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Business Ethics & Corporate Responsibility Hartman & Werhane BUSINESS ETHICS AND
CORPORATE RESPONSIBILITY A PRIMER Laura Hartman and Patricia Werhane 1
Business Ethics & Corporate Responsibility Hartman & Werhane BUSINESS ETHICS AND
CORPORATE RESPONSIBILITY1 A PRIMER Laura Hartman and Patricia Werhane I.
Introduction............................................................................................................................. 3
II. Learning
Objectives................................................................................................................ 4 III. Why
are ethics and ethical issues important in the business environment? ........................... 4 IV.
What is meant by “ethics?” What is meant by “business ethics?”
......................................... 5 A.
Ethics................................................................................................................................... 5
B. Business Ethics ...................................................................................................................
5 C. Ethics and
Self-Interest....................................................................................................... 6 D. Corporate
or Organizational Terminology.......................................................................... 7 V. Application
of Ethics to Decision-Making ............................................................................. 9 A. Origins of
Ethics: Value formation..................................................................................... 9 B. Ethical
decision-making and moral judgment .................................................................. 11 VI. What
is an Effective and Ethical Decision-Making Process in Business? ........................... 13 A.
The Shareholder-Managerial Model................................................................................. 13 B.
The Stakeholder Approach ............................................................................................... 16
C. Globalizing the Stakeholder Model .................................................................................. 17
C. A Framework for Effective, Ethical Decision-Making..................................................... 19
VII. Conclusion: Take-Aways from This Booklet .......................................................................
21 VIII.Appendix A: A Note on Five Traditional Theories of Moral Reasoning
............................. 23 IX. Appendix B:
Principles......................................................................................................... 34 A. The Ten
Commandments.................................................................................................. 34 B. The Bill
of Rights, the First 10 Amendments to the U.S. Constitution, 1891 .................. 34 C. United
Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights ................................................. 35 1 ©2012
Laura Hartman and Patricia Werhane. Do not copy without permission. 2 Business Ethics &
Corporate Responsibility Hartman & Werhane I. Introduction Ethical issues have been a part
of business decisions since the beginning of commerce and exchange. But, only fairly
recently have management theorists and business organizations begun to think systemically
about how to integrate ethical decision-making into management strategy. The purpose of
this discussion is to help managers and companies become more aware of ethical issues, to
develop reasoning skills they can use in thinking through these issues, and to encourage
persistence or courage with which to implement ethical actions, often in face of difficult
obstacles. Ethical awareness and integration have an impact on organization-wide strategic
objectives that are both far-reaching and long-term. An ethical decision-making process can
encourage individual accountability. In turn, this responsibility enhances the risk culture
within the firm so that risk management is understood as a shared undertaking. The firm that
can capitalize on this strategy is not only less vulnerable to risk but also significantly more
effectively prepared to face any challenges it might face in the future. Though one might
point to the rogue person in business who truly strives – intentionally – to engage in
unethical behavior, it is exceedingly more likely that business people generally are trying to
do the ‘right’ thing. Therefore, one of the key issues that we will address is why seemingly
decent decision-makers might engage in wrongful acts. There are numerous stumbling
blocks to ethical behavior, and we will examine them during the course of the brief
discussion that follows. Consider, though, that if acting ethically were the easy option in a
dilemma and, if the incentives were perfectly aligned with obvious profitability, no successful
business person would ever be tempted to make the unethical choice. But that is not the
case. Other factors are at play that encourage unethical behavior. One of the primary
reasons an otherwise decent person might act unethically is an inability to recognize ethical
issues before they become overwhelming. A second reason that people reach unethical
decisions is a lack of courage. We need to recognize that doing the right thing is not always
the easiest path, even in the face of tremendous risk to others. Consider the pressure on
BP’s oil rig workers who felt the whistleblower process was useless. “The rig survivors …
said it was always understood that you could get fired if you raised safety concerns that
might delay drilling. Some co-workers had been fired for speaking out.”2 Fear might also
occur because managers originally base decisions on intuitions but then later cannot state
good reasons for these decisions and find themselves wavering. Being ethical is tougher
than one might imagine. A third reason is that, as managers, we must manage the
decision-making processes of those with whom we work; so it is vital to recognize the
influence we each have on the ethical behavior of others. We will consider other options later
in our discussion. Many students are suspect when faced with the discussion of ethics in
their standard business curriculum, wary that the purpose might be to indoctrinate them with
a particular set of values or to discredit their own decision systems. To the contrary, the
central objective of any effective exploration of ethics is (1) to stimulate an awareness of
ethical dilemmas, (2) to 2 Steinberg, Richard M. “How Did BP’s Risk Management Lead to
Failure?” Compliance Week (July 20, 2010), 3 Business Ethics & Corporate Responsibility
Hartman & Werhane develop a reasoning process with which to respond to them, and (3) to
practice application of the process using real-life case scenarios. II. Learning Objectives
After completing this booklet, the reader will be able to • Explain why ethics and ethical
issues are important in the business environment. • Define what is meant by “ethics” and by
“business ethics.” • Describe an effective, ethical decision-making process. • Identify two
models for prioritizing ethical decision-making in a business setting. • Demonstrate the
application of stakeholder management theory and the decisionmaking framework. III. Why
are ethics and ethical issues important in the business environment? A study of 60
high-profile European business failures found that, while 63% of those businesses failed for
reasons “related to economic problems and the risks of entrepreneurship,” a surprisingly
large number - 37% - collapsed due to “fraudulent or unethical behavior by company
managers and employees.” In most cases, the company apparently lacked a structure in
which a dominant manager or owner was adequately reviewed and corrected for taking any
illegitimate actions.3 It is not always complete business failures that result; it could simply be
a massive drain on company resources caused by fraud. In a single year, U.S. organizations
lose more than $1 trillion of the U.S. gross domestic product to fraud, an estimated 7% of
their annual revenues (or the equivalent to $70,000 for every $1 million of revenue). These
ethical failures are responsible for over half of all quality costs, or 5-15% of all operating
costs. In fact, they can be the single largest quality cost item in many firms.4 A second
reason is probably obvious. What we do and how we behave as managers and companies
affects other human beings and other organizations. Indeed, if commerce did not affect
others, it would be ineffective as a business! For example, a strong ethical tone from senior
leadership lowers retaliation and pressure to be unethical within organizations. (See Figure
1.) Both of these cultural factors within firms not only pose significant costs but also high
legal risks and enormous challenges to productivity. So, it matters deeply how business and
managers behave, since their actions can greatly benefit or greatly harm other people. 3
Last year according to Fortune Magazine and the Telegraph, in 2016 the largest corporate
scandals in the United States and Europe were due to fraud or unethical behavior.
http://fortune.com/2016/12/28/biggest-corporatescandals-2016/ see also,
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/business/2016/04/13/bad-for-business-ten-notorious-corporatesc
andals/ 4 Sharon Allen, “The New ROE: Return On Ethics,” Forbes (07.21.09),; “The ROI of
an Effective Ethics Program,” (July 1, 2005); “The Construction Industry’s Ethical Dilemma”
(Aug. 1, 2005). 4 Business Ethics & Corporate Responsibility Hartman & Werhane Figure 1.
Strong Ethical Tone from Senior Leadership Reduces Retaliation and Pressure to be
Unethical Strong Ethical Tone from Senior Leadership Reduces Retaliation and Pressure to
be Unethical Most organizations prefer that managers make the “Right” decision. It is less
expensive in the long run, creates less vulnerability and protects reputation. But, how do you
determine the “Right” decision? We will discuss the process of that determination in the next
sections. IV. What is meant by “ethics?” What is meant by “business ethics?” A. Ethics Ethics
is the study of what individuals, groups, organizations and governments ought to do, as
opposed to what they actually do. In other words, it is applying our value structures to the
decisions we make about how we should live our lives (or the decisions we make as
members of groups, organizations or governments). Although the terms “ethics” and
“morals” are often used interchangeably, “morals” usually refers to the underlying values,
ideals, beliefs and moral norms that we use to make those decisions and guide our behavior.
“Ethics” is the explicit reflective consideration and evaluation of our ideals, beliefs, practices
and norms – it is the practice or act of applying those morals to our decisions. B. Business
Ethics Business ethics focuses these same questions on the business environment and
involves the study of what managers, entrepreneurs and corporations ought to do, all things
considered, in creating value and avoiding harm to other individuals, companies or
governments. It is not necessarily descriptive of what companies in fact do or how they in
fact behave but, again, applies a value structure to the question of how businesses should
be run. Because it deals with organizations and because organizations work under the
auspices of governments, business ethics operates on at least three levels: the level of the
individual 5 Business Ethics & Corporate Responsibility Hartman & Werhane employee,
manager, executive, entrepreneur or customer, the organizational level of the company or
corporation and the other organizations with which companies interact, and the macro level
of government that grants life to companies through incorporation, regulates their behavior,
and is often a customer as well. (See Figure 2.) Figure 2. Ethical decision-making operates
on at least three different levels Government Organization Individual •Incorporator
•Regulator •Customer •Company •Corporation •Other corporations •Employee •Manager
•Executive •Entrepreneur •Customer C. Ethics and Self-Interest It is sometimes contended
that ethics has to do with altruism or benevolence, and that being selfinterested is
antithetical to being ethical. Entrepreneurs and other firm executives are selfinterested since
they are interested in creating value-added including profits for themselves, and managers
are interested in creating value for their companies. Given these clear interests, then, can
one be ethical in business? The confusion lies in a fuzzy notion of self-interest. Each of us
as individuals is self-interested; that is, all of our interests surround ourselves. But, many of
those interests are also otherdirected; that is, not all of my interests involve myself as the
object of those interests. Moreover, even individuals, and by analogy companies, that seem
only interested in themselves are not necessarily evil. If one simply minds one’s own
business, does not interfere with others or their projects, is not selfish or greedy when those
unintentionally hurt others, and acts with integrity in the marketplace, one would thereby be
considered minimally ethical. Moreover, companies do not have to be philanthropic in order
to be ethical. But they do have to treat the employees and managers fairly, compete with
integrity, produce quality products or services, and safeguard the investments of their
shareholders or owners. This might even be considered to be self-interested. After all, it is
good business and it is good ethics, and those matter in the marketplace. 6 Business Ethics
& Corporate Responsibility Hartman & Werhane D. Corporate or Organizational Terminology
Corporate Responsibility. Much of commerce is conducted by corporations, and most of
commercial capital is concentrated in large companies. Thus, management literature
sometimes refers to business ethics as “corporate responsibility,” with the focus on corporate
behavior. In this booklet, we use the term “business ethics” since we focus both on
managerial and corporate behavior. It is individual managers and executives, as well as
groups of managers and executives, who act as agents for corporations. Moreover, since a
significant portion of commerce is also conducted by entrepreneurs or small businesses,
they too should be included in this analysis. Corporate Social Responsibility. Another even
more common term in management literature is the expression, “corporate social
responsibility.” This term originally referred to the responsibilities of corporations to their
external communities, the environments throughout society in which they operate, thus the
use of the term “social.” It is also sometimes used to refer to corporate philanthropic or
volunteer activities. More recently, it has been used to refer to a company’s legal, social and
ethical responsibilities to its employees, managers, suppliers, customers, shareholders and
the communities in which it operates (Carroll, 1991), thus incorporating business ethics into
the more broad definition. In this booklet, we shall use the term “business ethics,” since it
clearly distinguishes the legal responsibilities of business from its ethical obligations. CSR
has earned mainstream recognition in the past several years through the emergence of a
more strategic approach to the activities that would normally fall under the social
responsibility umbrella. By realizing that contributing firms possess a competitive advantage
in particular arenas, the subfields of strategic philanthropy, reputation management and
brand positioning have converged. Certainly depending on how it is managed, some of these
efforts can mean tremendous gains for underserved communities while others have received
criticism. “When a well-run business applies its vast resources, expertise, and management
talent to problems that it understands and in which it has a stake, it can have a greater
impact on social good than any other institution or philanthropic organization.” Source:
Porter, M.E. and M.R. Kramer, “Strategy and Society: the link between competitive
advantage and corporate social responsibility,” Harvard Business Review (Dec. 2006), pp.
78-03. Corporate Citizenship. A third term that is used to refer to some of these similar
activities is “corporate citizenship.” Sandra Waddock, a Boston College professor and leader
in this area of 7 Business Ethics & Corporate Responsibility Hartman & Werhane
scholarship, aligns CSR with corporate global citizenship. “The premise [of the notion of
corporate citizenship] is that businesses operate successfully in society when they respect
and are responsible to stakeholders, a balance is needed among sectors in society and with
nature, and that vision and values can result in distinctive competencies that lead to
value-added for companies of the 21st century.” (Waddock, 2002) This definition focuses on
the corporation and its relationships to society and the environment. These are important
elements of business ethics and corporate responsibility, and in our discussion we shall
incorporate that focus under the broader umbrella of “business ethics.” Business ethics and
the Law. The law provides some very important touchstones for ethical decision-making. But
legal norms and ethical norms certainly are not identical nor do they always agree;
otherwise, the ethical standard for any corporation would simply be “follow the law.” Some
ethical standards, such as treating one’s employees with respect, are not legally required
though may be ethically warranted. Conversely, some actions that are legally permissible,
such as firing an employee for no reason, or polluting when there are no legal restrictions,
would fail ethical standards. In addition, for firms whose decisions impact individuals across
cultural borders (which today encompasses more and more organizations), the distinctions
between legal norms and ethical norms become significantly more apparent. For instance,
while it may be illegal to discriminate on the basis of gender in one country, it may be
perfectly legal to do so in another country. An organization’s ethical standards might create a
unified code of ethical conduct for the organization, worldwide, but challenges remain when
they apply that code in particular cultures. Case No. 1 illustrates such challenges. Ethics and
Compliance. Since the corporate ethical and financial meltdowns at the beginning of the
Twenty-First Century, there has been both a corporate and a public preoccupation with
compliance, partly encouraged by the passage of the Sarbanes-Oxley Act in 2002 (also
known as the “Public Company Accounting Reform and Investor Protection Act”), a law
designed to reduce corporate fiscal and ethical misbehavior. As a result of the Act, most
medium and large corporations now have compliance officers as well as compliance training
aimed at training managers about corporate and legal rules and regulations. These
programs are indeed worthwhile; but they should not be confused with ethics and ethics
programs, which are designed to establish guidelines and to encourage proper behavior
whether or not it is covered by the law or falls under Sarbanes-Oxley. Attention to
compliance and rule-following does not necessarily produce ethical managers. The following
diagram outlines these distinctions and locates risk (see Figure 3). 8 Business Ethics &
Corporate Responsibility Hartman & Werhane Link between Ethics, Compliance & Risk
Figure 3. Link between ethics, compliance & risk Ethics Family Law Custom Culture Self
Religion Mission, Core Values, Organizational Culture, Industry, Leaders’ behavior
Underlying values Ethical foundation of the organization Reputation Procedures, Training,
Monitoring, Auditing Compliance Brand Essence As studies by scholars Gary Weaver and
Linda Trevino have shown, companies with compliance programs have more difficulty with
employee compliance than companies with ethics and compliance programs. Apparently,
asking questions of what one should do and why ethics and compliance are important help
to internalize right-thinking behavior in managers, while programs that focus solely on
compliance lead to the temptation to game the system and come as close to disobeying the
rules as possible. V. Application of Ethics to Decision-Making A. Origins of Ethics: Value
formation As we discussed above, business ethics has to do with what managers,
entrepreneurs and corporations ought to do. This entails making value judgments and
applying values to decisions and behavior, both one’s own and the decisions and behaviors
of others and of organizations, as well. These values are derived from common-sense
morality (e.g., do not lie, steal, cheat or murder), from social, religious and cultural norms,
from professional and corporate codes, from country norms such as our Bill of Rights, and
from more general statements such as the United Nations Declaration of Human Rights.
Some of these values are core values, such as personal, professional and corporate values
that we consider the highest priority or most fundamental, and most likely, those values an
individual or an organization will not sacrifice for some other consideration. For example, in
the United States, the value of personal freedom is seldom sacrificed for some other more
utilitarian consideration. For some companies, they will not permit the value of their product
or brand to be diluted under any circumstance, even when it could produce an increase in
sales in some markets. 9 Business Ethics & Corporate Responsibility Hartman & Werhane If
ethics is the application of our values to our behavior, ethics has two components: •
Our internal compass, which dictates how we view or judge the ethics of our own actions;
and • Our external compass, which orients our judgment of others, as well as the
perception and judgment of us by others. Let us consider the application and implications of
each. When faced with a decision, there are plenty of times when the only one whose
answer you seek is your own. In many circumstances, as long as you do not infringe on
someone else’s opportunity to make a decision, her rights or freedoms, then you may
necessarily be looking to your own set of values in order to reach a determination of what is
ethical or unethical in a particular situation. To reach that conclusion, you will judge your
actions or decision according to your own personal standards, your internal compass. Of
course, that means that you must actually know what those standards are. However, the
answer to the question of whether someone is acting ethically depends in part on the
external values against which the judgment will be made. So there are also plenty of times
when others’ values must also be considered before a decision ought to be made; so you
must consider as well the external compass. Sources for this external compass might
include: • Organizational standards (company codes, guidelines, statements) •
Professional standards (industry codes, statements of conduct, codes of ethics) • Social
standards (spiritual statements, including religious mores, community standards, personal
and family group expectations) The external compass is also called the “newspaper test.”
How would you feel if what you did were on the cover of the newspaper tomorrow? Proud or
ashamed? What if everyone in your office knew about your decision, everyone in your
industry, your family? Moreover, in any of these circumstances, you have to prioritize your
values: which are the most important? • Which would you not sacrifice, even for your
own personal gain or the profitability of your company? • Which would you be proud to
brag about? • As a manager which would you expect your employees to emulate? •
Which would you be proud to say, “My company did the right thing?” In any of these
circumstances, your decision about what to do, or what your team or company should do,
depends on the consequences of both being unethical and being perceived as unethical. We
use this conclusion in order to guide the development of our values, which in turn underpins
our everyday decision-making in life and in business. 10 Business Ethics & Corporate
Responsibility Hartman & Werhane B. Ethical decision-making and moral judgment Ethical
decision-making and ethical action require four steps: 1. Awareness of an ethical problem
2. Ability to reason about ethical issues 3. Having the motivation to act ethically
Figure 4. Four steps of ethical decision-making and ethical action: awareness, ability to
reason, having the motivation, and having the persistence. 4. Having the persistence (or
courage or fortitude) to implement the ethical action in the face of inevitable obstacles
It is sometimes relatively easy to spot ethical issues. But, it is more difficult to reason through
the problem and to arrive at a resolution. That is where ethical theories can be helpful. (See
Figure 5 and Appendix A: A Note on Five Types of Moral Reasoning, for a more detailed
discussion of ethical theory.) There are various approaches. First, sometimes one has an
intuition—“I just feel this is the right thing to do,” or “I just think that this is wrong.” These are
valuable feelings that should be cultivated. But, they are also grounded on a more general
idea that helps us check on these intuitions. As human beings, and as organizations of
which we form a part and depend on, we are parts of larger communities; as such, we have
certain moral duties to others or to our communities. The validation of these duties is to ask
oneself whether this is something that we would want others to do, either to ourselves or to
other people or organizations? Could we imagine this decision becoming a general moral
principle for everyone or for every company to follow? Does this decision respect others as
equal human beings with equal dignity? Obvious examples that would not pass any of these
tests would be slavery or indentured labor. This approach to decision-making is identified as
“deontology” or “universalism.” A second approach, and one to which most of us appeal
frequently, is more utilitarian. It asks us to examine the possible outcomes of a decision. Will
it create benefits, or more benefits than harms? What is the value-added, not merely
monetary, but other value creation as well? What is the overall long-term effect of this
decision? This approach is identified as “utilitarianism.” A third approach derives from the
first, and reinforces the importance of respect for human rights and dignity. One simply asks,
are any human rights as stake in this decision? Are any basic freedoms or human welfare
issues being violated or possibly violated? A good way to validate 11 Business Ethics &
Corporate Responsibility Hartman & Werhane this question is to check your decision against
the Ten Commandments, the Bill of Rights or the U.N. Declaration of Human Rights, found in
Appendix B of this booklet. A fourth approach asks the simple question, “Is this action fair?”
Does it treat each individual and each organization involved as an equal? Does it provide
equal opportunity or at least not invalidate equal opportunities? Does it involve lying or
cheating, insider “deals,” or some other subterfuge that would give special advantages to
some parties and not to others? This is identified as “justice.” Another form of justice is
called “distributive justice,” and asks how we should distribute goods, services, money,
opportunities, offices, and awards fairly. In our society, we have many forms of distribution.
We distribute voting equally for every adult; we distribute welfare based on need; we tax
people proportionally, based on income; and we try to give equal opportunities in sports and
the workplace. We distribute promotions and pay, at least in theory, on merit. It is the latter,
hiring, promotion, and benefits, and compensation that may arises as issues in business
ethics. Finally, and this is more personal, but works on the organizational level as well, one
might ask, “How do you want to live your life?” The question raises the issue of character or
virtue. What kind of moral character does each of us want to develop and what kind of
organizational culture do we want to work within and contribute to? How do we want to be
thought of and remembered? How might a virtuous person or person of character reach this
decision? 12 Figure 5: Five Theories of Moral Reasoning “Do the Right Thing”/ Universalism
or Deontology • Is this something that we would want other individuals or companies to do? •
Could we imagine this decision becoming a general principle? • Does it pass the publicity
test? • Does this decision respect others as equal beings with equal dignity? Cost/Benefit
Analysis: Cost/Benefit Analysis: Utilitarianism Utilitarianism • Will the decision create
benefits, or more benefits than harms? • What are the values added? • What is the overall
long-term effect of this decision? Rights-Based Rights-Based • Are any human rights at
stake in this decision? • Are any fundamental freedoms or human welfare issues being
violated or possibly threatened? Fairness and Justice Fairness and Justice • Does it treat
each individual, each stakeholder, and each organization involved as an equal? • Does it
provide equal opportunity? • Does it offer any special advantages to some parties and not to
others? Charactera and Virtue Character and Virtue • Do you live the life you want to live? •
How would a virtuous person or a good company make this decision? • Is this a positive or
negative precedent for managerial or corporate? Business Ethics & Corporate Responsibility
Hartman & Werhane VI. What is an Effective and Ethical Decision-Making Process in
Business? There are at least two standard approaches to reaching an ethical decision in
business, each of which has a different value prioritization: The shareholder-managerial
model and the stakeholder model. A. The Shareholder-Managerial Model In 1970, Nobel
Prize economist Milton Friedman famously argued that “there is one and only one social
responsibility of business – to use its resources and engage in activities designed to
increase its profits . . .” But, the conclusion of that statement is not always included in its oft
citation: “. . . so long as it [business] stays within the rules of the game, which is to say,
engages in open and free competition without deception or fraud” (Friedman, 1970).
Friedman subsequently further explained his perspective in a later article in Reason,
Maximizing profits is an end from the private point of view; it is a means from the social point
of view. A system based on private property and free markets is a sophisticated means of
enabling people to cooperate in their economic activities without compulsion; it enables
separated knowledge to assure that each resource is used for its most valued use, and is
combined with other resources in the most efficient way (Friedman, 2005). One way to
explain Friedman’s point of view is to think of managers as employees or fiduciary agents of
the corporation and its assets. Thus, the primary duty of managers, according to Friedman,
is to take care of those assets or investments, in other words, to maximize the return on the
investment of shareholders. Where organizations seek to engage in social responsibility in
the form of philanthropy, Friedman contends that no manager or executive has the discretion
to use shareholder money in that way unless it can be justified by an increase in shareholder
value. For example, the supermarket chain, Whole Foods, has an objective to give away 5%
of its net profits. Friedman critiques that, “Whole Foods Market’s contribution to society –
and as a customer I can testify that it is an important one – is to enhance the pleasure of
shopping for food. Whole Foods has no special competence in deciding how charity should
be distributed. Any funds devoted to the latter would surely have contributed more to society
if they had been devoted to improving still further the former” (Friedman, 2005). R. E.
Freeman defines this approach as a “managerial model,” which, during the last 50 years,
has positioned shareholders as the most important priority for managers in their
decision-making. “This mindset has dealt with the increasing complexity of the business
world by focusing more intensely on ‘shareholders’ and ‘creating value for shareholders.’ It
has become common wisdom to ‘increase shareholder value,’ and many companies have
instituted complex incentive compensation plans aimed at aligning the interests of
executives with the interests of shareholders.” (Freeman, 2010; Freeman, Harrison & Wicks,
2007, 23) 13 Business Ethics & Corporate Responsibility Hartman & Werhane Graphically,
this Managerial Model can be depicted as a hierarchical model. (See Figure 6.) Figure 6:
Managerial Model: Hierarchical View Managerial Model: Hierarchical View The Managerial
View with shareholders at the top does not ignore other “stakeholder” groups – those
individuals, groups and organizations who affect or are affected by the firm. But these other
individuals and groups are thought of as means to increase shareholder value. Thus, while
Whole Foods’ CEO John Mackey’s central mission of customer satisfaction is critical to the
success and the profitability of Whole Foods, its importance is an instrumental to
shareholder value. Freeman explains that the incongruity of the Managerial Model is that it . .
. puts shareholders’ interests over and above the interests of customers, suppliers,
employees, and others, as if these interests must conflict with each other. It understands a
business as an essentially hierarchical organization fastened together with authority to act in
the shareholders’ interests. Executives often speak in the language of hierarchy as ‘working
for shareholders,’ ‘shareholders are the boss,’ and ‘you have to do what the shareholders
want.’ On this interpretation, change should occur only when the shareholders are unhappy,
and as long as executives can produce a series of incrementally better financial results there
is no problem (Freeman, Harrison & Wicks, 2007, 23, emphasis added). 14 Business Ethics
& Corporate Responsibility Hartman & Werhane According to this view, the only change that
counts is change oriented toward shareholder value. If customers are unhappy, if accounting
rules have been compromised, if product quality is bad, if environmental disaster looms,
even if competitive forces threaten, the only interesting questions are whether and how
these forces for change affect shareholder value, measured by the price of the stock every
day.” (Freeman, 2007, 4) The challenge with this orientation, Freeman points out, is that
managers tend to focus internally to the firm, and are insufficiently aware of nor attentive to
the interests of other stakeholder groups that might have an impact on the organization (see
Figure 6). In addition, these other stakeholders might be sources of innovation and growth
for the firm (such as customers or employees); yet, they are traded against the interests of
shareholders – often inappropriately since the interests are far more aligned than the
inwardly-focused manager can even notice (Freeman, Harrison & Wicks, 2007, 23,
emphasis added). Managerial Model: Inward Focus Figure 7: Managerial Model: Inward
Focus 15 Business Ethics & Corporate Responsibility Hartman & Werhane B. The
Stakeholder Approach In contrast to the shareholder-focused Managerial Model, R.E.
Freeman advocates another perspective. In the past, many companies have operated in a
vacuum with limited interaction with stakeholder groups beyond direct customers. Today,
more and more companies understand that they operate instead in a dynamic system where
interaction with diverse stakeholders is fundamental to business success. While some
stakeholders have a particular interest in a specific area, most are concerned with several
issues. Setting the boundaries of a firm’s role and responsibilities vis-à-vis its stakeholders is
often a question of dialogue and negotiation. The term “stakeholder” is sometimes used in
the popular literature to refer to a firm’s external constituents, e.g., the community or even
the environment. At first consideration, it might appear that stakeholder theory does not
focus on shareholders; but that would be an incorrect interpretation. Shareholders or owners
are important stakeholders; they are simply no more important than other stakeholders.
Moreover, the stakeholder approach recognizes that, if a decision-maker were to place
shareholders above other stakeholders, in fact shareholders would lose out. Placing
customers, employees, the community or other stakeholders at a lower priority level can cost
the organization from a strategy perspective, which costs shareholders in real dollars.
Clearly, the stakeholder model is not intended to serve as a critique of profitability. Instead, it
demonstrates how profitability is one element of a more complex economic model – one that
includes ethical decision-making as a vital component of strategy. The idea behind a
stakeholder perspective is that business is embedded in a complex set of social and
economic networks. One cannot extricate or separate one part of that network, e.g.,
shareholders, because business affects and is affected by a number of individuals,
organizations, and communities, and it is in these interrelationships that businesses develop
and grow. Thus, business has responsibilities to those stakeholders. The normative intent is
to remind us that all stakeholders, including firms, are people or groups of people so all
company interactions are between and among people. This should make a normative
difference, but sometimes it does not. Enron forgot that energy trading affected real live
customers and their well-being. So trading became a game; unfortunately real people were
the pawns in that game. But how does ethical decision-making look different under a
stakeholder approach compared to a shareholder model? Freeman explained that one
needs to understand business “as a set of relationships among groups which have a stake in
the activities that make up the business. Business is about how customers, suppliers,
employees, financiers (stockholders, bondholders, banks, etc.), communities and managers
interact and create value. To understand a business is to know how these relationships work.
And, the executive’s or entrepreneur’s job is to manage and
Glosario
Responsabilidad social de las empresas - Concepto de gestión por el que las empresas
integran las preocupaciones sociales y medioambientales en sus operaciones comerciales y
en las interacciones con sus partes interesadas.
Marco de decisión - Un marco para tomar decisiones éticas que utiliza los siguientes pasos:
reconocer una cuestión ética, obtener los hechos, evaluar acciones alternativas, analizar
qué valores o principios están en juego, tomar una decisión y ponerla a prueba y, por último,
actuar y reflexionar sobre el resultado.
Deontología - Teoría ética según la cual la moralidad de una acción debe basarse en si esa
acción en sí es correcta o incorrecta según una serie de normas que podrían aplicarse a
todo el mundo, en lugar de basarse en las consecuencias de la acción.
Desierto - Principio de justicia distributiva según el cual los beneficios se otorgan a quienes
los han ganado o merecido. Por ejemplo, el mejor empleado o directivo, el premio olímpico
en deportes, el militar más valiente, un ejemplar político.
Igualitario - Principio de justicia distributiva según el cual ciertas cosas deben distribuirse por
igual, como el voto, el acceso a la atención sanitaria o la protección del medio ambiente.
Dilemas é ticos - Situaciones en las que hay que elegir entre dos opciones, ninguna de las
cuales resuelve la situación de forma éticamente aceptable.
Relativismo ético - La posición filosófica de que no hay absolutos morales, ni bien o mal
moral.
Imparcialidad o justicia - Enfoque de la ética en el que tratamos a todos los seres humanos
por igual o, si es de forma desigual, de forma justa basándonos en alguna norma que sea
defendible.
G
Hipernormas - Principios tan fundamentales que, por definición, sirven para evaluar normas
de orden inferior, llegando a la raíz de lo que es ético para la humanidad.
Principio libertario - Principio de justicia procesal según el cual ninguna forma de distribución
es justa para todos; todas deben abandonarse.
Lotería, suerte o azar - Principio de justicia distributiva cuyo éxito o resultado se rige por el
azar.
Espacios moralmente libres - El área delimitada por hipernormas en la que las comunidades
desarrollan normas éticas que representan un punto de vista colectivo sobre el
comportamiento correcto.
Imaginación moral - Nuestra capacidad para pensar de forma innovadora e imaginar formas
de ser éticos y tener éxito.
Coraje moral - El valor de emprender acciones por razones morales a pesar del riesgo de
consecuencias adversas.
Juicio moral - El proceso por el que uno define lo que es incorrecto, bueno, malo,
estrafalario, absolutamente extraño, surrealista, cuasi-razonable, ético frente a no ético
frente a neutro, o desviaciones adyacentes a lo anterior según lo expuesto que justifican
categorizaciones por sí mismas dependiendo de la naturaleza del objeto o entidad a juzgar
(ya que el razonamiento de uno tiene que estar alineado para la justicia).
Fundamentalmente, en la perspectiva humana sensible, contra algún estándar de "bien"
según lo establecido por el consenso racional formado a partir de un ideal establecido por
cuya comuna el titular que exhibe o contradice el juicio moral está afiliado a efectos de la
actualización de la cuestión según lo dictado anteriormente.
Mínimo moral - Norma o principio que se sostiene como indispensable para la conducta
moral, ya sea dentro de un contexto particular o en general.
Razonamiento moral - Aplica un análisis crítico a hechos concretos para determinar lo que
está bien o mal y lo que la gente debería hacer en una situación concreta. Tanto los filósofos
como los psicólogos estudian el razonamiento moral.
Relativismo ingenuo - Se basa en la creencia de que todas las decisiones morales son
profundamente personales y que el individuo tiene derecho a dirigir su propia vida. Debe
permitirse que cada persona interprete las situaciones y actúe según sus propios valores
morales.
Necesidad - Principio de justicia distributiva basado en equiparar a los más desfavorecidos
con el resto: la base de un sistema de bienestar.
Obediencia a la autoridad - Cumplimiento de las órdenes dadas por una figura de autoridad.
En la década de 1960, el psicólogo social Stanley Milgram llevó a cabo una famosa
investigación denominada el estudio de la obediencia. Demostró que las personas tienen
una fuerte tendencia a obedecer a las figuras de autoridad.
Relaciones de poder - Generalmente se percibe como tener poder sobre algo (poder
dominante o soberano) o tener el poder de hacer algo (poder productivo).
Contratos sociales - Acuerdos implícitos o explícitos entre las empresas y las comunidades
particulares en las que operan.
Teoría de las partes interesadas - La teoría de las partes interesadas es una teoría de
gestión organizativa y ética empresarial que aborda la moral y los valores en la gestión de
una organización.
Principios rectores del Pacto Mundial de las Naciones Unidas - Un marco basado en
principios para las empresas, que establece diez principios en las áreas de derechos
humanos, trabajo, medio ambiente y lucha contra la corrupción.
Universalismo - Concepto según el cual las implicaciones éticas de una acción se aplican
universalmente a cualquier persona, independientemente de las circunstancias. Ejemplos
de acciones pseudouniversalmente incorrectas: asesinato, violación, tortura.
Principios universales - Conjunto de principios que se aplican a todos los seres humanos, ya
sean laicos o religiosos, independientemente de cualquier fe particular.
Utilitarismo - Sistema ético según el cual lo correcto o incorrecto de una acción debe
juzgarse por sus consecuencias. El objetivo de la ética utilitarista es promover la mayor
felicidad para el mayor número.