GCET/IQAC/QN-02

GALGOTIAS EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

1, Knowledge Park-II, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, 201310
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
UT Solution
Course: B.Tech Semester: Vth
Session: 2023-24 Section: A,B
Subject: DCN Sub. Code: KEC-063
Max Marks: 100 Time: 3 hrs

SECTION A
1. Attempt all questions in brief
a) What are some common applications of computer networks?
Ans: Web Browsers, Email Clients, File Transfer Protocols, Messaging Apps, Video Conferencing
Tools, Remote Desktop Applications.

b) What is the role of protocols and standards in network communication?

Ans: Protocol and standards are like the rules and guidelines that allow different devices and systems to
communicate and work together smoothly. Protocols define how data is sent, received, and processed,
while standards ensure that various technologies are compatible with each other.

c) What is framing in the context of the data link layer?

Ans: Framing in a computer network uses frames to send/receive the data. The data link layer packs bits
into frames such that each frame is distinguishable from another. The data link layer prepares a packet
for transport across local media by encapsulating it with a header and a trailer to create a frame. The
frame is defined as the data in telecommunications that moves between various network points.

d) What are the main features of the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP)?

Ans: The main features of the Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) include:
i) Encapsulation
ii) Link Control Protocol (LCP)
iii) Authentication.
iv) Network Control Protocols (NCPs)
 v) Error Detection
vi) Compression
vii) Multilink Support
viii) Dynamic Address Assignment

e) Compare the data rates for Standard Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, and Ten-
Gigabit Ethernet.
Ans: Standard Ethernet can support data speeds up to 10 Mbps. Fast Ethernet can carry data at a
maximum speed of 100 Mbps. With Gigabit Ethernet, the data speeds reached a maximum speed of
1Gbps. 10-Gigabit-Ethernet can carry data at incredibly high speeds of 10 Gbps.

f) Explain the key features and characteristics of Standard Ethernet.

Ans:

g) Change the following IPv4 addresses from dotted-decimal notation to binary notation (i)
111.56.45.78 (ii) 221.34.7.82
Ans: (i) 111.56.45.78 = 01101111.00111000.00101101.01001110
(ii) 221.34.7.82 = 11011101.00100010.00000111.01010010

h) Discuss the main differences between IPv4 and IPv6.

Ans: IPv4 and IPv6 are two versions of Internet Protocol addresses used to identify devices on a
network. IPv6 is the newer version and offers many improvements over IPv4, such as a much larger
address space, better security, and more efficient routing. However, IPv4 is still widely used, and the
transition to IPv6 is ongoing. The main difference is that IPv6 can handle many more devices, which is
crucial as the number of internet-connected devices continues to grow.

i) How is HTTP related to WWW?

Ans: HTTP is the protocol used for the World Wide Web. Whenever your browser requests a page, it
does it by contacting a web server and making the request with HTTP. The server then responds by
sending the page, again with HTTP.
j) Write a short note on UDP?
Ans: The User Datagram Protocol, or UDP, is a communication protocol used across the Internet for
especially time-sensitive transmissions such as video playback or DNS lookups. It speeds up
communications not by formally establishing a connection before data transmission. This allows data to
be transferred very quickly, but it can also cause packets to become lost in transit — and create
opportunities for exploitation in the form of DDoS attacks. Compared to other protocols, UDP
accomplishes this process in a simple fashion: it sends packets directly to a target computer, without
establishing a connection first, indicating the order of said packets, or checking whether they arrived as
intended.

SECTION-B

2(a) What are the similarities and differences between OSI and TCP/IP models?
Ans: Similarities between the TCP/IP model and the OSI model
1. Both are logical models.
2. Both define standards for networking.
3. Both provide a framework for creating and implementing networking standards and devices.
4. Both divide the network communication process into layers.
5. In both models, a single layer defines a particular functionality and sets standards for that
functionality only.
6. Both models allow a manufacturer to make devices and network components that can coexist
and work with the devices and components made by other manufacturers.
7. Both models simplify the troubleshooting process by dividing complex functions into simpler
components.
8. Instead of defining the already defined standards and protocols, both models referenced them.
Differences between the OSI model and the TCP/IP model
1. The OSI Layer model has seven layers while the TCP/IP model has four layers.
2. The OSI Layer model is no longer used while the TCP/IP is still used in computer networking.
3. To define the functionalities of upper layers, the OSI model uses three separate layers
(Application, Presentation, and Session) while the TCP/IP model uses a single layer
(Application).
4. Just like the upper layers, the OSI model uses two separate layers (Physical and Data-link) to
define the functionalities of the bottom layers while the TCP/IP uses a single layer (Link layer)
for the same.
 5. To define the routing protocols and standards, the OSI model uses the Network layer while the
TCP/IP model uses the Internet layer.
6. The OSI model is well documented than the TCP/IP model.
7. The OSI model explains every standard and protocol in detail while the TCP/IP model provides
a summarized version of the same.

Fig 1 TCP/IP Model Vs OSI Model

2(b) What are the advantages and disadvantages of using fiber optics cables?
Ans: A fibre optic cable is an advanced type of network cable offering a significantly
higher throughput than that of electrical communication cables. Made up of incredibly
thin strands of glass or plastic, known as optical fibres, these cables carry information
between two places using optical (light-based) technology
Advantages of Fibre Optic Cable
1. Greater Bandwidth: The most notable advantage of a fibre optic cable is that it
provides significantly improved performance when it comes to bandwidth. The
volume of data that can be transmitted is far greater than and is unrivalled by any
other type of cable-based communication.
2. Longer Distances: Fibre optic cables are designed to carry signals over much
longer distances than traditional cabling as they offer low power loss.
3. Thin & Lightweight: Optical fibres are much thinner and lighter than copper
wires, allowing them to be drawn into smaller diameters, making them more
suitable for places where space is restricted.
 4. Superior Carrying Capacity: Due to how thin the fibres are, more of them can fit
into a given-diameter cable than copper wires.
5. Less Interference: As fibre optic cables don’t carry an electrical signal, they are
resistant to electromagnetic interference. Not only does this mean the rate of error
is low, but it also helps to enhance the cable’s ability to transfer data quickly over
longer distances without suffering considerable signal degradation. In addition,
unlike electrical signals, light signals from one fibre do not interfere with those of
other fibres.
6. High-Level Security: Fibre transmission offers a level of security that simply
cannot be matched by other materials. As they do not radiate electromagnetic
energy, it is extremely difficult to ‘listen’ in or tap. This makes it the most secure
medium available for carrying sensitive data.
7. Strong, Reliable & Flexible: Optic fibres possess greater tensile strength and
are sturdier than metal fibres of the same diameter, which means they’re less
likely to suffer damage. Fibre also isn’t as affected anywhere near as much by
weather, moisture or corrosive elements as metal wiring can be.
Disadvantages of Fibre Optic Cable
1. Production & Installation Cost: The cost to produce optic fibre cabling is higher
than that of copper. Installation is also more expensive as special test equipment is
usually required.
2. Fragility: As they are made of glass, fibre optic cables are more fragile than
electrical wires like copper cabling. If you bend them too much, they will break.
3. Splicing Difficulties: When deploying a new fibre optic network or expanding an
existing one, the fibres need to be properly sliced in order to avoid network
disruptions. This is a very delicate process – if the fibres are not properly
connected, the signal will suffer.
4. Installation & Construction Risk: Due to how small and compact the fibre optic
cable is, it is highly susceptible to becoming cut or damaged during installation or
any construction/renovation activities. It is therefore necessary to consider
restoration, backup and survivability.
5. Fibre Optic Cable Uses: Some of the most popular uses of fibre optic cables in
the UK include
6. Internet: Fibre optic cables are widely used in internet cables due to their ability
to transmit large amounts of data at very high speeds.
7. Computer Networking: Networking between computers in a single building is
made easier and faster with fibre optic cables. This helps to increase the
 productivity and efficiency of a business as the time is takes to transfer files and
information is decreased.
8. Telephone: Fibre optic communication allows you to connect faster and have
clearer conversations both within and outside the country.

2(c ) Provide an overview of the IEEE 802.11 standard for wireless LANs. What are its different versions,
and how do they improve upon each other?
Ans:
Wireless communication is one of the fastest-growing technologies. The demand for connecting
devices without the use of cables is increasing everywhere. Wireless LANs can be found on
college campuses, in office buildings, and in many public areas. In this we concentrate on two
promising wireless technologies for LANs: IEEE 802.11 wireless LANs, sometimes called
wireless Ethernet, and Bluetooth, a technology for small wireless LANs. Although both
protocols need several layers to operate, we concentrate mostly on the physical and data link
layers.
IEEE 802.11
IEEE has defined the specifications for a wireless LAN, called IEEE 802.11, which covers the
physical and data link layers.
A) ARCHITECTURE
The standard defines two kinds of services: the basic service set (BSS) and the extended service
set (ESS).
Basic Service Set
IEEE 802.11 defines the basic service set (BSS) as the building block of a wireless LAN. A
basic service set is made of stationary or mobile wireless stations and an optional central base
station, known as the access point (AP). Fig. 2 shows two sets in this standard. The BSS
without anAP is a stand-alone network and cannot send data to other BSSs. It is called an ad hoc
architecture. In this architecture, stations can form a network without the need of an AP; they
can locate one another and agree to be part of a BSS. A BSS with an AP is sometimes referred to as
an infrastructure network.
 Fig. 2 Basic service sets (BSSs)

Extended Service Set

An extended service set (ESS) is made up of two or more BSSs with APs. In this case, the BSSs
are connected through a distribution system, which is usually a wired LAN. The distribution
system connects the APs in the BSSs. IEEE 802.11 does not restrict the distribution system; it
can be any IEEE LAN such as an Ethernet. Note that the extended service set uses two types of
stations: mobile and stationary. The mobile stations are normal stations inside a BSS. The
stationary stations are AP stations that are part of a wired LAN. Fig. 3 shows an ESS.

Fig. 3 Extended service sets (ESSs )

When BSSs are connected, the stations within reach of one another can communicate without the
use of an AP. However, communication between two stations in two different BSSs usually
occurs via two APs. The idea is similar to communication in a cellular network if we consider
each BSS to be a cell and each AP to be a base station. Note that a mobile station can belong to
more than one BSS at the same time. 802.11 and 802.11x refers to a family of specifications
developed by the IEEE for wireless LAN (WLAN) technology. 802.11 specify an over-the-air
interface between a wireless client and a base station or between two wireless clients.
There are several specifications in the 802.11 family:
 802.11 — applies to wireless LANs and provides 1 or 2 Mbps transmission in the 2.4
GHz band using either frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS) or direct sequence
spread spectrum (DSSS).
 802.11a — an extension to 802.11 that applies to wireless LANs and provides up to 54-
Mbps in the 5GHz band. 802.11a uses an orthogonal frequency division multiplexing
encoding scheme rather than FHSS or DSSS.
 802.11b (also referred to as 802.11 High Rate or Wi-Fi) — an extension to 802.11 that
applies to wireless LANS and provides 11 Mbps transmission (with a fallback to 5.5, 2
and 1-Mbps) in the 2.4 GHz band. 802.11b uses only DSSS. 802.11b was a1999
ratification to the original 802.11 standard, allowing wireless functionality comparable to
Ethernet.
 802.11e — a wireless draft standard that defines the Quality of Service (QoS) support for
LANs, and is an enhancement to the 802.11a and 802.11b wireless LAN (WLAN)
specifications. 802.11e adds QoS features and multimedia support to the existing IEEE
802.11b and IEEE 802.11a wireless standards, while maintaining full backward
compatibility with these standards.
 802.11g — applies to wireless LANs and is used for transmission over short distances at
up to 54-Mbps in the 2.4 GHz bands.
 802.11n — 802.11n builds upon previous 802.11 standards by adding multiple-
input multiple-output (MIMO). The additional transmitter and receiver antennas allow for
increased data throughput through spatial multiplexing and increased range by exploiting
the spatial diversity through coding schemes like Alamouti coding. The real speed would
be 100 Mbit/s (even 250 Mbit/s in PHY level), and so up to 4-5 times faster than 802.11g.
 802.11ac — 802.11ac builds upon previous 802.11 standards, particularly the 802.11n
standard, to deliver data rates of 433Mbps per spatial stream, or 1.3Gbps in a three-
antenna (three stream) design. The 802.11ac specification operates only in the 5 GHz
frequency range and features support for wider channels (80MHz and 160MHz) and
beam forming capabilities by default to help achieve its higher wireless speeds.
  802.11ac Wave 2 — 802.11ac Wave 2 is an update for the original 802.11ac spec that
uses MU-MIMO technology and other advancements to help increase theoretical
maximum wireless speeds for the spec to 6.93 Gbps.
 802.11ad — 802.11ad is a wireless specification under development that will operate in
the 60GHz frequency band and offer much higher transfer rates than previous 802.11
specs, with a theoretical maximum transfer rate of up to 7Gbps (Gigabits per second).
 802.11r - 802.11r, also called Fast Basic Service Set (BSS) Transition, supports VoWi-
Fi handoff between access points to enable VoIP roaming on a Wi-Fi network
with 802.1X authentication.
 802.1X — Not to be confused with 802.11x (which is the term used to describe the
family of 802.11 standards) 802.1X is an IEEE standard for port-based Network Access
Control that allows network administrators to restricted use of IEEE 802 LAN service
access points to secure communication between authenticated and authorized devices.

2(d) A router inside an organization receives the same packet with a destination address 190.240.
34.95. If the subnet mask is /19. Find the subnet address.
Ans: To find the subnet address given an IP address and a subnet mask, you need to perform a bitwise AND
operation between the IP address and the subnet mask.
Step-by-Step Calculation
1. Convert the IP address to binary:
a. 190.240.34.95
i. 190 = 101111101011111010111110
ii. 240 = 111100001111000011110000
iii. 34 = 001000100010001000100010
iv. 95 = 010111110101111101011111
b. IP address in binary: 10111110.11110000.00100010.01011111.
2. Convert the subnet mask to binary:
/19 means the first 19 bits are set to 1, and the remaining bits are set to 0
11111111.11111111.11100000.00000000
3. Perform a bitwise AND operation:
o IP address: 10111110.11110000.00100010.01011111
o Subnet mask: 11111111.11111111.11100000.00000000
o Subnet address (result of bitwise AND): 10111110.11110000.00100000.00000000
4. Convert the subnet address back to decimal:
o 10111110 = 190
o 11110000 = 240
 o 00100000 = 32
o 00000000 = 0
So, the subnet address is: 190.240.32.0190.240.32.0190.240.32.0

2 (e) Describe cryptography. Explain substitutional and transposition technique.

Ans: Cryptography is the science of writing in secret code and is an ancient art; the first documented use of
cryptography in writing dates back to circa 1900 B.C. when an Egyptian scribe used non- standard
hieroglyphs in an inscription. Some experts argue that cryptography appeared spontaneously sometime after
writing was invented, with applications ranging from diplomatic missives to war-time battle plans. It is no
surprise, then, that new forms of cryptography came soon after the widespread development of computer
communications. In data and telecommunications, cryptography is necessary when communicating over any
un trusted medium, which includes just about any network, particularly the Internet. Within the context of
any application-to-application communication, there are some specific security requirements, including:
 Authentication: The process of proving one's identity. (The primary forms of host-to-host
authentication on the Internet today are name-based or address-based, both of which are
notoriously weak.)
 Privacy/confidentiality: Ensuring that no one can read the message except the intended receiver.
 Integrity: Assuring the receiver that the received message has not been altered in any way from the
original.
 Non-repudiation: A mechanism to prove that the sender really sent this message. Both Substitution
cipher technique and Transposition cipher technique are the types of Traditional cipher, which are
used to convert the plain text into cipher text.

Substitution Cipher Technique:

In Substitution Cipher Technique plain text characters are replaced with other characters, numbers and
symbols as well as in substitution Cipher Technique, character’s identity is changed while its position
remains unchanged.
Transposition Cipher Technique:
Transposition Cipher Technique rearranges the position of the plain text’s characters. In transposition
Cipher Technique, The position of the character is changed but character’s identity is not changed.
Transposition cipher is a type of encryption technique where the positions of the letters in the plaintext
message are rearranged to form a ciphertext message. This technique does not alter the letters themselves
but rather the order in which they appear.

SECTION C
3(a) Write short note on 1)Line coding 2) Switching Techniques 3) IEEE standard
Ans: 1) Line Coding: Line coding is a method used to convert digital data into a digital signal that can be
transmitted over a physical communication medium.
Key Types:
 Unipolar: Uses a single voltage level to represent binary digits (e.g., 0s are represented by 0V, and 1s by a
positive voltage).
 Polar: Utilizes two voltage levels, typically positive and negative, to represent binary digits.
o NRZ (Non-Return-to-Zero): Binary 0 and 1 are represented by different constant voltage levels
without returning to zero between bits.
o RZ (Return-to-Zero): Each bit returns to zero voltage in the middle of the bit interval.
o Manchester Encoding: Each bit has a transition in the middle; a low-to-high transition represents 0,
and a high-to-low transition represents 1.
o Differential Manchester: Each bit period is split into two halves, and a transition occurs at the start
of each bit period.
Purpose: Ensures proper synchronization, reduces bandwidth requirements, and mitigates issues such as
DC bias and baseline wander.
2) Switching Techniques: Switching techniques are methods used in telecommunications to route data
from the source to the destination across a network.
Types:
 Circuit Switching: Establishes a dedicated communication path or circuit between two nodes for
the duration of the communication session.
o Example: Traditional telephone networks.
o Advantages: Guaranteed continuous transmission, low delay once the circuit is established.
o Disadvantages: Inefficient use of resources, setup time required.
 Packet Switching: Data is divided into packets that are transmitted over shared network resources.
Each packet may take a different path to the destination.
o Example: Internet data transmission.
o Advantages: Efficient use of network resources, flexible, and scalable.
o Disadvantages: Potential for variable delays, packet loss, and reordering.
 Message Switching: Entire messages are routed from one switch to another, with each switch
storing the message before forwarding it.
o Advantages: No need for a dedicated path, efficient for intermittent traffic.
o Disadvantages: Higher delay due to store-and-forward mechanism, requires large storage capacity at
switches.
3) IEEE Standard: IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) standards are a set of
guidelines and protocols established by the IEEE for various technologies and industries.
Key Areas:
 Networking:
o IEEE 802: A family of standards for local area networks (LAN) and metropolitan area networks
(MAN).
 IEEE 802.3: Ethernet standards.
 IEEE 802.11: Wireless LAN (Wi-Fi) standards.
 Electrical and Electronic Engineering:
o IEEE 1394: High-performance serial bus (FireWire).
 Telecommunications:
o IEEE 802.15: Standards for wireless personal area networks (WPAN), including Bluetooth.
Purpose: Ensures compatibility, interoperability, and reliability of products and technologies across
different manufacturers and industries. It also promotes innovation and development by providing a
common framework for research and implementation.

3(b) Differentiate between Circuit Switching and Packet Switching with suitable diagram.
Ans: CIRCUIT SWITCHING: A circuit-switched network (as shown in Fig 4) consists of a set of
switches connected by physical links. A connection between two stations is a dedicated path made of one or
more links. Each connection uses only one dedicated channel on each link. Each link is normally
divided into n channels by using FDM or TDM. The link can be permanent (leased line) or temporary
(telephone).

Fig 4 Circuit Switching

Switching takes place at physical layer. Resources can be bandwidth in FDM and time slot in
TDM, switch buffer, switch processing time or switch I/O ports. Data transferred are not
packetized, but it is a continuous flow. No addressing involved during data transfer. There
 are three transmission phases in circuit switching namely Setup phase, data transfer phase
and tear down phase. It can be argued that circuit-switched networks are not as efficient as
the other two types of networks resources are allocated during the entire duration of the
connection. These resources are unavailable to other connections. In a telephone network,
people normally terminate the communication when they have finished their conversation.
However, in computer networks, a computer can be connected to another computer even if
there is no activity for a long time. In this case, allowing resources to be dedicated means that
other connections are deprived. The total delay in this circuit switching is shown in Fig 5.

Fig 5 Delay in Circuit Switching

PACKET SWITCHING

In packet Switching, flow of data is not continuous rather it flows in the form of packets. The
size of the packet is determined by the network and the governing protocol. This type of
switching further classify into datagram networks and virtual circuit networks.
Datagram Networks: Data are transmitted in discrete units called packets. Size of the packet
depends on the protocol and network. Packets switched networks are connectionless, hence no
resource allocation. Connectionless means the switch does not keep information about the
connection state. Datagram switching is done at network layer as shown in Fig 6
 Fig 6 Datagram Networks

A switch in a datagram network uses a routing table that is based on the destination address. The
destination address in the header of a packet in a datagram network remains the same during the
entire journey of the packet. The total delay is shown Fig 7.

Fig 7 Delay in Datagram Networks

Virtual Circuit Networks
A virtual-circuit network is a cross between a circuit-switched network and a datagram network.
The virtual-circuit shares characteristics of both. Packets form a single message travel along the
same path. Following are the characteristics of virtual circuit networks:
 Three phases to transfer data
 Resources can be allocated during setup phase
 Data are packetized and each packet carries an address in the header
 All packets follow the same path
 Implemented in data link layer
A virtual-circuit network uses a series of special temporary addresses known as virtual circuit
identifiers (VCI). The VCI at each switch is used to advance the frame towards its final
destination. The switch has a table with 4 columns as shown in Fig 8 i.e. Inputs half: Input Port
Number and Input VCI and Outputs half: Output Port Number and Output VCI.
 Fig 8 Virtual Circuit Identifier

The VCN behaves as if a circuit switched net because there is a setup phase to establish the VCI
entries in the switch table. There is also a data transfer phase and teardown phase. The total delay
in virtual circuit network is shown in Fig 9

Fig 9 Delay in Virtual Circuit Identifier

4(a) What are the primary difference between guided and unguided transmission media?
Ans: Guided Media: Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to
another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.
Twisted Pair Cable: A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper), each with its
own plastic insulation, twisted together. One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver,
and the other is used only as a ground reference. The receiver uses the difference between the
two. Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice and data channels. The
local loop-the line that connects subscribers to the central telephone office commonly consists of
unshielded twisted-pair cables. The DSL lines that are used by the telephone companies to
provide high-data-rate connections also use the high-bandwidth capability of unshielded twisted-
pair cables
Coaxial Cable: Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than those in
twisted pair cable, in part because the two media are constructed quite differently. Instead of
having two wires, coax has a central core conductor of solid or stranded wire (usually copper)
enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn, encased in an outer conductor of metal foil,
braid, or a combination of the two. The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against
noise and as the second conductor, which completes the circuit. This outer conductor is also
enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the whole cable is protected by a plastic cover as shown in
figure below:
Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks where a single coaxial network
could carry 10,000 voice signals. Later it was used in digital telephone networks where a single
coaxial cable could carry digital data up to 600 Mbps. However, coaxial cable in telephone
networks has largely been replaced today with fiber-optic cable
Fiber Optic Cable: A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the
form of light. To understand optical fiber, we first need to explore several aspects of the nature of
light. Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through a single uniform substance
Fiber-optic cable is often found in backbone networks because its wide bandwidth is cost-
effective. Today, with wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM), we can transfer data at a rate
of 1600 Gbps.
Unguided Media
Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor. This type
of communication is often referred to as wireless communication. Signals are normally broadcast
through free space and thus are available to anyone who has a device capable of receiving them.
Unguided signals can travel from the source to destination in several ways: ground propagation,
sky propagation, and line-of-sight propagation.
Radio Waves: Although there is no clear-cut demarcation between radio waves and microwaves,
electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz are normally called
radio waves; waves ranging in frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called microwaves.
However, the behavior of the waves, rather than the frequencies, is a better criterion for
classification. Radio waves use omni-directional antennas that send out signals in all directions.
The omni-directional characteristics of radio waves make them useful for multicasting, in which
there is one sender but many receivers. AM and FM radio,television, cordless phones, and
paging are examples of multicasting.
Microwaves: Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called
microwaves. Microwaves are unidirectional. When an antenna transmits microwave waves, they
can be narrowly focused. This means that the sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned.
The unidirectional property has an obvious advantage. A pair of antennas can be aligned without
interfering with another pair of aligned antennas. Microwaves, due to their unidirectional
properties, are very useful when unicast (one-to-one) communication is needed between the
sender and the receiver. They are used in cellular phones, satellites and wireless LANs.
Infrared: Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz (wavelengths from 1 mm
to 770 nm), can be used for short-range communication. Infrared waves, having high
frequencies, cannot penetrate walls. This advantageous characteristic prevents interference
between one system and another; a short-range communication system in one room cannot be
affected by another system in the next room. When we use our infrared remote control, we do not
interfere with the use of the remote by our neighbors. However, this same characteristic makes
infrared signals useless for long-range communication. In addition, we cannot use infrared waves
outside a building because the sun's rays contain infrared waves that can interfere with the
communication. The infrared band, almost 400 THz, has an excellent potential for data
transmission. Such a wide bandwidth can be used to transmit digital data with a very high data
rate. The Infrared Data Association (IrDA), an association for sponsoring the use of infrared
waves, has established standards for using these signals for communication between devices such
as keyboards, mice, PCs, and printers. For example, some manufacturers provide a special port
called the IrDA port that allows a wireless keyboard to communicate with a PC. The standard
originally defined a data rate of 75 kbps for a distance up to 8 m. The recent standard defines a
data rate of 4 Mbps.

4 (b) Compare and contrast HDLC and PPP in terms of their features, functionalities, and
suitability for different networking environments.
Ans: HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control) and PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) are both data
link layer protocols used in networking, but they have different features, functionalities, and
suitability for various networking environments. Here's a comparison and contrast of the two:

Comparison
Feature/Functionality HDLC PPP
Standard ISO 13239 RFC 1661
Frame Structure Fixed-length Flexible
 Feature/Functionality HDLC PPP
Error Detection CRC FCS
Error Correction Yes No
Flow Control Window-based No
Transmission Mode Bit-oriented Byte-oriented
Advanced link
Link Management Simple link management management
(LCP)
Multiprotocol Extensive (via
Limited
Support NCPs)
Authentication No Yes (PAP, CHAP)
WAN, Point-to-point,
Usage Environment synchronous/asynchronous internet access,
links WAN

Suitability for different networking environment: HDLC

 WAN Environments: Commonly used in Wide Area Networks (WANs), particularly in leased lines
and circuit-switched environments.
 Synchronous and Asynchronous Links: Suitable for both synchronous and asynchronous links.
Suitability for different networking environment: PPP
 Point-to-Point Links: Ideal for point-to-point connections, such as dial-up connections, DSL, and
VPNs.
 WAN Environments: Commonly used in WAN environments, particularly for internet access.
 Flexibility: More flexible than HDLC due to its support for multiple protocols and authentication
mechanisms.

5(a) Discuss the concept of quality of Service (QoS) in IEEE 802.11 Networks. How is QoS
implemented, and what benefits does it provide?
Ans: Quality of Service (QoS) in IEEE 802.11 networks is a set of technologies and mechanisms
that ensure the efficient management of network resources to meet the performance requirements
of different applications. QoS aims to prioritize certain types of traffic, reduce latency, and
ensure a consistent level of performance, which is particularly crucial for applications such as
voice over IP (VoIP), video streaming, and online gaming.
QoS in IEEE 802.11 Networks
IEEE 802.11e is the standard that defines enhancements for QoS in wireless networks. It
introduces mechanisms that prioritize traffic and manage bandwidth allocation to ensure that
critical applications receive the necessary network resources.
Implementation of QoS in IEEE 802.11 Networks
1. Enhanced Distributed Channel Access (EDCA):
o Traffic Categories (TCs): EDCA defines four access categories (ACs): Voice
(AC_VO), Video (AC_VI), Best Effort (AC_BE), and Background (AC_BK). Each
category has different priorities, with Voice and Video having the highest.
o Arbitration Interframe Space (AIFS): Different access categories have different
AIFS values, which determine the waiting time before a device can attempt to
access the medium. Higher priority traffic has shorter AIFS values.
o Transmission Opportunity (TXOP): Defines the maximum duration a device can
occupy the medium once it gains access. Higher priority traffic is allowed longer
TXOPs.
o Contention Window (CW): The contention window size varies based on the access
category. Higher priority traffic has smaller contention windows, reducing the
waiting time.
2. HCF Controlled Channel Access (HCCA):
o HCCA is a more centralized method compared to EDCA, where a Hybrid
Coordinator (HC) within the access point (AP) manages access to the medium. The
HC polls stations to allow transmission opportunities based on predefined schedules,
ensuring deterministic access for high-priority traffic.
o Traffic Specification (TSPEC): Devices can request specific QoS requirements
using TSPEC, which includes parameters like data rate, delay, and jitter. The HC
uses this information to allocate resources appropriately.
3. Block Acknowledgment:
o Reduces overhead by acknowledging a block of frames instead of individual frames,
enhancing throughput and reducing latency for high-priority traffic.
Benefits of QoS in IEEE 802.11 Networks
1. Prioritization of Critical Traffic:
o Ensures that time-sensitive applications like VoIP and video conferencing receive
the necessary bandwidth and low latency, improving the user experience.
2. Improved Network Efficiency:
o By managing bandwidth allocation and reducing collisions, QoS mechanisms
improve overall network efficiency and throughput.
 3. Enhanced User Experience:
o Applications that require consistent performance, such as online gaming and video
streaming, benefit from reduced jitter and packet loss, leading to a smoother
experience.
4. Scalability:
o QoS mechanisms help in managing the increased load and diverse traffic types in
dense network environments, ensuring fair resource allocation.
5. Better Resource Management:
o QoS enables better management of network resources, ensuring that high-priority
traffic is serviced appropriately without being affected by lower-priority traffic.

Q5(b) How do you say collision detection is analog process? Why do we prefer CSMA over
ALOHA? Prove that maximum efficiency of ALOHA is 1/e.
Ans: Collision Detection as an Analog Process
Collision detection in networking, particularly in Ethernet (using CSMA/CD - Carrier Sense Multiple
Access with Collision Detection), is considered an analog process due to the following reasons:
1. Signal Analysis: Collision detection involves monitoring the voltage levels on the communication medium
(typically a cable) to identify interference patterns. This requires the ability to distinguish between valid
signals and noise, which is inherently an analog process.
2. Continuous Monitoring: The network interface card (NIC) continuously monitors the line for any changes
in signal amplitude that indicate a collision. The variations in signal strength and waveform are analyzed in
real-time.
3. Physical Layer Interaction: Collision detection happens at the physical layer of the OSI model, where
signals are represented as analog waveforms. The NIC uses this analog information to determine if multiple
devices are transmitting simultaneously.
Preference for CSMA over ALOHA
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access) is preferred over ALOHA for several reasons:
1. Reduced Collisions: In CSMA, devices sense the carrier (the communication medium) before transmitting. If
the medium is busy, they wait, significantly reducing the chances of collisions compared to ALOHA, where
devices transmit regardless of the state of the medium.
2. Higher Efficiency: CSMA's ability to detect a busy medium before transmitting leads to fewer
retransmissions and higher overall network efficiency.
3. Network Load Management: CSMA dynamically adapts to network load, as devices wait longer before
retransmitting if the medium is busy, preventing congestion and further reducing collisions.
4. Lower Latency: By reducing collisions and retransmissions, CSMA generally offers lower latency than
ALOHA, making it more suitable for time-sensitive applications.
6(a) why do we use subnet mask? Perform the sub netting of the following IP address 160.111.x.x;
Original subnet mask 255.255.0.0; amount of subnets 6.
Ans: A subnet mask is used in networking to divide an IP address into a network and host portion. This
process, called subnetting, allows for efficient utilization of IP addresses, improves network performance,
and enhances security. Here's why we use subnet masks:
1. Efficient IP Address Management: Subnetting divides a larger network into smaller, more
manageable sub-networks (subnets). This helps in efficient allocation of IP addresses and reduces
wastage.
2. Improved Network Performance: By segregating a large network into smaller subnets, broadcast
traffic is limited to within each subnet. This reduces congestion and improves overall network
performance.
3. Enhanced Security: Subnetting allows for the isolation of different segments of a network. This
isolation can prevent unauthorized access between subnets, improving security.
4. Simplified Network Management: Smaller subnets are easier to manage and troubleshoot.
Network administrators can pinpoint issues more quickly within a defined subnet.
Subnetting the IP Address 160.111.x.x
Given:
 Original IP address: 160.111.x.x (Class B address)
 Original subnet mask: 255.255.0.0 (/16)
 Number of required subnets: 6
1. Determine the New Subnet Mask:
o To create 6 subnets, we need at least 3 additional bits (since 2^3 = 8 subnets, which is the next power
of 2 greater than 6).
o Original subnet mask: /16 (255.255.0.0)
o New subnet mask: /16 + 3 = /19 (255.255.224.0)
2. Calculate Subnet Addresses:
 o The subnet increment is determined by the value of the last octet in the subnet mask. For /19, the
subnet mask in binary is 255.255.224.0:
o The increment is 2^{(8 - 3)} = 2^5 = 32This means subnets increase by 32 in the third octet.
3. List the Subnets:
o The subnets are formed by incrementing the value of the third octet by 32 each time:
 Subnet 1: 160.111.0.0/19
 Subnet 2: 160.111.32.0/19
 Subnet 3: 160.111.64.0/19
 Subnet 4: 160.111.96.0/19
 Subnet 5: 160.111.128.0/19
 Subnet 6: 160.111.160.0/19
Verification
 Each subnet has a range of addresses, and the next subnet starts immediately after the previous one ends. For
instance, the first subnet (160.111.0.0/19) covers addresses from 160.111.0.0 to 160.111.31.255, the second
subnet (160.111.32.0/19) covers addresses from 160.111.32.0 to 160.111.63.255, and so on.

6(b) What are the difference between distance vector and link state routing protocol? Explain.
Ans: Routing protocols are essential for determining the best path for data to travel across a network. Two primary
types of routing protocols are Distance Vector and Link State. Each has distinct characteristics, advantages, and
disadvantages.
Comparison Table
Feature Distance Vector Link State
Routing Information Entire routing table to neighbors Link state information to all routers
Metric Distance (usually in hops) Cost based on various metrics
Algorithm Bellman-Ford Dijkstra’s
Convergence Speed Slow Fast
Complexity Simple Complex
Overhead Low High
Scalability Limited High
Example Protocols RIP, IGRP OSPF, IS-IS
Loop Prevention Prone to loops (count-to-infinity) Less prone due to complete topology
Resource Requirements Lower CPU and memory usage Higher CPU and memory usage
Bandwidth Usage Periodic updates Initial flooding, then event-triggered updates
Distance Vector and Link State routing protocols serve different needs and environments. Distance Vector protocols
are simpler and require less computational power, making them suitable for smaller networks. However, they suffer
from slower convergence and potential routing loops. On the other hand, Link State protocols provide faster
convergence and a more accurate network map, making them ideal for larger, more complex networks, albeit at the
cost of higher resource usage and complexity. Understanding these differences helps network administrators choose
the appropriate routing protocol for their specific network requirements.

7(a) Write short notes on a) UDP, b) TCP c) SCTP

Ans: User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a connectionless transport layer protocol in the IP suite, defined by RFC
768. It offers low-latency communication without the need for connection establishment, making it suitable
for time-sensitive applications like live streaming, online gaming, and VoIP. However, UDP is unreliable,
as it does not guarantee packet delivery, order, or error correction, leading to potential packet loss or
duplication.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a connection-oriented, reliable transport layer protocol in the IP
suite, defined by RFC 793. TCP establishes a connection through a three-way handshake, ensuring reliable
data delivery with mechanisms for acknowledgments, sequencing, flow control, and congestion control.
These features make TCP ideal for applications requiring reliable and ordered delivery of data, such as web
browsing (HTTP/HTTPS), email (SMTP, IMAP, POP3), and file transfers (FTP).
Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP)
Stream Control Transmission Protocol (SCTP) is a transport layer protocol that combines features of both
TCP and UDP, designed for message-oriented applications, defined by RFC 4960. SCTP supports multi-
streaming, allowing multiple independent streams within a single connection, and multi-homing, enabling a
single association to span multiple IP addresses for redundancy and failover. SCTP is message-oriented,
preserving message boundaries, and ensuring reliable, ordered delivery of messages with built-in error
detection and correction mechanisms, making it suitable for applications like telecommunication signaling.

7(b) Explain how does e-mail reaches to destination. Explain in brief SMTP emphasizing the role and
function of User Agent (UA) and Mail Transfer Agent (MTA).
Ans: Primarily the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), User Agent (UA), and Mail Transfer Agent (MTA).
Here’s a brief overview of the process:
1. Composition and Sending:
User Agent (UA): The UA is an email client like Outlook, Gmail, or Thunderbird, where the user
composes and sends the email. When the user clicks "send," the UA formats the email into a
standard format and sends it to the local Mail Transfer Agent (MTA).
2. Transfer:
Mail Transfer Agent (MTA): The MTA is responsible for transferring the email from the sender's
UA to the recipient's UA. It acts like a post office, routing the email through various servers until it
 reaches its destination. MTAs use the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) to forward the email
between servers.
3. Routing:
The sending MTA queries the Domain Name System (DNS) to find the recipient's mail server (MX
record). The email is then routed through the internet, possibly passing through several intermediate
MTAs, until it reaches the recipient's mail server.
4. Delivery:
The recipient’s mail server receives the email and stores it until the recipient retrieves it. This server
typically uses protocols like Post Office Protocol (POP) or Internet Message Access Protocol
(IMAP) to deliver the email to the recipient’s UA.
5. Retrieval:
User Agent (UA): The recipient's UA checks the mail server for new messages and downloads them
to the user’s inbox.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
SMTP is the protocol used to send emails from one server to another. It operates on the principle of "store
and forward" and uses a process similar to the postal system. Here’s a breakdown of its roles and functions:
Role and Function:
 SMTP establishes a connection between the sender’s and recipient’s MTAs.
 It transfers the email data from the sender's MTA to the recipient's MTA.
 It can relay messages through multiple MTAs if the recipient's MTA is not directly
reachable.
 SMTP manages errors and notifications for undelivered emails.
User Agent (UA)
Role and Function:
 The UA is the interface through which users interact with the email system.
 Users create and send emails.
 Users receive, read, and organize emails.
 The UA formats the email into a standard format before sending.
Mail Transfer Agent (MTA)
Role and Function:
 The MTA is responsible for transferring emails between servers.
 It determines the best path to route the email to its destination.
 It temporarily stores emails and forwards them to the next hop in the delivery process.
 Ensures emails sent and received using the correct protocols (mainly SMTP).