

●​ Despite its risks, e-waste is also a source of valuable and recoverable materials like gold, silver, and copper.​

Composition of E-waste
E-waste contains a mixture of materials, which makes it both hazardous and resource-rich.

1. Metals

●​ Valuable: Gold, silver, palladium, platinum (mainly from printed circuit boards)​

●​ Common: Copper, aluminum, iron, nickel​

●​ Hazardous: Lead (from solder), cadmium (from batteries), mercury (from switches and lamps), arsenic​

2. Plastics

●​ Found in casings, insulation, and internal parts​

●​ Often contain brominated flame retardants (BFRs), which are toxic and persistent environmental pollutants​

3. Glass

●​ Present in screens, monitors, and bulbs​

●​ Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) monitors contain leaded glass and phosphor, both harmful​

4. Ceramics and Composites

●​ Used in electrical insulation, capacitors, and structural parts​

5. Gases

●​ Refrigerants like CFCs, HCFCs, found in old air conditioners and refrigerators​

●​ These gases are potent greenhouse contributors and can deplete the ozone layer​

Generation of E-waste

Global Scenario

●​ According to the Global E-waste Monitor (2020), 53.6 million metric tonnes (Mt) of e-waste were generated in
2019.​

●​ Less than 20% was properly recycled.​

●​ E-waste generation is expected to reach over 74 Mt by 2030.​

●​ Top producers: China (10.1 Mt), United States (6.9 Mt), India (3.2 Mt)​
India’s Scenario

●​ India is the third-largest e-waste generator globally.​

●​ Generates over 3.2 million metric tonnes annually.​

●​ Major e-waste generating cities: Mumbai, Delhi, Bengaluru, Hyderabad, Chennai, Kolkata​

●​ Only around 10% is handled by formal recycling units; the rest is processed informally​

●​ Informal recycling includes dangerous practices like open burning and acid leaching, leading to high human
exposure to toxins​

Sources of E-waste

1.​ Household appliances (televisions, microwaves, irons)​

2.​ Information and communication devices (phones, laptops)​

3.​ Lighting equipment (LEDs, CFLs)​

4.​ Medical devices (non-infectious)​

5.​ Tools, toys, and sports equipment with electrical components​

2. Global and National Perspectives on E-waste

A. Global Perspective

1. Magnitude and Growth

●​ The generation of e-waste is increasing rapidly due to:​

○​ Rising global consumption of electronics​

○​ Shortened lifespan of gadgets​

○​ Consumer preference for upgrades over repairs​

●​ According to the Global E-waste Monitor 2020, the world generated:​

○​ 53.6 million metric tonnes (Mt) of e-waste in 2019​

○​ Projected to increase to 74.7 Mt by 2030​

 ○​ This represents an annual growth rate of about 3-4%​

2. E-waste Recycling and Management

●​ Only 17.4% of the global e-waste generated in 2019 was formally collected and recycled.​

●​ The rest was:​

○​ Dumped in landfills​

○​ Burned​

○​ Handled by the informal sector under unsafe and unregulated conditions​

●​ Lack of effective legislation, infrastructure, and awareness contributes to poor recycling rates.​

3. Top E-waste Generating Countries

●​ China: 10.1 Mt (largest generator, due to both production and consumption)​

●​ United States: 6.9 Mt (high per capita generation)​

●​ India: 3.2 Mt​

●​ Other significant contributors include Japan, Russia, Germany, Brazil, and Indonesia​

4. Environmental and Health Concerns

●​ Many countries, especially in Africa and South Asia, receive e-waste from developed countries for informal
recycling.​

●​ E-waste contains:​

○​ Toxic heavy metals (lead, cadmium, mercury)​

○​ Persistent organic pollutants (POPs)​

○​ These lead to air, soil, and water contamination, affecting ecosystems and public health.​

5. International Conventions and Regulations

●​ Basel Convention (1989):​

○​ Controls transboundary movement of hazardous waste​

○​ Aims to prevent developed nations from dumping toxic waste in developing countries​

●​ Bamako Convention (1991):​

 ○​ African initiative banning hazardous waste imports into the continent​

●​ EU WEEE Directive (2012/19/EU):​

○​ Mandates collection and recycling targets within the European Union​

○​ Applies the principle of Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR)​

B. National Perspective (India)

1. Current Status

●​ India is the third largest generator of e-waste globally.​

●​ Annual generation is over 3.2 million metric tonnes, and rising.​

●​ Key contributing sectors:​

○​ Information Technology (IT)​

○​ Telecommunication​

○​ Consumer electronics​

○​ Electrical equipment​

2. Geographical Spread

●​ Major e-waste generating cities:​

○​ Mumbai, Delhi, Bengaluru, Chennai, Kolkata, Hyderabad, Ahmedabad​

●​ These cities serve as collection, repair, and informal dismantling hubs.​

3. E-waste Management Rules

●​ 2011 (notified in 2012): Introduced the concept of Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR).​

●​ 2016 Rules:​

○​ Expanded scope to include more electrical and electronic equipment (EEE)​

○​ Introduced collection targets for producers​

○​ Mandated registration for dismantlers and recyclers​

 ○​ Included provisions for take-back mechanisms, labeling, and information sharing​

●​ 2022 Amendment:​

○​ Introduced a centralized online EPR portal​

○​ Enforced traceability of e-waste movement​

○​ Made producers liable for environmental compensation in case of non-compliance​

4. Institutions and Stakeholders

●​ Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEF&CC): Policy-making​

●​ Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB): Implementation and oversight​

●​ State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs): Regional monitoring​

●​ Urban Local Bodies (ULBs): Local collection and awareness programs​

●​ Producers, recyclers, bulk consumers, and NGOs: Operational roles​

5. Challenges in Implementation

●​ Informal sector dominance: Handles over 90% of e-waste in unsafe conditions​

●​ Limited awareness: Among consumers and institutions​

●​ Lack of infrastructure: Few authorized collection and recycling centers​

●​ Weak enforcement: Despite the existence of rules, many producers and users do not comply​

●​ Data gaps: Poor record-keeping on actual volumes collected and processed​

6. Efforts and Initiatives

●​ Establishment of Producer Responsibility Organizations (PROs) to manage EPR compliance​

●​ Corporate collection programs (e.g., Apple, Dell, HP take-back schemes)​

●​ Startups focused on organized recycling and digital tracking​

●​ NGO-led awareness campaigns on e-waste segregation and safe disposal​

Conclusion:​
Globally, the e-waste crisis is growing faster than the capacity to manage it. While developed countries have formal
mechanisms, large volumes are exported to the Global South. In India, a regulatory framework exists but suffers
from poor implementation, lack of public awareness, and heavy dependence on informal recycling. Strengthening
formal infrastructure, awareness, and enforcement is essential

3. Co-pollutants and Hazardous Properties of E-waste

A. Introduction

E-waste is not only a solid waste management challenge but also a chemical hazard due to the complex mixture
of toxic substances it contains. When improperly handled (especially in the informal sector), these substances are
released into the environment and become co-pollutants, harming air, water, soil, and human health.

B. Hazardous Substances Present in E-waste

Here are the major toxic components found in typical e-waste:

1. Heavy Metals

●​ Lead (Pb): Used in cathode ray tubes (CRTs), batteries, solder. Affects the nervous system and causes
developmental damage.​

●​ Mercury (Hg): Found in LCD screens, switches, and fluorescent lamps. Can cause brain and kidney
damage.​

●​ Cadmium (Cd): Used in batteries and semiconductors. Toxic to kidneys and causes bone fragility.​

●​ Arsenic (As): Used in older semiconductors. Toxic to skin and internal organs.​

●​ Chromium (especially Hexavalent Chromium, Cr⁶⁺): Used in metal coatings. Carcinogenic and damages
DNA.​

2. Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs)

●​ Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs): Found in capacitors and transformers. Known endocrine disruptors and
carcinogens.​

●​ Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs): Used as flame retardants in plastics. Harm reproductive and
neurological development.​

3. Acids and Solvents

●​ Used during informal recovery processes, such as acid baths for extracting gold and other metals from
printed circuit boards.​

●​ These include nitric acid, hydrochloric acid, and cyanide-based solutions, which are highly corrosive and
dangerous.​
4. Other Hazardous Compounds

●​ Beryllium oxide (in power transistors): Causes chronic beryllium disease.​

●​ Dioxins and furans: Released during open burning of plastics. Highly toxic even in small doses.​

C. Co-pollutants and Their Sources

Co-pollutants are secondary pollutants released alongside the primary waste material during disposal, dismantling,
and informal recycling. Common examples include:

Co-Pollutant Source Environmental Effect Health Impact

Dioxins Burning PVC-coated Air pollution Carcinogenic, endocrine

wires disruption

Furans Open burning of Persistent in environment Immune system

electronics suppression

Fine Crushing and Soil/air contamination Respiratory problems

particulates shredding

Acid vapors Acid leaching of Air and groundwater Corrosive damage to lungs
PCBs pollution and skin

4. Effects of E-waste on Human Health and the Environment

A. Effects on Human Health

E-waste contains numerous toxic metals, chemicals, and gases that adversely affect human health through
various forms of exposure, particularly in informal recycling zones. People are exposed through:

●​ Inhalation of toxic fumes and dust​

●​ Direct skin contact with contaminated substances​

●​ Ingestion of polluted water or food grown in contaminated areas​

1. Respiratory and Pulmonary Effects

●​ Burning of e-waste (especially plastics and wires) emits fine particulate matter (PM2.5, PM10) and toxic
gases.​

●​ These can cause:​

○​ Chronic respiratory conditions like bronchitis and asthma​

 ○​ Damage to lung tissue and reduced lung function​

○​ Increased risk of lung cancer from inhaling dioxins and heavy metals​

2. Neurological and Cognitive Effects

●​ Exposure to lead, mercury, arsenic, and other heavy metals affects the nervous system.​

●​ In children:​

○​ Reduced IQ and cognitive impairments​

○​ Delayed brain development and behavioral disorders​

●​ In adults:​

○​ Headaches, memory loss, and coordination problems​

○​ Long-term risk of neurological diseases like Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s​

3. Renal (Kidney) Damage

●​ Cadmium, found in batteries and circuit boards, accumulates in the kidneys.​

●​ Causes kidney failure, impaired filtration, and long-term organ damage.​

●​ Mercury and lead can also stress renal function over prolonged exposure.​

4. Liver Damage and Immunotoxicity

●​ Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) such as PCBs and brominated flame retardants are known to:​

○​ Alter liver enzyme levels​

○​ Suppress the immune system​

○​ Increase vulnerability to infections and diseases​

5. Reproductive and Developmental Effects

●​ Chemicals like phthalates, PBDEs, and heavy metals act as endocrine disruptors.​

●​ Consequences include:​

○​ Hormonal imbalance​

○​ Reduced sperm count and motility​

 ○​ Infertility in both men and women​

○​ Miscarriages and birth defects in fetuses​

6. Dermatological and Ocular Effects

●​ Direct contact with e-waste materials, solvents, and acids can lead to:​

○​ Rashes, burns, and chronic skin irritation​

○​ Eye inflammation, damage to the cornea, or vision impairment due to acid vapors​

7. Carcinogenic Effects

●​ Prolonged exposure to substances like hexavalent chromium, dioxins, and arsenic increases the risk of:​

○​ Lung cancer​

○​ Skin and bladder cancers​

○​ Liver tumors​

B. Effects on the Environment

E-waste affects all major environmental media—air, soil, and water—through various improper disposal practices
such as open burning, dumping, and acid leaching.

1. Air Pollution

●​ Burning e-waste releases:​

○​ Dioxins and furans (toxic organic pollutants)​

○​ Hydrochloric acid fumes from plastics​

○​ Particulate matter that degrades air quality​

●​ These pollutants are not only local threats, but can also travel long distances and affect regional air quality
and climate.​

2. Soil Contamination

●​ Toxic metals like lead, cadmium, and mercury from dismantled components seep into the soil from landfills
or open dumps.​

●​ Long-term impacts include:​

 ○​ Loss of soil fertility​

○​ Changes in soil microbiota​

○​ Entry of toxic metals into the food chain through crop absorption​

3. Water Pollution

●​ Acid solutions and heavy metals are often flushed into nearby streams, rivers, and groundwater sources.​

●​ This leads to:​

○​ Contamination of drinking water​

○​ Decline in aquatic biodiversity​

○​ Bioaccumulation of toxins in fish and other aquatic organisms​

4. Damage to Flora and Fauna

●​ Plants exposed to contaminated soil or water show:​

○​ Reduced growth​

○​ Genetic mutations​

●​ Animals suffer from toxin bioaccumulation, causing reproductive failure, behavioral changes, and even
extinction in sensitive species.​

5. Climate Change Impacts

●​ Disposal of refrigerators, air conditioners, and other cooling devices releases greenhouse gases like:​

○​ Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)​

○​ Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs)​

●​ These gases contribute to global warming and ozone layer depletion.​

C. Vulnerable Groups

Certain populations are especially vulnerable to the effects of e-waste:

●​ Children: Their developing organs and immune systems make them highly susceptible to toxic exposure.​

●​ Pregnant women: Exposure to heavy metals can affect both mother and fetus.​
 ●​ Informal workers: Often lack protective equipment and operate in unsafe conditions.​

●​ People living near e-waste recycling hubs (e.g., Seelampur, Delhi or Moradabad, UP).​

D. Case Studies

1.​ Guiyu, China​

○​ Known as one of the largest informal e-waste processing towns.​

○​ Reported high levels of lead in children's blood, poor air and water quality, and elevated rates of
miscarriages and cancers.​

2.​ Seelampur, Delhi​

○​ India’s major e-waste dismantling area.​

○​ Reports of respiratory illnesses, skin burns, and low life expectancy among informal workers.​

3.​ Agbogbloshie, Ghana​

○​ A notorious global dumping ground for foreign e-waste.​

○​ Children working in open burning yards suffer from severe neurological and respiratory disorders.​

Conclusion

E-waste has multi-dimensional impacts—it harms human health by exposing individuals to toxic substances and
endangers the environment through pollution of natural resources. The effects are long-term, often irreversible,
and disproportionately affect vulnerable communities. Addressing these impacts requires systemic regulation, safe
technologies, and the formalization of the recycling sector.

5. Domestic E-waste Disposal

A. What is Domestic E-waste?

Domestic e-waste refers to electrical and electronic waste generated by households. This includes end-of-life
devices that are either:

●​ Non-functional (broken)​
 ●​ Obsolete (outdated)​

●​ Replaced with newer models​

Examples:

●​ Mobile phones, chargers, televisions, laptops​

●​ Kitchen appliances: microwaves, mixers, toasters​

●​ Lighting: CFLs, LEDs, tube lights​

●​ Personal care devices: trimmers, hair dryers, electric toothbrushes​

B. Sources of Domestic E-waste

1.​ Urban households – Large contributors due to frequent upgrading of gadgets and appliances.​

2.​ Rural households – Increasingly contributing as electrification and digital access grow.​

3.​ Educational institutions – Often discard used computers and lab equipment.​

4.​ Offices (when classified as domestic in small businesses) – Dispose of printers, monitors, etc.​

5.​ Hotels, restaurants, and small service sectors – Generate used commercial kitchen and entertainment
electronics.​

C. Common Disposal Practices in India

Despite existing rules, most domestic e-waste is disposed of through unsafe or unregulated channels.

1. Selling to Kabadiwalas (informal scrap dealers)

●​ Most households sell old electronics to local scrap dealers.​

●​ These dealers either dismantle devices themselves or pass them to informal recycling chains.​

●​ No safety measures, and valuable metals are extracted using toxic methods (burning, acid baths).​

2. Stockpiling at home

●​ Many devices are kept in storage for years and never disposed of properly.​

●​ This creates “invisible e-waste”, which is unaccounted for in official records.​

3. Disposal with household waste

●​ Small devices like chargers, bulbs, batteries are thrown in dustbins.​

●​ These end up in landfills or incinerators, releasing toxic substances into soil and air.​

4. Illegal dumping

●​ In some cases, e-waste is dumped in open spaces or water bodies.​

●​ Results in local environmental pollution and community health risks.​

D. Environmental and Health Impacts of Improper Domestic Disposal

1.​ Soil and groundwater contamination – Especially from batteries and tube lights.​

2.​ Air pollution – From open burning of plastics and wires.​

3.​ Health risks to waste handlers – Informal workers dismantle without gloves or masks, exposing themselves
to lead, mercury, and acids.​

4.​ Public health impact – Communities near landfills or dumpsites suffer from skin problems, respiratory
issues, and gastrointestinal diseases.​

E. Formal Disposal Mechanisms (What Should Be Done)

1. Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR)

●​ Under E-waste Management Rules, producers must set up take-back programs and collection centres.​

●​ Consumers can deposit used electronics here for safe recycling.​

2. Authorized E-waste Collection Centres

●​ Operated by certified recyclers and companies.​

●​ Devices collected are dismantled, sorted, and processed in controlled environments.​

3. Drop-off Points and Collection Drives

●​ Companies and NGOs organize e-waste collection camps in cities and educational campuses.​

●​ Some municipal bodies are setting up e-waste bins at public locations.​

4. Online Pick-up Services

●​ Startups and recycling companies offer home pick-up for old electronics (e.g., Karo Sambhav, Attero,
E-Parisaraa).​

●​ These are linked to formal recycling networks.​

F. Barriers to Proper Domestic E-waste Disposal

1.​ Lack of awareness – Most people don’t know how or where to dispose of e-waste safely.​

2.​ Absence of collection points in rural/small towns​

3.​ Incentive-driven behavior – People prefer to sell to kabadiwalas for money rather than hand over to formal
recyclers.​

4.​ Weak enforcement of rules – Many producers have not fully implemented take-back or awareness
programs.​

G. Need for Awareness and Behavioural Change

●​ Educational campaigns in schools, colleges, RWAs, and workplaces are crucial.​

●​ Public-private partnerships can help create infrastructure and incentives.​

●​ Citizens need to understand that proper disposal protects not just the environment, but also human health.​

Conclusion

Domestic e-waste forms a significant portion of total e-waste, but is largely untracked and mismanaged.
Safe disposal practices must be promoted through a combination of policy enforcement, public
awareness, and infrastructure support. Every household plays a critical role in reducing the harmful
impact of e-waste.

6: E-waste Management – Principles and Components

I. Principles of E-waste Management

The management of e-waste is guided by several key environmental and public policy principles that ensure safe,
sustainable, and efficient handling of electronic waste. These include:
1.​ Reduce, Reuse, Recycle (3Rs):​

○​ Reduce refers to minimizing the generation of e-waste by encouraging consumers to purchase

durable and upgradeable products. It also involves avoiding unnecessary electronic consumption.​

○​ Reuse involves the repair, refurbishment, and resale of used electronics. This extends the life cycle of
devices and delays their entry into the waste stream.​

○​ Recycle is the process of recovering valuable raw materials from e-waste (such as copper, gold,
aluminium, and plastics) through formal recycling methods.​

2.​ Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR):​

○​ This principle assigns responsibility to the manufacturer or producer of electrical and electronic
equipment (EEE) for the entire lifecycle of their products, especially take-back, recycling, and final
disposal.​

○​ EPR is legally mandated in many countries, including India under the E-Waste (Management) Rules,
2016, later amended in 2022.​

○​ Producers are expected to create a reverse logistics mechanism to collect and treat e-waste
generated from their products.​

3.​ Polluter Pays Principle:​

○​ According to this principle, the entity responsible for producing pollution (in this case, e-waste) should
bear the cost of managing it to prevent damage to human health and the environment.​

○​ This shifts the financial burden of disposal and clean-up from the government to the actual polluters.​

4.​ Precautionary Principle:​

○​ If there is a potential risk of serious or irreversible damage to the environment or human health, lack of
full scientific certainty shall not be used as a reason to postpone preventive measures.​

○​ This principle is especially important in e-waste management because many chemicals in electronic
devices (e.g., lead, mercury, cadmium) can be toxic even in small quantities.​

5.​ Sustainable Development:​

○​ The aim is to meet present needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
own.​

○​ In the context of e-waste, this involves designing greener products, reducing resource extraction, and
ensuring that waste processing does not harm the environment or human health.​
II. Components of E-waste Management

E-waste management is a structured process involving multiple stages from the generation of waste to its final
treatment or disposal. The essential components include:

1.​ Collection:​

○​ Organized gathering of e-waste from households, businesses, retailers, service centers, and
institutions.​

○​ Can be achieved through drop-off centers, collection drives, or producer take-back schemes.​

2.​ Storage:​

○​ Temporary holding of e-waste in a secure and environmentally safe manner before it is transported or
processed.​

○​ Proper storage prevents environmental contamination and prepares waste for effective segregation.​

3.​ Transportation:​

○​ Movement of collected e-waste to authorized dismantlers or recyclers.​

○​ Must comply with legal and safety standards, such as proper labeling, secure packaging, and route
planning to avoid leakage or accidents.​

4.​ Segregation:​

○​ Sorting e-waste based on categories such as computers, phones, printers, etc., as well as by material
type (ferrous, non-ferrous, plastics, hazardous).​

○​ Effective segregation enhances the efficiency and safety of further processing.​

5.​ Dismantling:​

○​ Manual or semi-mechanical disassembly of devices to recover components such as circuit boards,

batteries, hard drives, and screens.​

○​ This is a labor-intensive step and often the first formal stage of processing in the recycling chain.​

6.​ Recycling:​

○​ Extraction and recovery of useful materials (metals, plastics, glass) using mechanical, chemical, or
thermal processes.​

○​ For example, copper is recovered from wires, and gold from circuit boards.​

7.​ Disposal:​
 ○​ Involves the final handling of non-recyclable and hazardous components (e.g., CRT glass with lead,
certain plastics) in landfills or through incineration.​

○​ Must be done in accordance with environmental laws to prevent pollution.​

Component Explanation

Collection Gathering e-waste from consumers, shops, and businesses.

Storage Safe temporary storage before recycling or disposal.

Transportation Proper vehicles and labeling to safely transport e-waste.

Segregation Separating e-waste based on type (phones, computers, TVs, etc.).

Dismantling Manual or mechanical removal of valuable/recyclable components.

Recycling Recovering usable metals, plastics, and other materials.

Disposal Safe final disposal of toxic/non-recyclable components, usually via landfills.

Conclusion

The management of e-waste is not just a technical process but also a policy and governance challenge. Adherence
to principles such as EPR and the 3Rs, along with the implementation of a structured system covering collection to
disposal, is essential for ensuring environmental sustainability, public health protection, and efficient resource
utilization.

7: Resource Recovery Potential from E-waste

I. What is Resource Recovery?

Resource recovery refers to the process of extracting valuable materials and components from e-waste for reuse,
recycling, or resale. Rather than viewing e-waste as useless or dangerous trash, this concept recognizes it as a
resource reservoir of metals, plastics, and other materials.
II. Why is Resource Recovery Important?

1.​ High-value materials:​

○​ E-waste contains precious metals like gold, silver, palladium, and platinum.​

○​ It also has base metals like copper, aluminium, and iron, and rare earth elements like neodymium
and tantalum.​

2.​ Environmental benefits:​

○​ Reduces mining activities and conserves natural resources.​

○​ Decreases greenhouse gas emissions and pollution caused by raw material extraction.​

3.​ Economic opportunities:​

○​ Urban mining (recovery from waste) can be more efficient and less expensive than traditional mining.​

○​ Generates income and employment in the formal recycling sector.​

4.​ Reduction in landfill burden:​

○​ Recovering useful materials reduces the volume of waste requiring disposal.​

III. Examples of Valuable Recoverable Materials in E-waste

Component Material Recovered Use

Printed Circuit Boards Gold, Silver, Palladium, Electronics, Jewellery, Conductors

Copper

Wires and Cables Copper, Aluminium Electrical wiring, construction

Screens (CRT, LCD, Glass, Lead, Indium Glass products, soldering

LED)

Batteries (Li-ion, NiMH) Lithium, Cobalt, Nickel New batteries, alloys

Plastics & Casings ABS, Polycarbonate Recycled plastics for consumer

goods

IV. Global and Indian Perspective on Resource Recovery

●​ According to the Global E-waste Monitor (2020), only 17.4% of global e-waste is formally collected and
recycled.​

●​ India is among the top e-waste generating countries, but its recovery efficiency is still low due to:​
 ○​ A large informal sector.​

○​ Lack of awareness and infrastructure.​

○​ Limited consumer participation in recycling.​

V. Challenges in Resource Recovery

1.​ Lack of segregation at source:​

○​ Mixing of recyclable and non-recyclable waste reduces efficiency.​

2.​ Informal recycling practices:​

○​ Unsafe and inefficient recovery methods using acid baths or open burning.​

3.​ Technological limitations:​

○​ Advanced recovery requires investment in high-end technologies (e.g., hydrometallurgy,

pyrometallurgy).​

4.​ Economic unviability for some materials:​

○​ The cost of recovery for certain materials might exceed their market value.​

Conclusion

E-waste, when properly managed, is not just waste but a source of valuable raw materials. Maximizing the potential
of resource recovery is essential for environmental sustainability, economic growth, and reducing dependence on
virgin resources. However, it requires a strong policy framework, modern technologies, and public participation.

8: Technologies for Resource Recovery from E-waste

I. Introduction

The recovery of valuable materials from e-waste requires the application of specialized technologies. These
technologies aim to extract metals, plastics, and other reusable components with maximum efficiency and
minimum environmental harm.

Technologies are generally divided into two categories:

1.​ Mechanical Processes​

2.​ Chemical and Thermal Processes​

II. Mechanical Processing Technologies

These involve physical separation techniques and are usually the first stage of treatment.

1.​ Manual Dismantling:​

○​ Trained workers dismantle e-waste items manually.​

○​ Useful for extracting easily removable components like hard drives, batteries, and circuit boards.​

○​ Common in both formal and informal sectors.​

2.​ Shredding and Crushing:​

○​ Devices are shredded into small pieces using industrial shredders.​

○​ Increases surface area for better separation in the next steps.​

3.​ Magnetic Separation:​

○​ Uses magnets to separate ferrous metals (iron, steel) from the shredded material.​

4.​ Eddy Current Separation:​

○​ Separates non-ferrous metals (aluminium, copper) using induced electrical currents.​

5.​ Density Separation (Air and Water):​

○​ Separates materials based on their weight.​

○​ Lighter plastics are separated from heavier metal particles.​

III. Chemical and Thermal Processing Technologies

These methods are used to extract specific metals and treat hazardous materials.

1.​ Pyrometallurgy (High-Temperature Processing):​

○​ Involves smelting e-waste at high temperatures to extract metals.​

○​ Used for recovery of copper, lead, gold, and silver.​

○​ Disadvantages include high energy use and toxic emissions (requires air pollution control systems).​

2.​ Hydrometallurgy (Chemical Leaching):​

 ○​ Metals are dissolved in chemical solutions (acids like cyanide or nitric acid).​

○​ Precious metals like gold and palladium can be selectively extracted.​

○​ Generates liquid waste that must be treated carefully.​

3.​ Bioleaching (Microbial Recovery):​

○​ Uses specific bacteria or fungi to extract metals from e-waste.​

○​ Environmentally friendly but slower and not yet widely adopted on a commercial scale.​

4.​ Plasma Arc Recycling:​

○​ Uses a plasma torch to reach extremely high temperatures (>5000°C).​

○​ Breaks down hazardous components and recovers valuable metals.​

○​ High setup and operating costs.​

IV. Technology Use in India vs. Developed Countries

●​ Developed Countries:​

○​ Use advanced automated technologies with pollution control.​

○​ Strong enforcement of E-waste regulations.​

○​ Higher recovery rates and better worker safety.​

●​ India (Largely informal sector):​

○​ Manual dismantling, open burning, and acid baths are common.​

○​ Low recovery efficiency and serious health/environmental impacts.​

○​ Formal recyclers are emerging but still limited in capacity.​

V. Role of R&D and Policy in Advancing Technology

●​ Government-supported R&D can make recovery technologies cheaper and scalable.​

●​ Policy instruments like subsidies, EPR enforcement, and public-private partnerships are crucial.​
Conclusion

Effective e-waste resource recovery depends on selecting appropriate technologies based on environmental safety,
cost, and material type. A shift from manual and hazardous methods to clean, efficient technologies is essential for
sustainable e-waste management.

9: Steps in Recycling and Recovery of Materials through Mechanical Processing

I. Introduction

Mechanical processing is the initial stage in e-waste recycling. It involves non-chemical, physical techniques to
break down and separate components based on size, weight, and magnetic properties. This process is relatively
safer and more environmentally friendly compared to chemical methods.

Mechanical processing is important because it:

●​ Prepares e-waste for further treatment.​

●​ Recovers a large portion of metals, plastics, and glass.​

●​ Reduces the volume of waste that needs chemical or thermal processing.​

II. Main Steps in Mechanical Processing

The process typically follows a systematic sequence of stages:

1.​ Collection and Transportation:​

○​ E-waste is collected from various sources (households, institutions, businesses) and transported to
processing units.​

○​ Proper labeling and packaging ensure safe and legal movement.​

2.​ Manual Sorting and Dismantling:​

○​ Workers manually disassemble large components like monitors, CPUs, and printers.​

○​ Items such as batteries, circuit boards, and cables are removed for separate handling.​

3.​ Shredding or Crushing:​

○​ The dismantled parts are shredded into smaller pieces using industrial shredders.​

○​ This improves separation efficiency and exposes embedded materials.​

 4.​ Screening (Sieving):​

○​ The shredded material is passed through vibrating screens to separate it based on particle size.​

○​ Fine particles (dust, glass) are separated from larger metal or plastic parts.​

5.​ Magnetic Separation:​

○​ Ferrous metals (such as steel and iron) are extracted using strong magnets.​

6.​ Eddy Current Separation:​

○​ Non-ferrous metals like aluminium and copper are separated using eddy currents.​

○​ This technique creates a magnetic field that repels non-ferrous metals from other materials.​

7.​ Density Separation (Air or Water):​

○​ Materials are separated based on their density.​

○​ Lighter materials (plastics) float, while heavier ones (metals) sink.​

○​ Air classifiers may also be used to separate materials using airflow.​

8.​ Plastic and Glass Separation:​

○​ Plastics are often sorted using infrared sensors or manual sorting.​

○​ Glass (from screens or casings) is collected separately, especially CRT glass, which may contain
lead.​

III. Output of Mechanical Processing

After all the separation steps, the main recovered fractions include:

●​ Ferrous and non-ferrous metals (for refining or resale)​

●​ Plastics (for recycling into new products)​

●​ Glass (for safe disposal or reuse)​

●​ Residue or hazardous fractions (sent for specialized treatment or disposal)​

IV. Advantages of Mechanical Processing

 ●​ Low environmental risk compared to chemical processing.​

●​ Cost-effective for bulk processing.​

●​ Efficient for pre-treatment before advanced recovery methods.​

●​ Scalable and adaptable to local conditions.​

V. Limitations

●​ Cannot recover all types of materials (e.g., some precious metals remain embedded).​

●​ Produces mixed waste fractions that require further sorting or treatment.​

●​ Informal sector often skips safety measures, leading to health risks.​

Conclusion

Mechanical processing plays a foundational role in the e-waste recycling chain. It prepares e-waste for efficient
recovery while minimizing environmental harm. Investing in better mechanical technologies can significantly enhance
resource recovery and reduce the volume of hazardous waste.

10: Occupational and Environmental Health Effects of E-waste

I. Introduction

The handling, dismantling, and processing of e-waste—especially in informal or unregulated settings—poses serious
health risks to workers and causes environmental contamination. These effects arise mainly from the hazardous
substances present in electronic products such as lead, mercury, cadmium, arsenic, brominated flame
retardants, and chlorinated plastics.

II. Occupational Health Effects

Workers in the e-waste sector—particularly those in the informal sector—are exposed to toxic materials during:

●​ Manual dismantling without safety gear.​

●​ Open burning of wires and plastics.​

●​ Acid leaching to extract metals.​

●​ Handling of broken cathode ray tubes (CRTs), batteries, and printed circuit boards.​
Common Health Effects Include:

1.​ Respiratory Problems:​

○​ Inhalation of toxic fumes from burning plastics or soldering releases dioxins, furans, and heavy
metals.​

○​ Can lead to asthma, bronchitis, and lung damage.​

2.​ Skin Disorders and Allergies:​

○​ Direct contact with acids or toxic dust can cause rashes, burns, and long-term skin conditions.​

3.​ Neurological Damage:​

○​ Lead, mercury, and cadmium exposure can impair brain development (especially in children) and
cause memory loss, headaches, and cognitive disorders.​

4.​ Reproductive and Developmental Issues:​

○​ Exposure to endocrine-disrupting chemicals may affect fertility, fetal development, and cause birth
defects.​

5.​ Cancer Risk:​

○​ Long-term exposure to carcinogenic compounds like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and heavy
metals increases the risk of cancers.​

6.​ Eye and Vision Problems:​

○​ Exposure to toxic fumes or metal dust may lead to eye irritation or even vision loss over time.​

III. Environmental Health Effects

Improper disposal or processing of e-waste contaminates soil, water, and air. These effects are often long-lasting and
affect both urban and rural ecosystems.

1.​ Soil Contamination:​

○​ Heavy metals (lead, cadmium, arsenic) leach into soil from landfills or open dumping.​

○​ Reduces soil fertility and enters food chains through crops.​

2.​ Water Pollution:​

○​ Acids and chemicals used in metal extraction often reach groundwater or surface water sources.​

○​ Harmful to aquatic life and contaminates drinking water.​

 3.​ Air Pollution:​

○​ Burning of wires and plastics releases dioxins, furans, and fine particulate matter.​

○​ Contributes to air pollution and smog, affecting large populations.​

4.​ Bioaccumulation and Biomagnification:​

○​ Toxic elements accumulate in organisms and move up the food chain.​

○​ Can affect birds, animals, and ultimately humans.​

IV. Vulnerable Populations

1.​ Children:​

○​ Often involved in informal recycling; more susceptible to toxins.​

○​ Lower body weight and developing organs make them extremely vulnerable.​

2.​ Women:​

○​ May face reproductive health issues from chemical exposure.​

○​ In some areas, women are employed for manual sorting and dismantling.​

3.​ Informal Sector Workers:​

○​ Typically untrained and unprotected; face the highest exposure to hazards.​

V. Preventive Measures and Solutions

1.​ Formalization of E-waste Sector:​

○​ Moving recycling activities into the formal sector with proper training and safety protocols.​

2.​ Use of Protective Equipment:​

○​ Gloves, masks, goggles, and proper ventilation in workspaces.​

3.​ Worker Health Monitoring:​

○​ Regular medical check-ups and exposure tracking.​

4.​ Strict Regulation and Enforcement:​

 ○​ Enforcement of laws under the E-waste (Management) Rules and environmental standards.​

5.​ Public Awareness and Education:​

○​ Educating workers, consumers, and producers about health risks and safe practices.​

Conclusion

E-waste poses serious occupational and environmental health hazards, particularly in developing countries where
informal recycling is widespread. Addressing these issues requires coordinated efforts in regulation, technological
upgrade, worker protection, and public participation.

UNIT 1 SUMMARY NOTES

E-waste Composition, Generation and Management

1. Definition, Composition, and Generation of E-waste

●​ E-waste: Discarded electrical or electronic devices.​

●​ Composition: Metals (iron, copper, aluminium, gold), plastics, glass, hazardous materials (lead, mercury,
cadmium).​

●​ Generation: Rapid technology obsolescence, increased consumerism, and low recycling rates contribute to
rising e-waste.​

2. Global and National Perspectives

●​ Global: 53.6 million tonnes generated in 2019; only 17.4% recycled formally.​

●​ India: Third-largest e-waste generator after China and USA. Informal sector dominates recycling with unsafe
practices.​

●​ Policy: E-waste (Management) Rules, 2016 (amended in 2022) with Extended Producer Responsibility
(EPR).​

3. Co-pollutants and Hazardous Properties

●​ Co-pollutants: Emissions from burning plastics, acid baths, etc.​

 ●​ Hazardous substances: Lead, cadmium, mercury, brominated flame retardants, arsenic.​

●​ Properties: Toxicity, persistence, bioaccumulation, and carcinogenic potential.​

4. Effects on Human Health and Environment

●​ Health Effects: Respiratory issues, neurological damage, skin diseases, reproductive disorders.​

●​ Environmental Effects: Soil and water contamination, air pollution, bioaccumulation, ecosystem damage.​

5. Domestic E-waste Disposal

●​ Practices: Dumping in landfills, open burning, resale in informal markets.​

●​ Challenges: Lack of awareness, inadequate infrastructure, informal recycling.​

●​ Need for: Segregation, awareness, and formal collection systems.​

6. E-waste Management – Principles and Components

●​ Principles:​

○​ 3Rs: Reduce, Reuse, Recycle​

○​ Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR)​

○​ Polluter Pays and Precautionary Principles​

○​ Sustainable Development​

●​ Components: Collection, storage, transportation, segregation, dismantling, recycling, safe disposal.​

7. Resource Recovery Potential

●​ Valuable materials: Gold, silver, copper, aluminium, rare earth metals.​

●​ Benefits: Economic gain, reduced environmental impact, conservation of resources.​

●​ Challenges: Informal handling, poor infrastructure, low consumer participation.​

8. Technologies for Resource Recovery

●​ Mechanical: Dismantling, shredding, magnetic and eddy current separation.​

●​ Chemical/Thermal:​

○​ Pyrometallurgy (smelting)​

○​ Hydrometallurgy (acid leaching)​

○​ Bioleaching (microorganisms)​

○​ Plasma arc recycling​

●​ Developed nations use advanced methods; India relies on informal manual practices.​

9. Steps in Recycling through Mechanical Processing

1.​ Collection and transportation​

2.​ Manual dismantling​

3.​ Shredding​

4.​ Screening/sieving​

5.​ Magnetic separation (for ferrous metals)​

6.​ Eddy current separation (for non-ferrous metals)​

7.​ Density separation (air/water-based)​

8.​ Output: separated metals, plastics, glass; hazardous residues sent for safe disposal.​

10. Occupational and Environmental Health Effects

●​ Occupational Hazards: Chemical exposure, respiratory issues, skin disorders, neurological problems.​

●​ Environmental Impact: Soil and water pollution, air emissions, harm to biodiversity.​

●​ At-risk Groups: Children, women, informal workers.​

●​ Solutions: Formalization of sector, safety equipment, public awareness, regulatory enforcement.​