Department of Electronics and

Communication Engineering

23ECR406 ANALOG INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

CIA II ANSWERKEY

1 List the limitations of voltage to current converters CO 3 K1

Non-ideal behavior at high frequencies, potential for instability, and limited
current output.
2 What is active filter and specify the types of filters? CO 3 K1
A filter is designed to selectively allow or block certain frequencies. Common
filter types include low-pass, high-pass, band-pass, and band-reject (notch) filters.
3 In the low-pass filter shown in the figure, for a cut-off frequency CO 3 K3
of 5kHz, the value of R2 GAT
E
2014

4 Why active filters are preferred over the passive filters? CO 3 K2

Active filters have the following advantages over passive filters: (1) gain of the
active filter can be greater than one (2) active filters can be cascaded without
loading and impedance matching issues; (3) active filters can be constructed
without using inductors, which are bulky
5 Summarize the important features of an instrumentation amplifier. CO 3 K2
Very high common mode rejection ratio (CMRR), High open loop gain, Low DC
offset, Low drift, Low input impedance, and Low noise.
6 Differentiate the feature of voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) in K2
comparison with other oscillators. CO 4
A Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO) differs from other oscillators by
its ability to dynamically adjust its output frequency based on an applied
control voltage
7 List any two application of 555 Timer in Monostable mode. CO 4 K1
In monostable mode, the 555 timer can be used in applications like pulse
generation and delay circuits.
8 Illustrate the purpose of using an external pass transistor with an IC voltage K2
regulator. CO 5
An external pass transistor is used with an IC voltage regulator to increase the
output current capacity of the regulator, allowing it to handle heavier loads. It acts
as a "current booster," enabling the regulator to supply larger currents.
9 Differentiate linear and switching regulators. CO 5 K2
Linear regulators dissipate excess power as heat to maintain a stable output
voltage, while switching regulators use switching components (like transistors) to
 efficiently convert and regulate voltage
10 List the need for protection diodes in voltage regulators based on LM317 CO 5 K1
regulator.
Protection diodes in LM317 voltage regulators are used to prevent damage to the
internal transistors when the input voltage drops to zero while the output capacitor
is charged. They also help protect against reverse voltage.

11 (i)Explain in detail the function of amplifier with resistive load and active Load

Amplifier with resistive load

 In a resistive load amplifier, a resistor (RL) is connected in series with the
amplifier's output to control the DC bias current and voltage.
 The gain of the amplifier with a resistive load is determined by the resistance (RL)
and the amplifier's internal parameters (like transconductance, gm).
 The gain is limited by the value of RL and the amplifier's internal resistance.
 The output voltage swing is limited by the DC supply voltage and the voltage drop
across RL. Simple to design and implement, and provides stable operation.
 A common-emitter amplifier with a collector resistor (RC) as the load.
 The active load (e.g., current mirror) maintains a constant current regardless of the
output voltage, providing a high output resistance.
 A common active load in amplifier circuits, especially for differential amplifiers.
Active loads are preferred in applications where high gain, large output swing, and
low distortion are required, especially in integrated circuits.
Amplifier with resistive load
 Instead of a resistor, an active device (e.g., a transistor) is used as the load. This
active device acts as a current source, providing a high resistance for the amplifier's
output.
 The gain is higher than with resistive loads due to the high output resistance of the
active load.
 Higher gain, better output swing, and reduced distortion. More complex to design
and implement, and can be more sensitive to temperature variations. A differential
amplifier with a current mirror as the load

(ii)Sketch an instrumentation amplifier using three Op-Amp and derive its output
voltage equation.
The important features of an instrumentation amplifier are
1. High gain accuracy
2. High CMRR
3. High gain stability with low temperature coefficient
4. Low output impedance
Instrumentation amplifier is a kind of differential amplifier with additional input buffer
stages. The addition of input buffer stages makes it easy to match (impedance matching)
the amplifier with the preceding stage. Instrumentation amplifiers are commonly used in
industrial test and measurement application.
12 (i)Explain in detail the function of amplifier with depletion load and current source
load.
An amplifier with a depletion load, typically a depletion-mode MOSFET, amplifies a
signal by using the inherent conductivity of the depletion-mode transistor to provide a load
Depletion MOSFET as an Active Load

Depletion-mode MOSFETs can act as a constant current source because they conduct
current even without a gate voltage, making them a good choice for load resistors in logic
circuits or as a load in amplifiers. A depletion-mode MOSFET has a channel that conducts
current even without a gate voltage. The gate-to-source voltage can control the channel's
width and the amount of current flowing. In an amplifier, the depletion-mode MOSFET
acts as the load, providing the necessary current flow for amplification. The depletion-
mode MOSFET is biased to operate in its linear region, allowing the amplifier to amplify
the input signal.
Ideal Current Source as an Active Load
The amplifier can be biased using the constant current source. The current source is the
example of active load. If the current source is ideal then there are couple of advantages.
1. Bias current remains stable irrespective of the changes in the external circuit
parameters like temperature
2. The ideal current source has infinite output impedance.
In the AC equivalent circuit, the ideal current source can be replaced by the open circuit.
And the voltage gain of the amplifier |Av| = gm*ro, where ro is output impedance of the
MOSFET.
(ii) Illustrate the working of successive approximation type A/D converter with a neat
functional block diagram
Successive Approximation ADC
A Successive Approximation Register (SAR) is added to the circuit instead of counting up
in binary sequence, this register counts by trying all values
of bits starting with the MSB and finishing at the LSB. The register monitors the
comparators output to see if the binary count is greater or less than the analog signal input
and adjusts the bits accordingly

Elements:
DAC = Digital to Analog Converter
EOC = End of Conversion
SAR = Successive Approximation Register
S/H = Sample and Hold Circuit
Vin = Input Voltage
Vref = Reference Voltage
  Successive approximation type A/D converter uses an n-bit DAC and original
analog results
 Performs a binary comparison of VDAC and Vin
 MSB is initialized at 1 for DAC
 If Vin < VDAC (VREF / 2^n=1) then MSB is reset to 0
 If Vin > VDAC (VREF / 2^n) Successive Bits set to 1 otherwise 0
 Algorithm is repeated up to LSB
 At end DAC in = ADC out
 N-bit conversion requires N comparison cycles
13 (i)Summarize the main aspects of voltage to current and current to voltage converter.
Voltage to Current Converter:

The nodal equation at the inverting input terminal's node is

Thus, the output current I0 of a voltage to current converter is the ratio of its input voltage Vi and
resistance R1.
The above equation represents the ratio of the output current I0 and the input voltage Vi & it is
equal to the reciprocal of resistance R1 The ratio of the output current I0 and the input voltage Vi is
called as Transconductance.
The ratio of the output and the input of a circuit is called as gain. So, the gain of an voltage to
current converter is the Transconductance and it is equal to the reciprocal of resistance R1.
Current to Voltage Converter:

the output voltage, V0 is having a negative sign, which indicates that there exists a 180 0 phase
difference between the input current and output voltage.
The above equation represents the ratio of the output voltage V0 and the input current Ii, and it is
equal to the negative of feedback resistance, Rf. The ratio of output voltage V 0 and input current Ii
is called as Transresistance.
The ratio of output and input of a circuit is called as gain. So, the gain of a current to voltage
converter is its transresistance and it is equal to the (negative) feedback resistance Rf.
(ii)Draw block diagram of NE565 and explain the principle of operation.

The block diagram of IC 565 PLL consists of phase detector, amplifier, low pass filter and
VCO. The centre frequency of the PLL is determined by the free-running frequency of the
VCO and it is given as,

where R1 and C1 are an external resistor and a capacitor connected to pins 8 and 9,
respectively. The values of R1 and C1 are adjusted such that the free running frequency will
be at the centre of the input frequency range. The value of R1 is restricted from 2kΩ to 20
kΩ but a capacitor can have any value. A capacitor C2 connected between pin 7 and the
positive supply (pin 10) forms a first order low pass filter with an internal resistance of 3.6
kΩ. The value of filter capacitor C2 should be large enough to eliminate possible
oscillations in the VCO voltage.
The lock range and capture range for IC 565 PLL are given by the following equations

lock range increases with an increase in input voltage but decreases with increase in supply
 voltage.
14 (i) With neat sketch, explain the working principle of weighted resistor DAC using
Op-Amp.
The input in the digital to analog converter is an n-bit binary word D and is combined with
a reference voltage 𝑉𝑟 to give an analog output signal. The output of a DAC can be either a
voltage or current. For a voltage output DAC, the D/A converter is mathematically
described as

Where, 𝑉𝑜 = output voltage

𝑉𝐹𝑆 = full scale output voltage
K = scaling factor usually adjusted to unity
𝑑1 𝑑2……. 𝑑𝑛 = n-bit binary fractional word with the decimal point located at the left 𝑑1 =
most significant bit (MSB) with a weight of 𝑉𝐹𝑆 /2
Weighted resistor DAC using Op-Amp uses a summing amplifier with a binary weighted
resistor network. It has n- electronic switches 𝑑1 𝑑2……. 𝑑𝑛 controlled by binary input
word. These switches are single pole double throw (SPDT) type. If the binary input to a
particular switch is 1, it connects the resistance to the reference voltage (-𝑉𝑅). And if the
input bit is 0, the switch connects the resistor to the ground. The output current 𝐼𝑜 for an
ideal op-amp can be written as

The output voltage is

-------(2)
Comparing equation (1) with (2) it can be seen that if 𝑅𝑓 = R then K = 1 and 𝑉𝐹𝑆= 𝑉𝑅. The
circuit shown in figure uses a negative reference voltage. It may be noted that although the
op-amp in figure is connected in inverting mode, it can also be connected in non-inverting
mode. The op-amp is simply working as a current to voltage converter.
The accuracy and stability of a DAC depends upon the accuracy of the resistors and the
tracking of each other with temperature. One of the disadvantages of binary weighted type
DAC is the wide range of resistor values required. Thus, as the number of bit increases, the
range of resistance value increases. For 8-bit DAC, the resistors required are 2 0R, 2 1 R, 2
2 R… 2 7 R. the largest resistor is 128 times the smallest one for only 8- bit DAC.
 weighted resistor DAC using Op-Amp.

(ii) Draw block diagram of PLL and explain the principle of operation in basic signal
shaping circuits.

A phase-locked loop consists of a phase detector and a voltage controlled oscillator. The
output of the phase detector is the input of the voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) and the
output of the VCO is connected to one of the inputs of a phase detector which is shown
below in the basic block diagram.

 The phase-locked loop consists of a phase detector, voltage controlled

oscillator and, in between them, a low pass filter is fixed.
 The input signal ‘Vi’ with an input frequency ‘Fs’ is conceded by a phase detector.
Basically the phase detector is a comparator that compares the input frequency fi
through the feedback frequency fo.
 The output of the phase detector is (fs+fo) which is a DC voltage. The out of the
phase detector, i.e., DC voltage is input to the low pass filter (LPF) it removes the
high-frequency noise and produces a steady DC level.
 The phase-locked loop detector compares the input frequency and the output
frequency of the VCO to produces a DC voltage which is directly proportional to
the phase distinction of the two frequencies. The analog and digital signals are used
in the phase-locked loop.
 When no signal is applied to the PLL it will have no error voltage applied to the
oscillator. If a signal is applied and swept towards the oscillator frequency, the
phase detector will generate the sum and difference frequencies.
15 (i)For an astable multivibrator, RA = 6.8 kΩ, RB = 3.3 kΩ and C = 0.1 μF, calculate t-
high, t-low, free running frequency and duty cycle, D.
Solution
 Formula
t-high=0.693×(RA+RB)×C
t-low=0.693×RB×C
T=thigh+tlow
f=1/T1
D=thigh/T×100%
Solved Values
t-high =699.93μs
t-low=228.69μs
T=928.62μs
f 1077.2Hz
D =75.37%
(i)Elucidate the operation of IC-566 and derive the expression for its output
frequency.

Voltage controlled oscillators can be broadly classified into a linear voltage controlled
oscillators and relaxation type voltage controlled oscillators. Linear voltage controlled
oscillators are generally used to produce a sine wave. varactor (varicap) diode is used
in place of the capacitor in the tank circuit. A varactor diode is a type of semiconductor
diode whose capacitance across the junction can be varied by varying the voltage
across the junction. Thus by varying the voltage across the varicap diode in the tank
circuit, the output frequency of the VCO can be varied.
Resistor R1 and capacitor C1 form the timing components. Capacitor C2 is used to
prevent the parasitic oscillations during VCO switching. Resistor R3 is used to provide
the control voltage Vc. Triangle and square wave outputs are obtained from pins 4 and
3 respectively. The output frequency of the VCO can be obtained using the following
equation
Fout = 2.4(V+-V5) /(R1C1V+) . Where Fout is the output frequency, R1 and C1 are the
timing components and V+ is the supply voltage.

16 (i)For the given circuit, the value of capacitor is 10 nf, frequency is 10 kHz and the
duty cycle is 0.75. Find the Values of RA and RB
 (ii)Explain the functional block diagram of NE565 PLL IC to operate as a frequency
divider.

1. 1. Frequency Synthesis:
The NE565 PLL is used as part of a frequency synthesizer. A stable reference frequency
(e.g., from a crystal oscillator) is fed into the PLL.
2. 2. VCO and Divider:
The PLL's Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO) is designed to produce a frequency that's a
multiple of the reference frequency. This output is then divided down by a frequency
divider (which can be an external IC or a digital circuit).
3. 3. Locked Operation:
The PLL's phase comparator monitors the phase difference between the reference signal
and the divided VCO output. If there's a phase difference, the PLL adjusts the VCO's
frequency to match the reference frequency, maintaining a stable lock.
4. 4. Desired Frequency:
The output of the divider is the desired lower frequency, which is now precisely derived
from the stable reference.
17 (i)With neat sketch, illustrate the operation of servo tracking A/D converter.

The Up/Down Counter has one additional input other than the clock pin. This additional
input terminal dictates whether the counting will be up (meaning from low value to high
value) or down (from high value to low value). The comparator gets inputs coming from
Vin and from the output terminal of the DAC. This comparator’s output is given to the
up/down counter terminal M. External clock signal is also provided. When M = 1, the
counter performs up-counting. When M = 0, the counter performs down-counting. The
counter values are converted to appropriate decimal values by the Digital-to-Analog
Converter (DAC) and this is again given back to the comparator as a feedback signal for
continuous comparison. A latch is provided to retain the counter’s final stage at the end
of conversion. The latch is triggered by the control box.
At the start of conversion, the counter is in state of all 0s (the zero state). So, V DAC = 0.
When Vin > 0 is applied, the comparator output is high, and hence M = 1. The counter
starts counting up to the value of Vin. M = 1 as long as Vin > V DAC and so counter does
up-counting.
Whenever a new value is given, if it is lower than the previous Vin, then the counter does
not have to start from the zero states (as in normal counter-type ADC). Instead, in this
case, the Vin < VDAC and comparator output is low. So M = 0 and counter starts down-
counting. Once the new value is reached, it is latched and again the DAC’s output is
compared with the input, and accordingly, up-counting or down-counting is performed.
The output of the DAC is shown below for a typical input waveform.
(ii)Draw the functional block diagram of IC 723 voltage regulator and explain its
working as a basic low voltage regulator.

The simplified functional block diagram can be divided in to 4 blocks.

1. Reference Generating block:

The temperature compensated Zener diode, constant current source & voltage
reference amplifier together from the reference generating block. The Zener diode is used
to generate a fixed reference voltage internally. Constant current source will make the
Zener diode to operate at affixed point & it is applied to the Non – inverting terminal of
error amplifier. The Unregulated input voltage ±Vcc is applied to the voltage reference
amplifier as well as error amplifier.

2. Error Amplifier:
Error amplifier is a high gain differential amplifier with 2 input (inverting & Non-
inverting). The Non-inverting terminal is connected to the internally generated reference
voltage. The Inverting terminal is connected to the full regulated output voltage.
3. Series Pass Transistor:
Q1 is the internal series pass transistor which is driven by the error amplifier. This
transistor actually acts as a variable resistor & regulates the output voltage. The collector
of transistor Q1 is connected to the Un-regulated power supply. The maximum collector
voltage of Q1 is limited to 36Volts. The maximum current which can be supplied by Q1
 is 150mA.
4. Circuitry to limit the current:
The internal transistor Q2 is used for current sensing & limiting. Q2 is normally OFF
transistor. It turns ON when the IL exceeds a predetermined limit.
Low voltage, Low current is capable of supplying load voltage which is equal to or
between 2 to 7Volts.
Vload = 2 to 7V and Iload= 50mA

IC723 as a LOW voltage LOW current:

 R1 & R2 from a potential divider between Vref & Gnd.

 The Voltage across R2 is connected to the Non – inverting terminal of the
regulator IC Vnon-inv = R2/(R1+R2) Vref
 Gain of the internal error amplifier is large Vnon-inv = Vin
 Therefore the Vo is connected to the Inverting terminal through R3 & RSC must
also be equal to Vnon-inv
 Vo = Vnon-inv =R2/(R1+R2) Vref
 R1 & R2 can be in the range of 1 KΩ to 10KΩ & value of R3 is given by
 R3 = R1ll R2 =R1R2/(R1+R2)

18 (i)With circuit diagram explain the operation of R-2R ladder type D/A convertor.
Wide range of resistors are required in binary weighted resistor type DAC. This can
be
avoided by using R-2R ladder type DAC where only two values of resistors are required.
It is well suited for integrated circuit realization. The typical value of resistor ranges from
2.5kΩ to 10kΩ. .
voltages at the nodes (A,B,C) formed by resistor branches are easily calculated in a

similar fashion and the output voltage b

ecomes,
R-2R ladder DAC for switch positons 001 (b) Equivalent circuit

(ii)Explain the operation of LM79XX fixed voltage regulator with appropriate

diagram.
 IC voltage regulators are versatile, relatively inexpensive and are available with
features such as programmable output, current/ voltage boosting and floating
operation for high voltage application.
 Some important types of IC Voltage regulators are:
 Fixed positive/negative output voltage regulators
 Adjustable output voltage regulators.
 79XX series are negative fixed voltage regulators which are complements to the
78XX series devices. There are two extra voltage options of -5.2 V,-20 V and -22
V.
 The inductance of the long connecting wire may cause unwanted oscillations inside
the IC and the capacitor Ci should be used to bypass them to improve the stability
of the circuit. The output bypass capacitor CO is used to improve the transient
response.
 Fixed Output Voltage:
 LM79XX regulators provide a specific, fixed negative output voltage (e.g., -5V, -
12V, -15V).
Negative Voltage Regulation:
 They are designed to maintain a stable negative output voltage even when the input
voltage varies or the load current changes.
Simple External Components:
 They usually only need external bypass capacitors for stable operation, making
them easy to use in circuits.
Overload Protection:
 LM79XX regulators typically include internal current limiting and thermal
shutdown for protection against overload conditions.
 Low Quiescent Current:
 They have a low quiescent current, meaning they draw minimal current from the
power supply when not actively regulating.
19 (i)Summarize the key aspects of log and antilog amplifiers using op- amp.

1) Log Amplifier

A logarithmic amplifier is an electronic circuit that produces an output that is proportional

to the logarithm of the applied input. An op-amp based logarithmic amplifier produces a
voltage at the output, which is proportional to the logarithm of the voltage applied to the
resistor connected to its inverting terminal

Fig 1: Op-amp based Logarithmic Amplifier

.
The nodal equation at the inverting input is as follows
0 - Vi/R1 + If = 0 ..........(1)
from the equation 1,the feedback current is
If = Vi/R1
When the diode is forward biased, the current flowing through the diode is
If = Is(Vf/nVT)..........(2)
Where,
Is is the saturation current of the diode,
Vf is the voltage drop across diode, when it is in forward bias,
VT is the diode's thermal equivalent voltage.
The KVL equation around the feedback loop of the op amp will be
0 - Vf - V0 = 0
Vf = -V0
Substituting the value of Vf in Equation 2, we get
If = Is(-V0/nVT) ..........(3)
Vi/R1 = Is𝑒(-V0/nVT)
Vi/RiIs = (-V0/nVT)
Applying natural logarithm on the both sides
ln(Vi/R1Is) = -V0/nVT
V0 = -nVTln(Vi/R1Is)
2) Antilog Amplifier
An op-amp based anti-logarithmic amplifier produces a voltage at the output, which is
proportional to the anti-logarithm of the voltage that is applied to the diode connected to its
inverting input.

Fig 2: Op-amp based Anti-Logarithmic Amplifier

The nodal equation at the inverting input node is

V0 = -If*Rf ..........(4)
When the diode is forward biased, the current flowing through the diode is given by
If = Is(Vf/nVT)
Substituting the value of If in Equation 4, then
V0 = -RfIs(Vf/nVT)..........(5)
The KVL equation at the inverting input of the op-amp will be
Vi - Vf = 0
So,
Vi = Vf
Substituting the value of Vf in equation 5, then
V0 = -RfIs(Vi/nVT)
In the above equation the parameters n, VT and Is are constants. So, the output voltage
V0 will be proportional to the anti-natural logarithm of the input voltage Vi, for a fixed
value of feedback resistanceRf.
The output voltage V0 has a negative sign, which indicates that there exists a 180° phase
difference between the input and the output.
(ii)Elaborate the operation of AD633 analog multiplier IC with appropriate diagram.
The IC AD633 is a multiplier IC by analog devices. It is low cost, 8 pin, 4 quadrant
multiplier IC.

The various features of AD633 are,

1. It is complete four quadrant multiplier.

2. No external components or expensive user calibration is necessary.
 3. It is low cost and easy to use.
4. It is highly stable and reliable because of monolithic construction and laser calibration.
5. It has differential high impedance X and Y inputs. The input impedance is as high as 10
MΩ.
6. The internal reference is generated by very stable zener diode hence accuracy is not
supply sensitive. The scaling reference is 10 V.
7. The total accuracy is 2 % of full scale.
8. It has 1 MHz bandwidth, 20 V/gsec of slew rate and ability to drive capacitive loads.
9. The Z input provides access to the output buffer amplifier, enabling the user to sum the
outputs of two or more multipliers, increase the multiplier gain, convert the output voltage
to current and configure variety of application circuits.

1. Functional Block Diagram

There are two differential inputs X and Y where X = X1 - X2 while Y = Y1-Y2. These
inputs are converted to the currents by voltage to current converters. The product of these
currents is than generated. A buried zener reference generates on overall scale factor of 10
V. Thus the product X + Y / 10 is applied as one input to the summer while Z is another
input to the summer. The signal (X+Y / 10 +Z) is applied to the output amplifier to
produce output W. The amplifier summing node Z allows the user to add two or more
multiplier outputs, convert the output voltage to current and configure various analog
computational functions.
The overall transfer function is,

20 (i)Illustrate the functioning of Sample-and-Hold-Circuit with its circuit diagram.

  The main components in a sample and hold circuit is an N-Channel E-MOSFET,
a capacitor to store, hold and release the electric charge and a high operational
amplifier. The N-channel E-MOSFET will be used as changing component.
 The incoming voltage is entering the terminal and control voltage will be entering
through gate terminal, After that, when the positive beat of voltage is applied, the
E-MOSFET will be changed to ON means open.
 After that, it acts as a shut or close switch. In actuality, when the voltage is zero
then the MOSFET will be changed to switch OFF state and acts about as the open
switch.
 At that point, when the MOSFET acts about as a close switch, after that point, the
simple signal is applied to it through the terminal will be fed to the capacitor. The
capacitor will then, at that point, charge to its maximum value.
 Then, when the MOSFET switch is ON, after that point, the capacitor quits
charging. Because of the great amplifier attached to the finish of the circuit, the
capacitor will face great impedance because of this it can't get released or
discharge.
 The capacitor holds the voltage for some specific period of time. This time period
is also known as holding time period and the time in which the samples of voltage
produce is called sampling time period

(ii)Explain the functional block diagram of SMPS with functional block diagram and
summarize the advantages.
DC to DC converters and DC to AC converters belong to the category of Switched Mode
Power Supplies (SMPS). The SMPS operating from mains, without using an input
transformer at line frequency 50Hz is called “off-line switching supply”. In off-line switching
supply, the main ac mains is directly rectified and filtered and the DC voltage so obtained
is then used as an input to a switching type DC to DC converters.
 1. Rectifier and filter: Used for converting bidirectional ac into unidirectional pulsating
d.c. and removing the unwanted ripple contents of this pulsating d.c.
2. High frequency switching: This unit converting the filtered DC voltage to high
frequency pulsating DC voltage. The switching time and frequency are controlled by PWM
(Pulse Width Modulation) control signal from PWM oscillator.
3. Low mass step down transformer: High speed switched signal is fed to primary of
step-down transformer. (Note: frequency of the signal and size of the transformer core has
inverse relationship, so mass of the transformer can be reduced. This is one of the
advantages of SMPS).
4. Rectifier and filter: This unit rectifies the low voltage high frequency AC signal to DC
Voltage and filtering the rectified voltage. The filtered output is the required DC voltage.
5. Output sensor: It senses the DC output voltage and fed back to isolation circuit.
Electronic Circuits Module I: Power supplies - SMPS
6. Isolation: This unit provides the isolation to the error amplifier and PWM oscillator.
7. Reference Voltage: It is the control voltage for the output voltage.
8. Error amplifier: It compares the DC output voltage with reference voltage and produce
error signal.
9. PWM oscillator: It produces the Pulse width modulated signal for switching the high
frequency switch. Pulse width given to the power switch is inversely proportional to the
output voltage.
Advantages of Switch Mode Power Supplies (SMPS):
1. High Efficiency: SMPS are highly efficient (up to 90% or higher) because they
minimize power loss by switching on and off rapidly and using high-frequency
transformers.
2. Compact Size and Lightweight: The use of high-frequency operation allows for
smaller and lighter transformers and other components, making the overall unit more
compact and easier to integrate into various applications.
3. Wide Input Voltage Range: SMPS can handle a wide range of input voltages, making
them suitable for use in different regions with varying electrical standards.
4. Stable Output: SMPS provide stable and regulated output voltage even with variations
in input voltage and load conditions, thanks to feedback mechanisms.
5. Reduced Heat Generation: Higher efficiency translates to less heat generation, which
reduces cooling requirements and enhances reliability.
6. Versatility: They can provide multiple output voltages from a single input voltage,
making them versatile for various applications.
7. Better Power Factor: Many SMPS designs include power factor correction (PFC)
circuits, improving the power factor and reducing the reactive power in the system.