Chapter 1 - Hardware and Software

What is hardware?

●​ Hardware are the physical components that make up a computer system.

●​ Each item of hardware have their specific roles in a computer system
●​ Hardware can be either internal or external

Internal hardware devices

●​ Central Processing Unit (CPU) - The cpu is the brain of the computer. It is the device
that is used to carry out calculations to complete software instructions.
●​ Motherboard - A motherboard is a circuit board that connects to all the main
components of the computer system.
●​ Memory - Any data or instructions that are to be processed by the CPU must be placed
into main memory
●​ Graphic card - A graphics card is a device that attaches to the motherboard to enable
the computer to process and display graphics.
●​ Sound card - A sound card is a device that attaches to the motherboard to enable the
computer input , process and deliver sound.
●​ Internal Hard Disk - A hard disk drive is a hardware device that is used to store
information like software and files. The capacity of the hard drive ranges from GB to TB(
terabytes).
●​ Network Card - A network card provides the computer with a network either through
wireless signals or physical cable connection.
●​ Optical Disk drive - The optical disk drive ( CD/DVD/Blu-Ray ) allows for optical disks to
run on the computer. Also some optical disks can write or burn data onto disks.
●​ Power Supply - The power supply is connected to the main power sources to give
power to the computer system. The power supply connects to all the main components
of the computer system like motherboard , hard drive , optical drives etc.
 ●​ External Storage device - Provides external storage or backup solutions

Examples

●​ External Hard Drive

What is Software?

●​ Software is a collection of instructions that can be run on a computer. These instructions

tell the computer what to do.
●​ Software is not a physical thing but can be stored on a physical medium such as
CD-ROM , its just a bunch of codes.
●​ For a computer system to be useful it should have Hardware and Software

2 types of Software

●​ Application software
●​ System software

Application Software - Allows users to complete specific tasks.

This may be to :

●​ Write a letter / present information

●​ Browse the internet
●​ Manipulate data in a spreadsheet or database
●​ Manipulate graphics , sound or video

Examples

●​ Word Processor
●​ Spreadsheet
●​ Databases
System Software - Involved in the running of the computer :

●​ Operating systems provide a user interface

●​ Device drivers which allow hardware components to work
●​ Utility Software Which maintain the computer performance
●​ Compiler which translates a program written in a specific language which can be
understood by the computer
●​ Linker combines object files produced by a compiler into a single program
●​ Utilities help manage and maintain computer performance and resources by performing
specific tasks

Examples

●​ Operating systems
●​ Device drivers
●​ Utilities

Application Software Examples - ​

​
Word processing - to prepare reports and school essays ​
​
Features

●​ Create New or edit existing documents

●​ Formatting tools
●​ Create font styles
●​ Importing tables/images
●​ Spell Check
●​ Copy/Paste
●​ Find/Replace
●​ Page layout

Spreadsheet - Used to create to organise and manipulate numeric Data

Features

●​ Apply various formatting to cells

●​ Create graphs
●​ Use of various formulas to carry out set tasks : ​

➢​ Sum Max Min average

➢​ Count , Count A
➢​ CountIF and SumIF
➢​ Lookups
➢​ IFs and Nested IFs​
Database - Database is used to insert and organise data using fields and records

Features

●​ Create a table so that records can be inserted

●​ Run queries using search criteria to find specific data
●​ Create reports including labels from search criteria

Application Software Examples -

Apps - Apps are the software which runs on the mobile phone. They usually come with the
phone or can be downloaded and updated.

Features

●​ Games
●​ Video/music streaming\
●​ Social media
●​ Communication\
●​ Camera
●​ Gps
●​ Health and fitness

Measuring and Control Software - Measuring and control software which are
responsible for changing physical conditions in an environment.

Features

●​ Measuring - Sensors take readings which are processed by the computer or

microprocessor.
●​ Control Software- By comparing sensor readings to a pre set level the control
software will decide on an output

Digital data - Computers can only understand data that is in a binary format

Analogue data - is a physical data that is continuous and is not discrete in nature

●​ To convert analogue data to digital data you use a ADC (analogue to digital data)
●​ To convert digital data to analogue data you use a DAC (Digital to Analogue data)

Internal Memory

2 types -:

●​ Ram
 ●​ Rom

Backing Storage

●​ Required to store significant amounts of data permanently

●​ Most commonly used in the form of hard disk and solid state drives

Differentiating between internal memory and backing storage

1.​ RAM contents are lost when power is lost, ROM is read-only, and backing storage is
permanent even without power.
2.​ RAM and ROM are much smaller than backing storage.
3.​ RAM and ROM are significantly faster in accessing data than backing storage.
4.​ Backing storage is much cheaper than internal memory.
5.​ Internal memories are fixed, and backing storage can be fixed or portable.
6.​ Internal memories can be directly read by the CPU, while backing storage needs to be
moved into the RAM before being read by the CPU

Operating systems
Command line interface (CLI) - Requires the user to type instructions in exact format and
spelling.It is slow , error prone , and commands have to be learnt. However the user is in direct
communication with the computer.

Graphical user interface (GUI) - Uses icons on a screen to open apps or interact with the
computer. A pointing device or finger is used. The user is not in direct communication with the
computer.
Dialogue based interface (DBI) - Uses human voice to give commands to the computer. A
microphone is used to pick up key words spoken by the user and computer then takes
necessary action.

Gesture based interference (GBI) - Relies on human interaction by movement of the

hands,fingers,head or feet. It uses computer vision and image processing software.
Emerging technologies
Artificial Intelligence - A machine or applications which carries out tasks that requires some
degree of intelligence.

Benefits

●​ Improvements in safety
●​ Improvements in quality
●​ Faster development of products
●​ Autonomous vehicles

Negatives

●​ Can lead to job losses or de skilling

●​ Technology dependency
●​ Suspicion that machines are taking over

Extended Reality refers to the combination of real and virtual environments.

➔​ Three types
●​ Augmented
●​ Virtual
●​ Mixed

CHAPTER 2- INPUT AND OUTPUT DEVICES

⌨️ Keyboard
●​ Uses:
 ○​ Entering data manually into a computer.
○​ Typing in commands to a computer.
●​ Advantages:
○​ Well-known method of entering data into a computer.
○​ Easier to carry out checks on data entered.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ Slow entry method compared to direct data entry.
○​ Can lead to ailments such as RSI.
○​ Keys can be small, making input difficult for some people.

🔢 Numeric Keypad
●​ Uses:
○​ At ATMs to key in PIN to obtain money.
○​ At POS terminals in case the barcode on an item fails to scan properly.
○​ When using chip and PIN devices to make a card payment.
●​ Advantages:
○​ Faster input method than a standard keyboard since it involves fewer keys.
○​ Easy-to-use input device.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ Order of numbers on keypads is often not intuitive.

🖱️ Mouse
●​ Uses:
○​ Controls the position of an on-screen pointer to allow selections, open/close files,
and so on.
●​ Advantages:
○​ Faster method to choose on-screen options compared to a keyboard.
○​ Only requires a small amount of desk space.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ Difficult to use by people with certain disabilities.
○​ Can lead to injuries such as RSI.
○​ Some surfaces don't work well with mechanical mice.

📳 Touchpad
●​ Uses:
○​ Similar to a mouse but uses a flat panel below the keyboard on a laptop.
●​ Advantages:
○​ Same advantages as a mouse.
○​ Since it is integrated into a laptop, there is no need to carry a mouse around with
you.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ Not everyone finds touchpads easy to control and certain actions can be difficult.
🎱 Trackerball
●​ Uses:
○​ Used in control rooms where desk space is at a premium.
○​ Used in luxury cars to select functions.
●​ Advantages:
○​ More accurate positioning of the pointer on-screen than a mouse.
○​ More robust and doesn't need any special surface to work properly.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ May require training to use properly since it is a less well-known type of pointing
device.
○​ Requires less desk space than a mouse.

🎮 Pointing Devices (Joystick/Driving Wheel)

●​ Used as input devices in many gaming consoles and simulators.
●​ Advantages:
○​ More realistic interface than a mouse in many games and simulations.
○​ Easier and more accurate than a mouse or keyboard to control on-screen
movements.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ Movement can be too sensitive, making the input device difficult to use.
○​ Doesn't allow any feedback during a simulation.

👆 Touchscreen
●​ Used in self-service tills, ATMs, public information kiosks, and mobile phones.
●​ Advantages:
○​ Fast data entry and easy-to-use interface.
○​ Easy to expand screen size as necessary.
○​ Easier to keep clean.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ A limited number of possible choices.
○​ Screens can get very dirty quickly and cause issues.
○​ Screens can get scratched, causing them to malfunction.

📸 Scanner
●​ Used for scanning in paper documents, photos, and barcodes.
●​ Advantages:
○​ Converts written text into electronic format.
○​ Allows damaged photos to be recovered.
○​ When used to read barcodes, the scanner becomes a DDE device.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ Quality of photos and text depends on the scanner resolution.
 ○​ Scanning can be a very slow process.
○​ If the barcode being scanned is damaged, the scanner can't successfully read it.

📷 Digital Camera
●​ Used for taking photographs or videos.
●​ Advantages:
○​ Compared to a traditional camera, unwanted photos are easy to delete.
○​ No need to develop photos.
○​ Easy to store photos on the device or in the cloud.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ Need to be computer-literate to use digital cameras effectively.
○​ Some artistry is lost since brightness, sharpness, and exposure can all be altered
by software later on.
○​ Compression of images when being stored can lead to some loss of quality.

🎤 Microphone
●​ Used for inputting speech/sound to be used in presentations, special effects, and music.
●​ Advantages:
○​ Fast input method and useful for people with certain disabilities.
○​ Allows the possibility of sampling and manipulating sounds in real-time.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ Verbal input can be inaccurate.
○​ Sound files can take up a large amount of memory unless they are compressed.
○​ In video conferencing to operate key functions.

🖋️ Light Pen
●​ Uses:
○​ Selecting objects on a CRT screen.
○​ Used with CAD/CAM software on a CRT screen.
●​ Advantages:
○​ Greater accuracy than touchscreens.
○​ Very small devices.
○​ Very easy input device to use.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ Problems of "lag" when moving the pen on the screen.
○​ Currently only works with CRT screens.
○​ Very dated technology.

🌡️ Analogue Sensors
●​ Measure physical data from the environment and send it to a computer.
●​ Uses:
○​ Temperature readings in an aeroplane.
 ○​ Pressure in a greenhouse.
○​ Intruder alert system.
○​ Control of street lighting.
●​ Advantages:
○​ Readings are more accurate than manual methods.
○​ Readings are taken continuously.
○​ Possible to take readings in places hazardous to humans.
○​ Data gathering is automatic.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ Faulty readings can lead to spurious results.
○​ Most sensors are analogue, requiring conversion to digital using an ADC.

📡 Direct Data Entry (DDE) Devices

Direct Data Entry (DDE) - devices are used to input data into a computer without the need for
much human intervention.

🏷️ Radio Frequency Identification (RFID) Tags

●​ Description:
○​ Uses radio waves to read and capture information stored on a tag. The tag
consists of a microchip and an antenna.
●​ Uses:
○​ Livestock tracking on a farm.
○​ Retail to check if articles are being removed without payment.
○​ Security access passes at theme parks.
○​ Libraries to track books out on loan.
●​ Advantages:
○​ Very fast read rate.
○​ Allows bi-directional data transfer.
○​ Allows bulk detection/reading.
○​ Difficult to copy or alter the data stored on RFID tags.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ Tag collisions can occur when data from two or more tags overlap.
○​ Radio waves can be blocked or jammed.
○​ Possible to hack data and read or change it.
○​ More complex and expensive than barcode readers.

✍️ Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)

●​ Description:
○​ Can read marks written in ink or pencil on a pre-designed printed form.
●​ Uses:
○​ Automatic marking of multi-choice exam papers.
○​ Automatic counting of voting choices in elections.
 ○​ Processing of questionnaires.
●​ Advantages:
○​ Fast method of data input.
○​ More accurate than using a keyboard.
○​ Faster to fill in a form than using OCR.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ Needs expensive and complex forms.
○​ The amount of data that can be captured is limited.
○​ Problems occur if the form is not filled in correctly.

👁️ Optical Character Recognition (OCR)

●​ Description:
○​ Converts text and images on hard copy documents into an electronic format.
●​ Uses:
○​ Scanning passports and ID cards at an airport security desk.
○​ Converting documents into a word processor usable format.
○​ Automatic number plate recognition.
○​ Digitization of valuable, ancient documents and books.
●​ Advantages:
○​ Faster data entry than manually keying in data.
○​ More accurate and less error-prone than manual data entry.
○​ Allows customers to expand on answers in questionnaires.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ The system can't always read certain handwriting styles.
○​ Data isn't always 100% accurate.
○​ Complex and expensive system.

💳 Magnetic Stripe Readers

●​ Description:
○​ Reads information on magnetic stripes on the back of cards.
●​ Uses:
○​ Credit/debit cards at ATMs or POS terminals.
○​ Security cards to allow entry to a secure building or hotel room.
●​ Advantages:
○​ Faster data entry than using a keyboard or keypad.
○​ Error-free.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ If the magnetic stripe is damaged, the information cannot be read.
○​ Data may not be human-readable.
○​ Certain devices can clone data on the magnetic stripe.

💸 Contactless Debit Card Chips

 ●​ Description:
○​ A read-only RFID chip is embedded in the card.
●​ Uses:
○​ Allow customers to pay for items without entering a PIN.
●​ Advantages:
○​ Faster transaction as no PIN is needed.
○​ Retailers don't have access to customers' credit card/debit card information.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ It is possible to monitor contactless transactions if someone nearby is using an
RFID reading device.
○​ The maximum transaction is limited to a small amount.

🔒 Chip and PIN

●​ Description:
○​ The credit/debit card is inserted into the device and the embedded chip is read. A
PIN is then entered.
●​ Uses:
○​ To make card payments at restaurants, garages, travel agents, and so on.
●​ Advantages:
○​ More secure than contactless methods.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ If the PIN is accessed by a third party, the chip and PIN system is very insecure.
○​ The card reader uses an internet link.
○​ The limit on spending is much higher than contactless.
○​ The lack of an upper limit can cause problems if a stolen card is used before it is
reported stolen.

🖥️ Output Devices: Uses, Advantages, and Disadvantages

🖥️ CRT Monitors
●​ Uses:
○​ In specialist areas such as CAD where a light pen is used.
●​ Advantages:
○​ Large viewing angle.
○​ Allow the use of light pens.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ Large and heavy.
○​ Consume more power than LCD screens.
○​ Can flicker, causing headaches.
○​ Pose a fire risk.

💻 LCD Monitors
 ●​ Uses:
○​ For computers, tablets, laptops, and smartphones.
●​ Advantages:
○​ Very efficient, low power consumption.
○​ Lightweight and very thin screens.
○​ Don't suffer from image blur/image ghosting.
○​ Very sharp image when fully backlit.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ Viewing angles can be inconsistent.
○​ Suffer from some image burn-in.
○​ Need backlighting.

💡 LED Screens
●​ Uses:
○​ Generally used in large outdoor displays.
●​ Advantages:
○​ Don't produce their own light, which can lead to variable illumination.
○​ No motion lag/ghosting.
○​ Low power consumption.
○​ Long lifespan.
○​ Screens can be any size.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ More expensive than LCDs.
○​ Can suffer from color shift due to age and temperature.

📱 Touchscreens
●​ Uses:
○​ Smartphones, tablets, ATMs, ticket collection machines, and information kiosks.
●​ Advantages:
○​ Faster data entry than a keyboard/keypad.
○​ Easy to use and less error-prone.
○​ Easy to keep clean.
○​ Allow multi-touch functions.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ Screens can become scratched and dirty.
○​ Difficult to know if a user action has registered.
○​ No physical switches or buttons.

🖨️ Dot Matrix Printers

●​ Used in places that would be harmful to laser or inkjet printers and where noise is not an
issue.
●​ Advantages:
 ○​ Inexpensive.
○​ Can be used where the atmosphere is very damp or dusty.
○​ Can produce multi-part carbon copies.
○​ Very good for long print runs using continuous stationery.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ Expensive to buy.
○​ Very slow at printing.
○​ Very limited color printing options.
○​ Poor printing quality.
○​ Outdated technology.

🖨️ Inkjet Printers
●​ Used where a low-volume print run is needed and for high-quality color printing.
●​ Advantages:
○​ Low start-up costs.
○​ Can handle many types of paper and other materials.
○​ Good for high-quality color printing.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ Inkjet ink is very expensive.
○​ Not suited for long print runs.
○​ The paper fastness of the ink isn't good.
○​ Needs regular head cleaning.
○​ Very noisy in operation.

🖨️ Laser Printers
●​ Used where low noise and fast, high-quality, high-resolution printing are required.
●​ Advantages:
○​ Faster printing than inkjet printers for large print runs.
○​ High printing quality, suitable for small fonts and fine lines.
○​ Paper trays have a greater capacity than inkjet printers.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ Can be expensive to run, especially color printers.
○​ Produce ozone gas and volatile toner particles.
○​ Cannot handle a variety of printing materials sensitive to heat.
○​ Larger and heavier than inkjet printers.

Plotters

●​ Used for producing very high-quality drawings

●​ Suitable for :
○​ Architectural drawings and product blueprints.
○​ Engineering drawings require high accuracy.
○​ Drawing animation characters for the film industry.
 ●​ Advantages:
○​ Can produce large color and monochrome drawings.
○​ Can print on various materials like aluminum, steel, cardboard, plastic, cloth,
wood, and paper.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ Slow printing speed.
○​ Expensive to purchase initially.
○​ Large physical footprint.

🖨️ 3D Printers
●​ Used for producing prototypes, bespoke items, and reconstructive surgery models.
●​ Advantages:
○​ Enables quick and less expensive production of unique items.
○​ Useful for making prosthetic limbs tailored to each person.
○​ Good for the environment by making parts for items no longer in production.
○​ Promotes creative ideas in fashion and art.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ Counterfeit items are easier to produce.
○​ Potential for illegal activity.
○​ Slow printing process.
○​ Potential job losses as 3D printing can replace certain skills.

📢 Speakers
●​ Used in multimedia presentations, as an interface for people with disabilities, and for
playback of music files.
●​ Advantages:
○​ Adds an extra dimension to presentations.
○​ Useful for people with visual impairments (microphone/speaker combination).
○​ Audible warnings in computer-controlled systems.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ Can be annoying in an office environment.
○​ Expensive if high-quality sound is required.

⚙️ Actuators
●​ Used in Control motors, pumps, switches, and so on.
●​ Advantages:
○​ Allow automatic control of many devices.
○​ Relatively inexpensive technology.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ Require the use of a DAC interface if digital devices are sending signals to
actuators.
○​ An additional device in the interface system that could go wrong.
 🖼️ Multimedia Projectors
●​ Used for training presentations, advertising, and home cinema systems.
●​ Advantages:
○​ Enables many people to see a presentation.
○​ Avoids the need for several networked computers.
○​ Space-saving as projectors can be mounted on the ceiling.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ Images can be fuzzy and colors faded.
○​ Expensive to purchase and maintain.
○​ Setting up projectors can be difficult.
○​ A darkened room is usually needed.
○​ Requires a separate audio system.

🕹️ Remote Control
●​ Used to control functions on televisions, Blu-ray players, hi-fi equipment, and so on.
●​ Advantages:
○​ Can operate from a reasonable distance.
○​ Easy-to-use interface.
●​ Disadvantages:
○​ Easy to lose.
○​ Batteries need replacing regularly.
​
○​ The remote's infrared signal can be blocked.

Chapter 3 - Storage Devices and Media

Magnetic tape drives

●​ Magnetic tape drives consist of reels of plastic tape coated in a magnetic oxide layer.
The data is stored , the 0s and 1s , have different magnetic signatures , which allow a
read/write head to read and write data.

Uses

●​ In batch processing
●​ As backups of data for long term storage
●​ For daily backups in companies that handle large amounts of data

Advantages Disadvantages
 ●​ Less expensive then hard disk drives or solid ●​ Gave very slow data access time ( as it must
state drives be fast forwarded or backward until u find data)

●​ Very robust technology ●​ Updating data requires a new tape to be

produced
●​ Vast storage Capacity
●​ They are affected by magnetic fields
●​ Very good data transfer rate

Hard Disk Drives

Hard disk drives are one of the most common methods to store data on a computer. Data is
stored on disk surfaces that are coated in magnetic material.

Uses

●​ To store operating systems , system software , apps and data

●​ As website servers and file servers on networks used in real time systems

Advantages Disadvantages

●​ Very fast data transfer rate ●​ Have slow data access time and suffer from
●​ latency
●​ Very large data capacity
●​ ●​ Fairly easily damaged
●​ Tried and trusted technology
●​ Have many moving parts that can wear out
and fail leading to data loss

●​ They are affected by magnetic field

Optical media and Optical storage devices

Optical media uses lasers to read and write data onto plastic disks.

CD/DVD R CD/DVD RW CD/DVD ROM

Uses Home recordings of music and Used to record TV programmes Permanent storage for supply of
movies over and over again computer games , music and
software
Transfer of data between Used in CCTV
 computers Supplying movies on ROM format
Backup for files can prevent copying

Advantages Cheaper than RW discs Can go through several read Data is permanently stored which is
and write operations a big advantage when used for
Once burned and finalised they movies, games and software.
become ROMS Can use different file formats
each time the disk is written to Less expensive than HDD systems

Not as wasteful as R format

Disadvantages Can only record one , if an error Relatively expensive format Data transfer is slower than HDD
occurs the disk has to be and SSD
discarded It is possible to accidentally
overwrite data It isn't possible to change data
Not all CD/DVD players can
read CD-R and DVD-R formats

Blu ray

➔​ Uses blue laser light

Uses Advantage Disadvantage

Storing high definition films Very large storage capacities More expensive than DVD
formats
Used as secondary storage Very fast data transfer rates
Or for backing up data Introduction of new DVDs
Very good data access times using an HD format has
Used in camcorders eroded some of the
Have encryption built in for advantages of blu ray
security of data

Solid state storage devices

Uses Advantages Disadvantages

SSDs have largely replaced No moving parts SSD longevity is still an issue
HDDS as the main type of
 backing storage Much lighter in weight The memory chips in SSDs
have a limited number of
Used in laptops and tablets Have very low power write cycles
where their small size makes consumption
them very suitable as the They are more expensive
main storage Very fast data transfer than HDDs
speeds

Don't suffer from latency

Pen drives

Are small solid state storage devices to connect to a computer via a usb port

Uses of pen drives Advantages of pen drives Disadvantages of pen drives

Back up data such as photos Very compact and portable Longevity is still an issue
and music storage
Easy to lose due to small size
Transport data between Very robust device
computers Possible to overwrite data
Don't need additional accidently
A security device software to work

Not affected by magnetic

fields

Memory Cards

SD Cards - Used where high capacity is needed​

xD Cards - A type of removable memory card designed for use in digital cameras

CFast Cards - A memory card used in very small devices

 Uses Advantages Disadvantages

Store photos on digital Very compact Expensive per GB compared

cameras to HDDs
No moving parts and very
In mobile phones for durable Much lower storage than
extended memory other types of storage
Makes it easy to transfer devices
In mp3 players to store music photos between devices
Easy to lose due to small size
A backing store in handheld Relatively large memory
devices capacities

Chapter 4 - Networks and the effects of using them

Network Interface Cards (NIC) -:

A network interface card allows a device to connect to the internet. It is usually part of the
internal motherboard , but they can also be wireless and use antennas to communicate with a
network using microwaves.

Media access control address (MAC)

Mac address is a hexadecimal number that uniquely identifies a device. Mac addresses use 48
bits made up of six groups of hexadecimal digits.

Internet Protocol Address (IP)

Whenever a device connects to the internet it is given an IP address supplied by the internet
service provider. This will change each time a user connects to the network.

2 types

Ipv4 : this is based on 32 bits and is written as four groups of 8 bits

Ipv6 : this uses 128 bits and is written as eight groups of four hexadecimal digits

Data Packets

Data moved around networks is split up into data packets. Each data packet travels from A to B
independently. The data packet also has a header and a trailer

The header contains -:

●​ Sender's IP address
●​ Receivers IP address
●​ Sequence number
 ●​ Packet size
●​ Number of packets in the whole message

Hubs

Hubs are hardware devices that are found in local area networks (LAN). They deliver all data
packets received by a network to all devices on a network.

Switches

Switches are intelligent hubs. They deliver each data packet to a specific device on the network.
Switches use Mac addresses to locate devices on a network.

Similarities between hubs and switches Differences of Hubs and Switches

Hubs Hubs

Used to exchange data packets within their Hubs send data packets to every device
own LANs connected to the internet.

Used to connect devices in a network

together

Cant exchange data with external networks

Switches Switches

Used to exchange data packets within their Switches send data packets to a specific
own LANs device connected to the internet.

Used to connect devices in a network Security using switches is better than hubs
together
Switches use Mac address to locate devices
Cant exchange data with external networks on the network

Bridges

Bridges are used to connect a Lan to another Lan that uses the same protocol

Routers

Routers are used to route data packets from one network to another using IP address

Router Bridge
 The main objective of a router is to connect The main objective of a bridge is to connect
various type of networks together Lans together

Routers scan a devices IP address Bridges scan a devices MAC address

Data is sent out using data packets Data is sent out using data packets

Connected networks will use different Connected networks use same protocol
protocol
Bridges don't make use of routing tables
A routing table is used to route data packets
to the correct device A bridge has only 2 ports

A router has more than 2 ports

Wifi and Bluetooth

Wifi Bluetooth

Wifi sends and receive radio waves in many Bluetooth uses radio waves in a band of 79
frequency bands frequencies

Wifi makes use of wireless access points also When a device wants to communicate it
known as hotspots chooses one of the 79 channels at random

Maximum effective range is 100m Maximum effective range is 30m

Wifi can connect many devices to a network If a channel is already in use another one is
at the same time chosen

Can allow 7 devices to be connected at once

CLOUD COMPUTING

Cloud computing is a method of data storage using physical remote servers.

3 types

●​ Public cloud - a storage environment where the client and cloud storage provider are
different entities​
●​ Private cloud - Cloud storage provided by dedicated servers behind a firewall client and
cloud storage provider acts as a single entity
●​ Hybrid cloud - Combination of both public and private clouds
Advantages Disadvantages

Client files stored on the cloud can be Security aspects of storing data in a cloud
accessed at any time from any device
If the customer has slow or unstable internet
There is no need for customer to carry connection they will have problems accessing
external storage devices with them their points.

If a customer has a failure of their hard disk Potential failure of cloud storage company is
or backup device cloud storage allows always possible this poses a risk of loss of all
recovery of their data backup data

Huge storage capacity (almost unlimited) at a

price

Network types
●​ Local area network (LAN)
●​ Wireless local area network (WLAN)
●​ Wide area network (WAN)

LAN - connected devices are usually geographically close

Advantages of LAN Disadvantages of LAN

The sharing of resources such as expensive Easier spread of viruses throughout the
peripherals whole network

Better communication between users of the Queues can form for shared resources which
LAN can be frustrating

A network administrator can control and Slower access to external networks

monitor all aspects of the network

WLAN - similar to LANs but don't use cables to connect devices together

Wireless networking Wired network

It is easier to expand the networks and it isn't Using cables produces a more reliable and
necessary to connect the devices using stable network , wireless connectivity is often
cables subjected to interference
 No cabling so there is safety improvement Having lots of wires can lead to a number of
hazards such as overheating
There is an increased chance of interface
from external sources Setting up cabled tends to be cheaper

Data transmission rate is still slower than for Data transfer rates tend to be faster
cabled networks although it continues to
improve

Security
Passwords

●​ Run anti spyware software to ensure your password isn't stolen

●​ Change your passwords on regular basis incase they have been cracked or accidentally
released
●​ Always use Strong passwords with special characters numerical values and upper and
lower case letters

Other authentication methods

Method Description of authentication technique

Zerologin and biometrics Allows users to log in without passwords

Relies on smart technology and the ability to recognise a

user with biometrics and behavioral patterns

The system builds a complex user profile based on

biometrics (fingerprints , face recognition , retina scan
and etc) and unique behaviour which eliminates the need
to key in password

Magnetic stripe cards When used as part of a security system magnetic stripe
cards have a brown stripe on the back that contains
 unique information

When swiped through a magnetic stripe card reader the

information is read and identifies a user

Often have a hologram embossed on the card making

forgery more difficult

Smart Cards Adding a microchip and antenna to a magnetic stripe

card , they can become a smart contactless card.

At the entrance to a building a device reads the cards

from a distance of a few centimetres

The user may also be invited to enter their PIN to see if it

matches up to the one stored on the microchip

Method Description of authentication technique

Physical tokens A physical token is a physical , solid object

often used by banks to allow customers to
access their accounts remotely.

If a card is inserted into the device and the

user keys in their pin a one time password is
generated by the physical token device

The OTP needs to be typed into the banks

web page to allow the user to gain access to
their accounts

Two types of physical token are :

●​ Connected physical token - device

transmits the OTP directly to a
computer using a USB port

●​ Disconnected physical token - User

has to key in OTP manually

Electronic tokens They are also software tokens installed on a

computer as an app

If a user wants to log on to a website using a

tablet for example the user opens the app
 and an OTP is generated

The user enters this PIN into the website as

well as other authentication such as
fingerprint and facial recognition

Electronic Conferencing
Video Conferencing - method that allows a conference to take place between two or more sets
of people many kilometres apart.

Requirements are

●​ Webcam
●​ Microphone and speakers
●​ Special software

Advantage Disadvantage

As people are in their own building it is Potential time lag in responses

much easier to access important
documents or bring in experts in key parts Jerky images maybe due to poor internet
of the conference
Can be very expensive to set up in the
Can hold conferences at short notice first place

Not travelling physically reduces costs Problems because of time zone

such as travel costs differences

It may be better to sue video conferencing Time consuming to set up

than have delegates travel to potentially
unsafe places around the world

Audio conferencing - requires a computer with a built in or external microphone and

speakers and a standard telephone or internet phone.

Web conferencing - also referred to as webinar or webcast. Multiple computers are

used in various locations to hold conferences in real time over the internet.
Chapter 6 - ICT APPLICATIONS
📣 Communication
Newsletters and Posters

●​ Paper-based communication used to inform people about their interests.

●​ Schools use them to inform parents about events and dates.

Advantages:

●​ Released regularly.
●​ Recipients have a permanent copy.

Disadvantages:

●​ Requires distribution.
●​ No special effects, sound/video/animation.
●​ Printing costs (paper/ink).
●​ The targeted audience may or may not receive the information.

Websites

●​ A collection of webpages, text, graphics, video, and sound.

●​ Hosted on a web server on the internet.
●​ Requires code or a web authoring application.
●​ Hyperlinks to other pages can be added.
●​ Interactive websites require programming knowledge.
●​ Can use a camera, scanner, and microphone to input data.
●​ Usually, hire space from a web hosting company.

Advantages:

●​ Ability to add sound/video/animation.

●​ Links to other websites/hyperlinks.
●​ Use of hot spots.
●​ Buttons to navigate/move around the website.
●​ Hit counters to see who has visited the websites.
●​ Worldwide advertising capability.

Disadvantages:

●​ Can be hacked and modified, or viruses introduced.

●​ Need for a computer and internet connection.
 ●​ Lack of portability compared with the paper-based system.
●​ Need to maintain the website once it is set up.

Multimedia Presentations

●​ Uses a mixture of media to present information: animations, video, sound, transitions,

hyperlinks.
●​ Produced using software packages.
●​ Used with a projector so a large audience can view.

Advantages:

●​ Use of sound and animation/video effects.

●​ Interactive/hyperlinks built into presentations.
●​ More likely to hold the audience’s attention.

Disadvantages:

●​ Need for special equipment, which can be expensive.

●​ May require internet access.
●​ Distracts the audience from the sole content of the presentation.
●​ Easy to make a presentation with too many features.

Media Streaming

●​ Real-time transmission of audio and video files over the internet.

●​ Allows users to access content without downloading it to their devices.
●​ Popular services include Spotify, YouTube, and social media websites.
●​ Uses buffering, which ensures smooth video playback without freezing.

Advantages:

●​ Users can access information anytime, anywhere.

●​ Offers an extensive library of content.
●​ Can be more cost-effective compared to traditional cable or satellite TV.

Disadvantages:

●​ Heavily relies on a stable and high-speed internet connection.

●​ Not all content is available on every streaming platform due to licensing agreements.
●​ You don’t own the media; content can be removed by the streaming service.

ePublications

●​ Digital versions of printed materials like eBooks, eMagazines, and eNewspapers.

●​ Can be read on electronic devices.
Advantages:

●​ Aid portability.
●​ Often more affordable than paperback books.
●​ Offer interactive elements that enhance the reading experience.

Disadvantages:

●​ Prolonged reading from an electronic device can cause eyestrain.

●​ Lack the tactile experience and physical presence that some readers enjoy.
●​ Compatibility issues can arise if the format is not supported by the reader's device or
software.

Comparison of Posters and E-publications

Feature Posters E-publications

Format Printed and displayed in Digital format, often accessed via

physical locations websites or email

Updates Static, cannot be updated once Can be updated quickly and easily
printed

Design Limited (no animation/sound) Supports multimedia (videos, sound,

Features interactive links)

Reach Audience must be physically Wider reach as they can be viewed

present anywhere online

📱 Mobile Devices
Mobile devices support many forms of communication:

1.​ Short message service (SMS) messaging:

○​ Permits quick communication via typing on a keyboard (often virtual on mobile
devices).
○​ Recipient can get the text whenever they choose without being available.
2.​ Phone calls:
 ○​ Making calls on the go is a fundamental application.
○​ Compact and have an independent battery.
3.​ Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP):
○​ A communication technique for Internet users.
○​ Transforms sound captured by the built-in mic into individual data packets.
4.​ Video calls:
○​ Enables real-time video conversing with a camera-enabled device.
○​ Uses an internet connection or cellular data.
○​ Software examples: FaceTime, Skype, and Zoom.
5.​ Accessing the Internet:
○​ Any mobile device with a wireless broadband connection or a mobile phone
network can link to the internet.

📐 Modelling Applications
Advantages of Using Models:

●​ Less expensive than building the real thing.

●​ Safer to use a computer model.
●​ Allows trying out various scenarios in advance.
●​ Faster than the real thing.

Disadvantages of Using Models:

●​ A model can’t be completely relied upon as the output is entirely based on the input.
●​ Computer modelling can be a very costly option.
●​ Human reluctance is a common problem in this technology.

Applications:

1.​ Personal finance: Simulates financial scenarios like investment strategies, retirement
planning, and risk assessment.
2.​ Bridge and building design: Allows engineers to simulate and analyze structural
behavior, assess load capacities, and predict the response to external forces.
3.​ Flood water management: Simulates water flow behavior, predicts flood extents, and
assesses potential flood risks.
4.​ Traffic management: Simulates and analyzes traffic flow, predicts congestion patterns,
and optimizes traffic control strategies.
5.​ Weather forecasting: Simulates the Earth's atmosphere, oceanic conditions, and other
environmental factors.

Comparison: Computer Modelling vs. Humans

Feature Computer Modelling Humans

Precision and Provides more precise and accurate May have errors.
Accuracy results, minimizing errors.

Data Analysis Can analyze large amounts of data Slower at analyzing large
and Speed and perform complex calculations datasets.
faster.

Reusability and Can be reused and updated easily, Requires repetitive manual
Updates reducing repetitive manual analysis. analysis.

Nuance and May overlook nuanced factors or Can consider nuanced

Intangible Factors intangible elements. factors or intangible
elements.

Assumptions and Based on assumptions and Less dependent on

Simplifications simplifications, introducing a level of assumptions.
uncertainty.

Adaptability Bound by programmed algorithms Can more readily navigate

and data inputs; may struggle to and respond to unforeseen
adapt to unforeseen circumstances circumstances or rapidly
or rapidly changing conditions changing conditions.

🤖 Computer-Controlled Systems
Robotics in Manufacturing

●​ Involves using automated machines to perform tasks such as assembly, welding, and
packaging.
●​ Designed to mimic human actions with precision and speed.
●​ Offers benefits like enhanced worker safety, improved efficiency, and the ability to handle
repetitive tasks.
Advantages:

●​ Can work in environments that may be harmful to humans.

●​ Can work non-stop.
●​ Low running costs due to reduced employees.
●​ Higher productivity.
●​ Provide greater consistency.
●​ Can do long, boring, tedious tasks.
●​ Can carry out different tasks by fitting them with different end effectors.

Disadvantages:

●​ Robots find it difficult to do unusual tasks.

●​ Can cause higher unemployment.
●​ Robots do many of the tasks once done by humans, leading to deskilling.
●​ Robots are independent of the skills base; factory headquarters can be moved
internationally.
●​ Initial set-up and maintenance of robots can be expensive.

Production Line Control

●​ Involves using computers and software to monitor, coordinate, and optimize

manufacturing processes.
●​ Ensures efficient coordination of machinery, manages inventory, tracks production
metrics, and automates tasks.
●​ Enables real-time data analysis, error detection, and adjustment.

Autonomous Vehicles

●​ Self-driving cars and drones guided by computer algorithms.

●​ Enhance safety, reduce traffic congestion, and increase fuel efficiency.

Comparison: Computer-Controlled Systems vs. Humans

Feature Computer-Controlled Systems Humans

Efficiency Increased efficiency and productivity Lower efficiency

Consistency Greater consistency Less consistency

Environment Ability to work in any environment Limited by the environment

Error Rate Reduced human error Higher error rate

Work with Items Can work with large or delicate Limited by physical ability
items

Installation Costs Very high installation costs Lower installation costs

Maintenance Very high maintenance costs Lower maintenance costs

Costs

Reliability Dependency on reliable Less dependent

Flexibility Lack of flexibility More flexibility

Backup Systems Requires costly backup systems Less need for backup
systems

🏫 School Management Systems

●​ Comprehensive software applications that automate administrative tasks, such as
attendance tracking, grading, scheduling, and student information management.

Advantages:

●​ Absenteeism can be addressed more quickly.

●​ Parents are kept updated.
●​ Reduced workload for teachers.

Disadvantages:

●​ Operating the software will require training.

 ●​ The initial cost of the software is very high.
●​ Unauthorized access will have to be prevented as there is a lot of personal information.

Learner Registration and Attendance

1.​ ID cards with magnetic tapes:

○​ Students swipe ID cards containing name, school, date of birth, and registration
ID.
○​ Saves time and ensures accurate attendance.
2.​ Biometrics:
○​ Student’s fingerprint is stored on a database along with personal information.
○​ Students use a fingerprint scanner to enter or leave the school premises.

Biometrics vs. Magnetic ID Cards

Feature Biometrics Magnetic ID Cards

Forgery Unique fingerprints disable attendance Can be easily cloned

Prevention forgery

Portability N/A Easy to lose.

Security High security Easy to be stolen due to

small size

Collection Time-consuming for all fingerprints to be Quick to distribute

individually collected

Equipment Expensive equipment is required to read Less expensive

fingerprints equipment required

Reliability Fingerprint won’t be readable if Always readable unless

cut/damaged damaged
 Privacy Invasion of privacy in storing fingerprints Less privacy concerns
on a database

Learner’s Performance

●​ Spreadsheets can be used to record students’ performances.

●​ Easier to compare each other’s performances and an individual student’s performance
over the academic year.

Computer-Aided Learning (CAL)

The use of computer-based technologies to help students acquire academic material.

●​ Meant to supplement classroom instruction, not serve its purpose.

●​ Students take online assessments to track their progress while learning on computers.

🎫 Booking Systems
●​ Web-based platforms and applications that allow users to reserve and purchase tickets
or services for various events and industries.

Applications:

1.​ Travel industry: Booking flights, hotels, and holiday packages.

2.​ Concerts: Reserving tickets for live music events.
3.​ Cinemas: Booking movie tickets in advance.

Advantages:

●​ Convenience and accessibility.

●​ Instant confirmation and ticketing.
●​ Ability to compare prices and options.
●​ Promotions and personalized offers.
●​ Faster to change/update.
●​ Automated reminders via email/text.
●​ Repeated bookings can be easily made.
●​ Cost-saving as there are fewer wages due to reduced staff requirements.

Disadvantages:

●​ Potential for technical issues.

●​ Possible security and privacy concerns.
●​ Transaction and booking fees.
●​ Impersonal customer service.
 ●​ Dependent on a stable internet connection.
●​ Can lead to unemployment.

🏦 Banking Applications
●​ Online banking systems depend on the ability to update files instantly to avoid double
scheduling.

Technologies:

●​ Internet banking
●​ Automated teller machines (ATMs)
●​ Chip and PIN technology

Automated Teller Machines (ATMs)

Places where customers can get cash (or carry out certain other banking activities) using their
credit or debit card.

Sequence at ATM

Step Behind the Scenes

Customer puts card into Contact is made with the bank’s computer
ATM

PIN is entered using the PIN is checked to see if it is correct. The card is checked
keypad to see if it is valid.

The transaction is closed if the card is stolen or the

number of PIN attempts allowed is exceeded.

Several options are given: Change PIN, pay in checks, pay a bill, see balance, get
money
 The customer selects the Several cash options are shown
cash option

The customer accepts one The customer’s account is accessed to see if they have
of the options or types in sufficient funds. It is checked to see if they are
the amount withdrawing more than their daily limit.

If the limit is not exceeded and all other checks are OK,
then the transaction is authorized, and the machine then
counts out the cash.

The customer is asked if The card is returned. Money is dispensed. The

they want a receipt customer’s account is updated.

Advantages:

●​ Possible to withdraw at any time of the day.

●​ Offer many banking services without having to go to the bank.
●​ Possible to access an account from anywhere in the world.
●​ Usually provides quicker service than waiting in a queue at a bank.

Disadvantages:

●​ Often in places where theft can take place at night.

●​ Potential for shoulder surfing.
●​ Some banks charge customers for using ATMs.
●​ Cash withdrawal limits are often imposed on people.

Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT)

It is possible to send money transfer instructions directly to a bank's computer system via
electronic funds transfer (EFT) technology. The system depends on electronic money transfers
between accounts; no cash is moved. The computer system automatically moves the requested
amount from one account to another when it receives an EFT command.

Advantages:

●​ Very secure payment method.

●​ Very quick payment method.
 ●​ Less expensive than checks.
●​ The customer has the right to dispute an EFT payment for up to 60 days.

Disadvantages:

●​ The bank transaction can’t be reversed without full dispute investigations.

●​ Customer needs to have funds available immediately.
●​ Cannot guarantee the recipient’s identity.

Credit/Debit Card Transactions

●​ Several credit/debit cards come with a magnetic stripe and a chip; the chip houses
essential data like the PIN.
●​ A chip and PIN card to make purchases is an example of an electronic funds transfer
(EFT).

Advantages of Credit Cards:

●​ Customer protection if ordered goods don’t arrive.

●​ Internationally accepted payment method.
●​ Can pay in credit if an agreement is made to pay back on a specific date.
●​ Can make purchases online.

Disadvantages of Credit Cards:

●​ Can be charged high-interest rates.

●​ Annual fees often apply.
●​ Easy to end up with credit damage.
●​ Security risks in online transactions.

Advantages of Debit Cards:

●​ Money comes from the user’s current account; there is no interest.

●​ Safer than carrying cash.
●​ Can make online purchases.

Disadvantages of Debit Cards:

●​ Less customer protection if goods don’t arrive.

●​ No credit allowed; funds are needed at the time of purchase.
●​ Security risks in online transactions.

Cheques

●​ When issuing a check, the payer writes the recipient's name, the payment amount, and
the date on the check.
●​ The recipient then deposits or presents the check to their bank for processing.
Advantages:

●​ More convenient and safer than cash.

●​ Can be post-dated.
●​ Can be traced if they are lost.

Disadvantages:

●​ Aren’t legal tender and can be refused.

●​ Slow method of payment.
●​ Easier for fraudsters than other methods.
●​ Relatively expensive payment method.

Internet Banking

Transfers, bill payments, account management, and more.

Advantages:

●​ Convenience and availability.

●​ Easy account management.
●​ Branch visiting won’t be a requirement.
●​ Interest rates may be better.
●​ More accessible to shop around for the best account.

Disadvantages:

●​ Security of transactions.
●​ Requires a reliable internet connection.
●​ More risk of fraud.
●​ Easier to make errors.
●​ Physical cash can't be deposited/withdrawn.

⚕️ Computers in Medicine
Information Systems in Medicine

●​ Patient records: Healthcare professionals maintain databases to communicate

information between them and pharmacists to guarantee no medications are
administered that interact dangerously with one another.
●​ Pharmacy records: Pharmacy records maintain a comprehensive record of patient
prescriptions. This includes details like the prescribed medication, dosage, quantity
dispensed, prescribing physician's information, and the date of dispensing. These
records help track medication usage and can be used to verify prescription accuracy and
detect potential drug interactions or allergies.
3D Printers

●​ Prosthetics: 3D printers print out artificial body parts such as false teeth, artificial limbs,
hearing aids, etc.
●​ Tissue Engineering: Field of combining cells, biomaterials, and engineering principles to
create functional tissues or organs
●​ Artificial blood vessels: Synthetic structures designed to mimic the function of natural
blood vessels
●​ Customized medicines: Personalized drug formulations tailored to individual patients'
specific needs.

🧠 Expert Systems
It is an AI-based computer program that mimic the decision-making capabilities of human
experts. It uses knowledge and rules to provide accurate advice or solutions.

Examples include:

●​ Diagnostics
●​ Mineral prospecting
●​ Tax and financial calculations
●​ Strategy games
●​ Identification of plants, animals, and chemical compounds

Here is an image showing the different components of an expert system:

The image depicts a flowchart illustrating the components of an expert system, comprising five
interconnected boxes. The boxes are labeled "User interface" (purple), "Inference engine"
(orange), "Explanation system" (orange), "Knowledge base" (green), and "Rules base" (blue).
The flowchart shows the relationships between these components, with arrows indicating the
direction of information flow. The following section breaks down the different components of the
expert system.

Components of an Expert System

 1.​ User Interface
○​ The only thing the end-user sees.
○​ Allows the user to interact with the system.
○​ Often requires training to operate effectively.
○​ Informs the user of the reasoning behind the expert system’s conclusions.
○​ Supplies a conclusion and any suggested actions to take.
○​ Gives the percentage probability of the accuracy of its conclusions.
2.​ Inference Engine
○​ The main processing element of the system.
○​ Acts like a search engine examining the knowledge base.
○​ Responsible for gathering information.
○​ The problem-solving part of the system.
○​ Attempts to use information gathered from the user to find a matching object.
3.​ Knowledge Base
○​ A repository of facts.
○​ Stores all the knowledge about an area of expertise.
○​ A collection of objects and their attributes.
4.​ Rules Base
○​ The rules base is a set of inference rules.
○​ Used by the inference engine to draw conclusions.
○​ They follow logical thinking.

How an Expert System is Used to Produce Possible Solutions

1.​ The interactive screen asks questions for the doctor to answer using a keyboard or a
touch screen.
2.​ The inference engine compares the symptoms with the knowledge base, using the rule
base to find matches.
3.​ The system suggests the possible illness with a probability of each, cures, and
recommendations on the next step.
4.​ The explanation system will explain how that particular diagnosis was suggested.

🛍️ Computers in the Retail Industry

Point of Sale (POS) Terminals

Computerized systems used at checkout counters to handle purchases and oversee stock.

●​ Extensively used in retail stores to process sales transactions.

●​ Enable quick and secure payment processing through various methods, including cash,
credit/debit cards, mobile payments, and digital wallets.
●​ Calculate totals, generate itemized receipts, update inventory, and provide real-time
sales data for effective business management.

Features:
 ●​ Update stock files immediately.
●​ Track inventory levels in real-time.
●​ Prevent stock discrepancies and ensure accurate records.
●​ Monitor inventory levels and reorder when stock is lower than a predefined value.
●​ Streamline supply chain management and minimize stockouts.

Electronic Funds Transfer at Point of Sale (EFTPOS) Terminals

Devices for processing electronic payments; they allow customers to make payments using
debit or credit cards by securely transferring funds from their bank accounts.

●​ EFTPOS terminals authenticate and authorize transactions in real-time, providing

convenience and security for customers and businesses during retail purchases.

Functions:

●​ Use of chip and PIN cards:

●​ Enhance security with two-factor authentication.
●​ Require customers to enter a personal identification number (PIN).
●​ Use of contactless cards:
●​ Allow for faster transactions.
●​ Enable customers to tap their card on the terminal.
●​ Use of Near Field Communication (NFC):
●​ Facilitate payments through smartphones and other devices.
●​ Increase convenience for customers.
●​ Communication between supermarket computers and bank computers:
●​ Share transaction details securely.
●​ Enable instant payment processing and verification.

🌐 Internet Shopping
Characteristics of Internet Shopping:

●​ Online stores accessible through web browsers.

●​ A wide variety of products and services are available.
●​ Convenient and often open 24/7.

Advantages (To Customer):

●​ Access to the global market.

●​ Can shop from anywhere in the world.
●​ Able to avoid queues and busy stores.
●​ Comparison between different products effortlessly.

Advantages (To Business):

 ●​ Can target prices and services based on buying data.
●​ Can update stock availability and prices more quickly than a physical store.
●​ Cheaper to publicize special offers.
●​ International customer base.
●​ Increased profits due to lower staff.

Disadvantages (To Customer):

●​ Security concerns.
●​ Can’t correctly examine products before purchase.
●​ Occasionally, products may take weeks before being delivered.
●​ Additional shipping and handling costs.
●​ Lack of face-to-face interaction with staff.

Disadvantages (To Business):

●​ Increased competition.
●​ Digital fraud and security concerns.
●​ Technical issues and downtime.
●​ Costs of delivery and return.
●​ Fake negative reviews can lead to a bad company reputation.

👁️ Recognition Systems
Optical Mark Recognition (OMR)

●​ The position of a mark is stored in a computer’s memory after being read by the OMR, a
device using a template that maps out the X-Y coordinates of each tablet (pen/pencil
mark).
●​ Used at POS terminals for scanning and reading the information stored in barcodes.
●​ Many digital devices have OMR scanners, which may be used to scan QR codes.

OMR Media in Schools:

●​ School registers: Paper-based registers are fed into OMR to be scanned and stored in a
database.
●​ Multiple-choice examination papers:

Advantages:

●​ Very fast way of inputting the results of a survey.

●​ More accurate than keying in data.
●​ More accurate than OCR methods.

Disadvantages:
 ●​ Designing the forms is a very complex job.
●​ There can be problems if they haven’t been filled out correctly.
●​ Often only work with black pens or pencils.

Automatic Number Plate Recognition (ANPR) Systems

1.​ The sensor sends a signal to instruct a camera to capture an image of the front of the
vehicle.
2.​ An algorithm is used to locate and isolate the number plate from the image taken by the
camera.
3.​ The brightness and contrast of the number plate are first adjusted. Each character on the
number plate is then segmented.
4.​ Each character is then recognized using OCR software. The characters are converted
into a string of editable text by the software.
5.​ This text string is then stored in a database.
6.​ A barrier is raised, and the motorist is issued with a ticket. The ticket shows the date and
time of entering the car park.
7.​ When the car returns to the car park, they insert their ticket into a machine that
calculates their charges and registers the payment into the database.

Advantages:

●​ Used to automatically monitor the average speed of vehicles over a stretch of road.
●​ There is no need to employ car park or security guards.
●​ It's a much faster system than checking a ticket at the exit.
●​ It can automatically control the entry and exit to a car park or private roads.
●​ It can be used as a security system to prevent illegal parking.
●​ It can be used to analyze driver behavior.
●​ It can be used in inner-city congestion charging systems.

Disadvantages:

●​ A lack of manned security car park surveillance could lead to vandalism.

●​ There could be an invasion of privacy due to recording drivers’ number plates.
●​ Damaged or very dirty number plates will not be recognized.
●​ The ANPR system only recognizes the number plate and not the car so that a car can be
fitted with a cloned number plate, thus bypassing car park security, for example.

Radio Frequency Identification (RFID)

●​ Tracking of stock using RFID involves either tracking livestock (on a farm) or goods in a
shop, supermarket, or distribution center.

RFID in Passports:

1.​ The data on the RFID chip is read when the passport is scanned.
 2.​ Your photo is clicked and compared to the RFID chip image.
3.​ If face recognition passes, some checks are made to ensure you are eligible to enter the
country, and if you are, the gate opens automatically.

RFID in Automobiles:

●​ Tags allow or deny access to parking in a secure, private car park.

●​ RFID tags in lorries and delivery vans can be used at weigh stations to ensure the
vehicle is not carrying too much weight.
●​ RFID tags can be used on a car production line.

📡 RFID (Radio Frequency Identification)

●​ Uses radio waves to automatically identify and track tags attached to objects.
●​ Components:
●​ Tag: Contains a microchip with data.
●​ Reader: Emits radio waves and receives signals from the tag.

⚙️ How RFID Works

1.​ Reader emits a radio signal.
2.​ Tag receives the signal and transmits its stored information back to the reader.
3.​ Reader interprets the data.

📝 Uses
●​ Tracking goods in warehouses: Real-time inventory management.
●​ Tracking pets: Attaching RFID tags to collars helps locate lost pets.
●​ Tracking library books: Efficient check-in/check-out process.
●​ Tracking payment through assembly: Monitoring progress in manufacturing.
●​ Contactless payments: Credit/debit cards with embedded chips.

✅ Advantages
●​ No line-of-sight contact necessary.
●​ Robust and reliable technology.
●​ Tags are difficult to forge compared to barcodes.
●​ Reduces staffing needs through automated tracking.
●​ Fast read rate.
●​ Allows bi-directional data transfer.
●​ Bulk detection is possible.

❌ Disadvantages
●​ Tag collision: Signals from multiple tags interfere with each other.
●​ Susceptible to jamming or interruption due to radio waves.
 ●​ Relatively easy to hack data/signal transmissions.
●​ Higher initial costs compared to barcode systems.

📱 NFC (Near Field Communication)

●​ Enables short-range wireless communication between devices.
●​ Allows payment using a smartphone.

✅ Advantages
●​ Convenient and secure payment method.
●​ Allows for contactless transactions.

❌ Disadvantages
●​ Limited range.
●​ Compatibility issues with some devices.

👤 Biometrics
●​ Automated technologies for authenticating and verifying human body characteristics.​
Examples: face, iris, retina, finger, thumb, hand, and voice.

✅ Advantages
●​ Very high accuracy.
●​ Easy to use.
●​ Fast verification time.
●​ Non-intrusive method.
●​ Relatively inexpensive technology.

❌ Disadvantages
●​ Can make mistakes if the skin is dirty or damaged.
●​ Expensive to install and set up.
●​ Uses a lot of memory for data storage.
●​ Voice can be recorded and used for unauthorized access.
●​ Illness can change a person’s voice, making absolute identification difficult or impossible.

🛰️ Satellite Systems
Global Positioning Systems (GPS)

●​ Used to determine the exact location of modes of transport. ( car , ship or aeroplane)
●​ Computers in the mode of transport receive and interpret signals from satellites.

📍 Satellite Navigation (satnav)

 ●​ Used to determine the exact location of a car.
●​ Computers onboard can show directions to a destination.

✅ Advantages
●​ Improved focus.
●​ Reduces fines.
●​ Shows Estimated Time of Arrival (ETA).
●​ Possible to program the fastest route.
●​ Provides helpful information such as the location of petrol stations.

❌ Disadvantages
●​ Incorrect instructions with outdated maps.
●​ Road closures can cause problems.
●​ Loss of satellite signals can cause problems.
●​ Incorrect information from wrong start/end points.

🗺️ Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

●​ Used to capture, manage, analyze, and display geographically referenced information.​
Used to determine the distance between two places, find the nearest petrol station,
protect animal and plant life.

✅ Advantages
●​ Combines geographical and thematic data.
●​ Allows handling and exploration of vast amounts of data.
●​ Integrates data from different sources.

❌ Disadvantages
●​ Long learning curve on GIS software.
●​ Expensive software.
●​ Requires enormous amounts of data input.
●​ Difficult to make programs fast and user-friendly.

📡 Media Communication Systems

●​ Using satellite signals for communication.
●​ Used by media companies for sending stories/videos/pictures from remote locations.

✅ Advantages
●​ Good global coverage.
●​ Cheaper, faster, and safer than laying cables.
●​ Very high bandwidth.
 ●​ Easy to expand the network.
●​ Good security.
●​ Easy to move stations on the ground during emergencies.
●​ Well-suited for broadcasting.
●​ Enable mobile communication in remote locations.

❌ Disadvantages
●​ Time delay in receipt of the signals.
●​ Signals affected by bad weather.
●​ Sunspot activity can affect performance.
●​ Regular monitoring and control needed to remain in the correct orbit.

Chapter 18 - Databases

Databases

What is a database?​​ ​

Ans)A database is a store of data that has been organized (sorted) in some way.

What are fields?

Database fields hold/store the single items of data that make up a record. Each cell of a table
indicates a single field. A single field can hold one piece of data

What is a record?
Ans)A database record shows all the data about one person or object. One single row of a
database table represents ONE Record

What is a primary key?

Ans)Most tables will have a primary key field that holds unique data (no two records are the
same in this field) and is the field used to identify that record.

What is a foreign key?

Ans) A foreign key is a column or columns of data in one table that refers to the unique data
values

Difference between flat and relational file databases.

Flat file databases - A flat file database stores its data in just 1 table which is organized by
rows and columns .

Relational databases-
A relational database stores data in more than one linked table, stored in a file. Relational
databases are designed so that the same data is not stored many times.

Data types

●​ Alphanumeric - used to store texts and numbers

●​ Numeric - this is used to store numbers
●​ Integer : which stores whole numbers
●​ Decimal : which stores decimal numbers
●​ Currency :which displays currency formatting
●​ Date and time :allows date and time to be stored as a number
●​ Boolean : is used to store data as 0 or 1 to represent true and false

Chapter 20 - Spreadsheets

📉 Spreadsheet Models
A spreadsheet is often used to create a data model. By changing the contents of a
spreadsheet, different outcomes can be predicted. This is called data modelling or making a
'what if' scenario. Sometimes, one or more cells are calculated and are often financial,
mathematical, or scientific.

🧱 Spreadsheet Structures
A spreadsheet is a two-dimensional grid consisting of rows, columns, and cells and is used to
perform calculations. Each cell has a cell reference, like G5. You can give an individual cell or a
block of cells a name, which are called named cells and named ranges.

All spreadsheets store data using:

●​ Rows: Each row is all the cells in one horizontal line in a spreadsheet. The row heading
contains the number displayed to the left of the first cell.
●​ Columns: Each column is all the cells in one vertical line in a spreadsheet. The column
heading contains the letter displayed above the top cell.
●​ Cells: Each cell is a single square/box into which only a single entry can be placed. A
cell can hold a label (some text), a number, or a formula (that starts with an = sign).
What a user sees is how the cell is formatted to display data.

💡 Tip: Practice using named cells and named ranges, as they are required in practical
examinations. Make sure that you name it exactly as it appears in the question (including case).

🧮 Formulae
📝 Basic Concepts
●​ Formulae start with an = sign.
●​ Simple formulae can refer to the contents of another cell. For example, if cell A2 contains
the formula =B4, it copies the contents of B4 and displays it in A2. If the contents of B4
were changed, the contents of A2 would also change.
●​ Formulae can perform calculations. For example, if cell A7 contains the formula
=A5+A6, it adds together the contents of cells A5 and A6 and displays the result in cell
A7. If the values held in either A5 or A6 were changed, then the contents of A7 would
change.
●​ The changing of cells to see the results is called modelling.

➕ Arithmetic Operators
Symbol Operation

+ Addition

- Subtraction
* Multiplication

/ Division

^ Indices

➗ Order of Mathematical Operations

Spreadsheets perform all calculations using the mathematical order of operations (BIDMAS):

Letter Definition

B Brackets first

I Indices (i.e. powers and square roots etc.)

DM Division and Multiplication (left to right)

AS Addition and Subtraction (left to right)

 Absolute and relative referencing

Absolute - Stays constant and uses the $ sign before and after letter

Relative - Keeps changing

⚙️ Common Spreadsheet Functions

Function Description/Purpose

SUM Adds together all the numbers in a specified range of cells.

AVERAGE Calculates the arithmetic mean (average) of the numbers in a specified range of cells.

MAX Returns the largest numerical value from a set of values or a specified range of cells.

MIN Returns the smallest numerical value from a set of values or a specified range of cells.

COUNT Counts the number of cells within a specified range that contain numerical values.

Counts the number of cells within a specified range that are not empty (contain any type of data,
COUNTA including numbers, text, or errors).

Performs a logical test and returns one value if the condition is true and another value if the
IF condition is false. It's used for conditional logic.

Searches for a specific value in the first column of a table or data range and returns a
corresponding value from a specified column in the same row. This is useful for retrieving
VLOOKUP information from a larger dataset.
 Rounds a number to a specified number of decimal places. You can specify how many digits you
ROUND want after or before the decimal point.

INT Rounds a number down to the nearest whole integer. For example, INT(4.7) would return 4.

Chapter 21 - Website authoring

Layers
What are layers?

●​ A web page is made of three layers, a layer is one specific part of a webpage
●​ A benefit of a layered approach is that issues can be addressed independently
●​ This allows teams to specialise in each area and work efficiently
●​ Web Pages consist of a:
●​ Content layer
●​ Presentation layer
●​ Behaviour layer

Content layer

●​ The content layer forms the structure of a web page

●​ This is where text, images, and other content that make up the body of the web
page are entered
●​ It's typically constructed using HTML (Hypertext Markup Language)

Presentation layer

●​ The presentation layer is used to display and format elements within a web page
●​ It controls how the content looks, including layout, colours, fonts, and more
●​ This layer is mainly handled by CSS (Cascading Style Sheets)
Behaviour layer

●​ The behaviour layer uses scripting languages to control elements within a web
page
●​ It enables interactive elements and complex functionality, such as form validation,
image sliders, and dynamic content updates
●​ JavaScript is the primary language used for the behaviour layers

Meta Tags

●​ Meta Tags are snippets of text in HTML that describe a page's content
●​ They don't appear on the page itself but in the page's code
●​ Meta Tags provide additional information about the web page to the browser and search
engines
●​ Examples of metatags include:
●​ Charset
●​ The <meta charset="UTF-8"> tag specifies the character encoding for the HTML
document
●​ UTF-8 is the most common character encoding and includes almost all
characters from all writing systems
●​ Keywords
●​ The keywords attribute in a <meta> tag is a comma-separated list of words that
represent the content of the web page
●​ It was originally intended to help search engines understand the content of a
page, but it's less relevant today as search engines have become more
sophisticated
●​ Author
●​ The author attribute in a <meta> the tag identifies the author of the web page
●​ It can be helpful for copyright purposes and for readers who want to know the
source of the content
●​ Description
●​ The description attribute in a <meta> tag provides a concise explanation of the
content of the web page
●​ This description often appears in search engine results and can influence
click-through rates