COMPETITIVE EXAM

FOR

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR TRB

2024 - 25
 MY
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Computer Science Unit I - Discrete Structures and

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Optimization
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Teacher’s Care Academy

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Teacher’s Care Academy Computer Science Unit I - Discrete Structures and Optimization

Syllabus

Mathematical Logic: Propositional and Predicate Logic, Propositional Equivalences,

Normal Forms, Predicates and Quantifiers, Nested Quantifiers, Rules of inference.
Sets and Relations: Set Operations, Representation and Properties of Relations, Equiv-
alence Relations, Partial Ordering.
Counting, Mathematical Induction and Discrete Probability: Basics of Counting, Pi-
geonhole Principle, Permutations and Combinations, Inclusion-Exclusion Principle, Mathe-
matical Induction, Probability, Baye’s Theorem.

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Group Theory: Groups, Subgroups, Semi Groups, Product and Quotients of Algebraic

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Structures, Isomorphism, Homomorphism, Automorphism, Rings, Integral Domains, Fields,

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Applications of Group Theory.
Graph Theory: Simple Graph, Multigraph, Weighted Graph, Paths and Circuits, Short-

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est Paths in Weighted Graphs, Eulerian Paths and Circuits, Hamiltonian Paths and Circuits,

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Planar graph, Graph Coloring, Bipartite Graphs, Trees and Rooted Trees, Prefix Codes, Tree
Traversals, Spanning Trees and Cut-Sets.
Boolean Algebra: Boolean Functions and its Representation, Simplifications of Boolean
Functions.
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Optimization: Linear Programming - Mathematical Model, Graphical Solution, Simplex
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and Dual Simplex Method, Sensitivity Analysis; Integer Programming, Transportation and
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Assignment Models, PERT - CPM: Diagram Representation, Critical Path Calculations, Re-
source Levelling, Cost Consideration in Project Scheduling.
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Contents

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1 Mathematical Logic 1

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1.1 Propositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

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1.2 Compound Proposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Proposition and Truth Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

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1.3.1 Algebra of Propositions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

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1.3.2 Conditional Proposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3.3 Converse, Contrapositive and Inverse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.3.4 Biconditional Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1.3.5 Negation of Compound Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
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1.3.6 Tautologies and Contradictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
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1.4 Normal Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
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1.4.1 Disjunctive Normal Form (DNF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

1.4.2 Conjunctive Normal Form (CNF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4.3 Principal Disjunctive Normal Form (PDNF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
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1.4.4 Principal Conjunctive Normal Form (PCNF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

1.5 Predicate Calculus and Quantifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
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1.5.1 Universal and Existential Quantifier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20

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1.5.2 Translating Sentences into Logical Expressions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

1.5.3 Negations of Quantified Statements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
1.5.4 Bound and free Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
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1.6 Rules of Inference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

1.6.1 For Proposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
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1.6.2 For Predicate Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

2 Sets and Relations 47

2.1 Basic Concepts and Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.2 Operation on Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.3 Relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.3.1 Types of relations in a set . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.3.2 Properties of relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
2.4 Equivalence relation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Teacher’s Care Academy Computer Science Unit I - Discrete Structures and Optimization

2.5 Partial Ordering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

3 Counting, Mathematical Induction and Discrete Probability 69

3.1 Counting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.1.1 Basic Counting Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.1.2 Mathematical Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.1.3 Permutations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.1.4 Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.1.5 The Pigeonhole Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

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3.1.6 The Inclusion-Exclusion Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

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3.1.7 Tree Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

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3.1.8 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.2 Mathematical Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

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3.3 Discrete Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86

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3.3.1 Sample Space and Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.3.2 Finite Probability Spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.3.3 Conditional Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
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3.3.4 Independent Events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.3.5 Independent Repeated Trials, Binomial Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
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3.3.6 Random Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
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3.3.7 Chebyshev’s Inequality, Law of large numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

3.3.8 Baye’s Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
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4 Group Theory 112

4.1 Binary Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4.2 Semigroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
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4.2.1 Free Semigroups, Free monoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

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4.2.2 Congruence Relations and Quotient Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

4.2.3 Fundamental Theorem of Semigroup Homomorphisms . . . . . . . . . 119
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4.2.4 Semigroup Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

4.3 Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
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4.3.1 Symmetric Group Sn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

4.3.2 MAP(A), PERM(A), and AUT(A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.4 Subgroups, Normal Subgroups and Homomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
4.4.1 Cosets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
4.4.2 Integers Modulo m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4.4.3 Cyclic Subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.4.4 Generating Sets, Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.4.5 Homomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
4.5 Rings, Integral Domains and Fields . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

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Teacher’s Care Academy Computer Science Unit I - Discrete Structures and Optimization

4.5.1 Special Kinds of Rings: Integral Domains and Fields . . . . . . . . . . . 129

4.5.2 Ideals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.5.3 Ring Homomorphisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.5.4 Divisibility in Integral Domains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.6 Applications - POLYNOMIALS OVER A FIELD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
4.6.1 Basic Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
4.6.2 Euclidean Algorithm, Roots of Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
4.6.3 K[t] as a PID and UFD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

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4.6.4 Fundamental Theorem of Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136

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5 Graph Theory 142

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5.1 Graphs and Multigraphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5.2 Subgraph, Isomorphic graphs and Homeomorphic graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

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5.3 Paths, Connectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

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5.4 Traversable and Eulerian Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
5.5 Labeled and Weighted Graph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
5.6 Complete, Regular and Bipartite Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
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5.7 Tree Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
5.8 Planar Graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
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5.9 Graph Colorings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
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6 Boolean Algebra 175

6.1 Basic Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
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6.1.1 Subalgebras, Isomorphic Boolean Algebras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177

6.2 Duality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
6.3 Basic Theorems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
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6.4 Boolean Algebras as Lattices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178

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6.5 Representation Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

6.6 Sum of Products form for Sets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
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6.7 Sum of products form for Boolean Alegbras . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

6.7.1 Algorithm for Finding Sum-of-Products Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
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6.7.2 Complete Sum-of-Products Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

6.8 Minimal Boolean Expressions, Prime Implicats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
6.8.1 Minimal Sum-of-Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
6.8.2 Prime Implicants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
6.8.3 Consensus of Fundamental Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
6.8.4 Consensus Method for Finding Prime Implicants . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
6.8.5 Finding a Minimal Sum-of-Products Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
6.9 Logic Gates and Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
6.9.1 Logic Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189

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 6.9.2 Logic Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
6.10 Logic Circuits as a Boolean Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
6.10.1 AND-OR Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
6.11 Truth Tables, Boolean Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
6.11.1 Boolean Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
6.12 Karnaugh Maps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6.12.1 Case of Two Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
6.12.2 Case of Three Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

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6.12.3 Case of Four Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

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7 Optimization 216

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7.1 Linear Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
7.1.1 Mathematical Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216

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7.1.2 Graphical Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221

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7.1.3 Simplex Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
7.1.4 Simplex Method - Use of Artificial Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
7.1.5 Duality in Linear Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
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7.1.6 Duality and Simplex Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
7.1.7 Dual Simplex Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
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7.1.8 Sensitivity Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
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7.2 Integer Programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

7.2.1 Illustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
7.2.2 Integer Programming Algorithms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
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7.2.3 Cutting-Plane Algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

7.3 Transportation Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
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7.3.1 Linear Programming of the Transportation Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . 277

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7.3.2 Finding an initial basic feasible solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280

7.3.3 Test for Optimality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
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7.4 Assignment Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296

7.4.1 Mathematical Formulation of the Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
7.4.2 Solution methods of Assignment Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
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7.5 Network Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302

7.5.1 Basic Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
7.5.2 Rules of Network Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
7.5.3 Critical Path Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
7.5.4 Probability Considerations in PERT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
7.5.5 Resource Analysis in Network Scheduling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Chapter 1

Mathematical Logic

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Logic is the science dealing with the methods of learning. Logic which uses a symbolic lan-
guage to express its principles in precise and unambiguous terms is known as mathematical

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logic. One reason for this is that all efforts at the verification of algorithms inevitably the no-

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tation and methods of logic. Logic, among other things, have provided the theoretical basis
for many areas of computer science such as digital logic design, automata theory and com-
putability, and artificial intelligence etc. One component of logic is proposition calculus which
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deals with statements with values true and false and is concerned with analysis of propo-
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sitions. And the other part is predicate calculus which deals with the predicates which are
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propositions containing variables.

1.1 Propositions
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A number of words making a complete grammmatical structure having a sense and meaning
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and also meant an assertion in logic or mathematics is called a sentence. This assertion may
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be of two types - declarative and non-declarative. A proposition or statement is a declarative

sentence that is either true or false.
For example, “Three plus three equals six” and “Three plus three equals seven” are both
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statements, the first because it is true and the second because it is false. Similarly “x + y > 1”
is not a statement because for some values of x and y the sentence is true, whereas for oth-
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ers it is false. For instance, if x = 1 and y = 2, the sentence is true, if x = −3 and y = 1, this is
false. The truth or falsity of a statement is called its truth value. Since only two possible truth
values are admitted this logic is sometimes called two-valued logic. Questions, exclamations
and commands are not propositions.
It is customary to represent simple statements by letters p, q, r, · · · known as proposition vari-
ables. Propositional variables can only assume two values, true or false. There are also two
propositional constants, T and F , that represent true or false, respectively. If p denotes the
proposition “The sun sets in the east”, then instead of saying “The sun sets in the east” is
false, one can simply say the value of p is F .

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Teacher’s Care Academy Computer Science Unit I - Discrete Structures and Optimization

(a) The sun rises in the west. A false statement.

(b) 2 + 4 = 6. A true statement.

It is a question and not a declarative

(c) Do you speak Hindi? statement. Hence it is not a
statement.

It is a command. Hence it is not a

(d) Close the door.
statement.

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It is an exclamation. Hence it is not a

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(e) What a hot day!
statement.

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It is a statement since it is either true
We shall have chicken for or false but not both, although one

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(f)
dinner. has to wait until dinner to find out if it

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is true or false.

1.2 Compound Proposition

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A proposition consisiting of only a single propositional variable or a single propositional con-
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stant is called an atomic(primary, primitive) proposition or simply proposition; that is, they
can not be further subdivided. A proposition obtained from the combinations of two or more
propositions by means of logical operators or connectives of two or more propositions or by
negating a single proposition is referred to molecular or composite or compound proposition.
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Connectives
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The words or phrases (or symbols) used to form compound propositions are called connec-
tives. There are five basic connectives called
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• Negation,

• Conjunction,
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• Disjunction,

• Implication or Conditional, and

• Equivalence or Biconditional.

Example 1.2.1: Let p: Paris is in France. Then the negation of p is the statement

∼ p : It is not the case that Paris is in France.

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Teacher’s Care Academy Computer Science Unit I - Discrete Structures and Optimization

Nature of the
Connective compound statement Symbolic
Symbol used Negation
word formed by the form
connective

∼, ¬, N not Negation ∼p ∼ (∼ p) = p

∧ and Conjunction p∧q (∼ p) ∨ (∼ q)

∨ or Disjunction p∨q (∼ p) ∧ (∼ q)

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Implication (or)

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⇒, → if, · · · then p⇒q p ∧ (∼ q)
Conditional

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Equivalence (or)
⇔, < − > if and only if p⇔q [p ∧ (∼ q)] ∨ [q ∧ (∼ p)]
Bi-conditional

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Normally it is written as
∼ p : Paris is not in France.
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Statement p ∼p
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All students are intelligent. Some students are not intelligent.

There exists a student who is not

intelligent.
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At least one student is not intelligent.

No student is intelligent. Some students are intelligent.

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Remark 1.2.1. It is to be noted that “not” is not a connective, since it does not join two
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statements and ∼ p is not really a compound statement. However, “not” is a unary operation
for the collection of statements, and ∼ p is a statement if p is considered a statement.
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Example 1.2.2: From the conjunction of p and q for each of the following.

1. p: Ram is healthy, q: He has blue eyes.

2. p: It is cold, q: It is raining.

3. p: 5x + 6 = 26, q: x > 3.

Solution.

1. p ∧ q: Ram is healthy and he has blue eyes.

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Teacher’s Care Academy Computer Science Unit I - Discrete Structures and Optimization

2. p ∧ q: It is cold and raining.

3. p ∧ q: 5x + 6 = 26 and x > 3.

Example 1.2.3: Assign a truth value to each of the following statements.

5<5∨5<6 True, since one of its components viz. 5 < 6 is true.

5 × 4 = 21 ∨ 9 + 7 = 17 False, since both of its components are false.

6 + 4 = 10 ∨ 0 > 2 True, one of its components viz. 6 + 4 = 10 is true.

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1.3 Proposition and Truth Tables

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p q p∧q p q p∨q p ∼p

T T T T T T T F

T F F T F T F T
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F T F F T T
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F F F F F F

Table 1.1: Truth tables for the three propositional connectives

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Example 1.3.1: Construct a truth table for each compound proposition.

1. p ∧ (∼ q ∨ q)
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2. ∼ (p ∨ q) ∨ (∼ p∧ ∼ q)

Solution.
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p q ∼q ∼q∨q p ∧ (∼ q ∧ q)
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T T F T T

T F T T T

F T F T F

F F T T F

Table 1.2: 1. Truth table for p ∧ (∼ q ∨ q)

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Teacher’s Care Academy Computer Science Unit I - Discrete Structures and Optimization

(∼ ∼ (p ∨ q) ∨ (∼
p q ∼p ∼q p∧q ∼ (p∧q)
p∧ ∼ q) p∧ ∼ q)

T T F F T F F F

T F F T T F F F

F T T F T F F F

F F T T F T T T

Y
Table 1.3: 2. Truth table for ∼ (p ∨ q) ∨ (∼ p∧ ∼ q)

M
DE
Definition 1.3.1. If two propositions P (p, q, · · · ) and Q(p, q, · · · ) where p, q, · · · are proposi-
tional variables have the same truth values in every possible case, the propositions are called

A
logically equivalent or simply equivalent, and denoted by

AC
P (p, q, · · · ) ≡ Q(p, q, · · · ).

It is always permissible, and sometimes desiarable to replace a given proposition by an

equivalent one.
R E
1.3.1 Algebra of Propositions
CA

1. Idempotent laws.

(a) p ∨ p ≡ p,
’S

(b) p ∧ p ≡ p.
R

2. Associative laws.
HE

(a) (p ∨ q) ∨ r ≡ p ∨ (q ∨ r),
(b) (p ∧ q) ∧ r ≡ p ∧ (q ∧ r).
AC

3. Commutative laws.
TE

(a) p ∨ q ≡ q ∨ p,
(b) p ∧ q ≡ q ∧ p.

4. Distributive laws.

(a) p ∨ (q ∧ r) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r),
(b) p ∧ (q ∨ r) ≡ (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r).

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Teacher’s Care Academy Computer Science Unit I - Discrete Structures and Optimization

5. Identity laws.

(a) p∨ F ≡ p,
(b) p∨ T ≡ T,
(c) p∧ T ≡ p,
(d) p∧ F ≡ F.

6. Complement laws.

Y
(a) p∨ ∼ p ≡ T,

M
(b) p∧ ∼ p ≡ F,

DE
(c) ∼ T ≡ F,
(d) ∼ F ≡ T.

A
AC
7. Involution law. ∼ (∼ p) ≡ p.

8. DeMorgan’s laws. E
(a) ∼ (p ∨ q) ≡∼ p∧ ∼ q,
R
(b) ∼ (p ∧ q) ≡∼ p∨ ∼ q.
CA

9. Absorption laws.

(a) p ∨ (p ∧ q) ≡ p,
’S

(b) p ∧ (p ∨ q) ≡ p.
R

1.3.2 Conditional Proposition

HE

If p and q are proposition, the compound proposition “if p then q” denoted by p ⇒ q is called
a conditional proposition or implication and the connective is the conditional connective. The
AC

proposition p is called antecedent or hypothesis, and the proposition q is called the conse-
quent or conclusion.
TE

Example 1.3.2: 1. If tomorrow is Sunday, then today is Saturday.

Here p: “Tomorrow is Sunday” is antecedent, q: “Today is Saturday” is consequent.

2. If it rains, hten I will carry an umbrella.

Here p: “It rains” is antecedent, q: “I will carry an umbrella” is consequent.
The connective if · · · then can also be read as follows.

1. p implies q.

2. p is sufficient for q.

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Teacher’s Care Academy Computer Science Unit I - Discrete Structures and Optimization

3. p only if q.

4. q is necessary for p.

5. q if p.

6. q follows from p.

7. q is a consequence of p.

The truth table for implication is given in the following table.

M Y
p q p⇒q

DE
T T T

T F F

A
AC
F T T

F F T

Table 1.4: Truth table for the implication p ⇒ q.

R E
Example 1.3.3: Which of the following propositions are true and which are false?
CA

(a) If the earth is round then the earth travels around the sun.

(b) If Alexander Graham Bell invented telephone, then tigers have wings.
’S

(c) If tigers have wings, then RDX is dangerous.

R

Solution.
HE

(a) True. Let p: The earth is round, q: The earth travels round the sun. Here p is true and q is
true and hence the conditional proposition is true.
AC

(b) False. Let p: Alexander Graham Bell invented telephone, q: Tigers have wings. Here p is
true and q is false and hence the conditional proposition is false.
TE

(c) True. Let p: Tigers have wings, q: RDX is dangerous. Here p is false and q is true and
hence the conditional proposition is true.

Example 1.3.4: Construct truth table for

1. p∨ ∼ q ⇒ p,

2. (∼ (p ∧ q) ∨ r) ⇒∼ p.

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Teacher’s Care Academy Computer Science Unit I - Discrete Structures and Optimization

Solution.

p q ∼q p∨ ∼ q p∨ ∼ q ⇒ p

T T F T T

T F T T T

F T F F T

Y
F F T T F

M
DE
p q r (p ∧ q) ∼ (p ∧ q) (∼ (p ∧ q) ∨ r) (∼ (p ∧ q) ∨ r) ⇒∼ p

T T T T F T F

A
T T F T F F T

AC
T F T F T T F

T F F F T T F
E
F T T F T T T
R
F T F F T T T
CA

F F T F T T T

F F F F T T T
R ’S

1.3.3 Converse, Contrapositive and Inverse

HE

There are some related implication that can be formed from p ⇒ q. If p ⇒ q is an implication,
then the converse of p ⇒ q is the implication q ⇒ p, the contrapositive of p ⇒ q is the
AC

implication ∼ q ⇒∼ p and the inverse of p ⇒ q is ∼ p ⇒∼ q.

The truth table of the four propositions follow:
TE

Conditional Converse Inverse Contrapositive

p q p⇒q q⇒p ∼ p ⇒∼ q ∼ q ⇒∼ p

T T T T T T

T F F T T F

F T T F F T

F F T T T T

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Teacher’s Care Academy Computer Science Unit I - Discrete Structures and Optimization

Problem 1.3.1: Prove that if x2 is divisible by 4, then x is even.

Proof. Let p and q be the propositions such that

p : x2 is divisible by 4 and q : x is even.

The implication is of the form p ⇒ q. The contrapositive is ∼ q ⇒∼ p, which states in words:

If x is odd, then x2 is not divisible by 4.

The proof of contrapositive is easy. Since x is odd, one can write x = 2k + 1, for some integer

Y
k. Hence

M
x2 = (2k + 1)2 = 4k 2 + 4k + 1 = 4(k 2 + k + 1/4).

DE
Since k 2 + k is an integer, k 2 + k + 1/4 is not an integer; therefore x2 is not divisible by 4.

A
1.3.4 Biconditional Statement

AC
If p and q are statements, then the compound statement p if and only if q, denoted by p ⇔
q is called a biconditional statement and the connective if and only if is the biconditional
connective. The biconditional statement p ⇔ q can also be stated as “p is a necessary and
E
sufficient condition for q” or as “p implies q and q implies p”.
R
CA

p q p⇔q

T T T

T F F
’S

F T F
R

F F T
HE
AC

1.3.5 Negation of Compound Statements

Negation of Conjunction: A conjunction p ∧ q consists of two sub-statements p and q both of
TE

which exist simultaneously. Therefore, the negation of the conjunction would mean the nega-
tion of at least one of the two sub-statements. Thus, we have “the negation of a conjunction
p ∧ q is the disjunction of the negation of p and the negation of q”. Equivalently, we write

∼ (p ∧ q) ≡∼ p∨ ∼ q.

In order to prove the above equivalence, we prepare the following table.

Negation of Disjunction: A disjunction p ∧ q consists of two sub-statements p and q which
are such that either p or q or both exist. Therefore, the negation of the disjunction would mean
the negation of both p and q simultaneously.

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Teacher’s Care Academy Computer Science Unit I - Discrete Structures and Optimization

p q p∧q ∼ (p ∧ q) ∼p ∼q ∼ p∨ ∼ q

T T T F F F F

T F F T F T T

F T F T T F T

F F F T T T T

The negation of a disjunction p ∧ q is the conjunction of the negation of p and the negation

Y
of q. Equivalently, we write

M
∼ (p ∨ q) ≡∼ p∧ ∼ q.

DE
In order to prove the above equivalence, we prepare the following table.

A
p q ∼p ∼q ∼ p∧ ∼ q p∧q ∼ (p ∧ q)

AC
T T F F F T F

T F F T E F T F

F T T F F T F
R
F F T T T F T
CA

Negation of Implication: If p and q are two statements, then

∼ (p ⇒ q) ≡ p∧ ∼ q.
’S

In order to prove the above equivalence, we prepare the following table.

R

p q p⇒q ∼ (p ⇒ q) ∼q p∧ ∼ q
HE

T T T F F F

T F F T T T
AC

F T T F F F
TE

F F T F T F

Negation of Biconditional: If p and q are two statements, then

∼ (p ⇔ q) ≡ p ⇔∼ q ≡∼ p ⇔ q.

In order to prove the above equivalence, we prepare the following table.

Derived Connectives

1. NAND: It means negation of conjunction of two statements. Assume p and q be two

propositions. NAND of p and q is a proposition which is false when both p and q are true

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Teacher’s Care Academy Computer Science Unit I - Discrete Structures and Optimization

p q p⇔q ∼ (p ⇔ q) ∼p ∼p⇔q ∼q p ⇔∼ q

T T T F F F F F

T F F T F T T T

F T F T T T F T

F F T F T F T F

p q p↑q

M Y
T T F

DE
T F T

F T T

A
F F T

AC
Table 1.5: Truth table for NAND

otherwise true. It is denoted by p ↑ q and q ↑ p ≡∼ (p ∧ q).

R E
CA

2. NOR: It means negation of disjunction of two statements. Assume p and q be two

propositions. Nor p and q is a proposition which is true when both p and q are false,
otherwise false. It is denoted by p ↓ q and p ↓ q ≡∼ (p ∧ q).
’S

p q p↓q

T T F
R
HE

T F F

F T F
AC

F F T

Table 1.6: Truth table for NOR

TE

Note that

(i) ∼ p ≡ p ↓ p
(ii) p ∧ q ≡ (p ↓ p) ↓ (q ↓ q)
(iii) p ∨ q ≡ (p ↓ q) ↓ (p ↓ q)

3. XOR (Exclusive OR): Assume p and q be two proposition. The exclusive OR (XOR) of
p and q, denoted by p ⊕ q is the proposition that is true when exactly one of p and q is

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Teacher’s Care Academy Computer Science Unit I - Discrete Structures and Optimization

p q p⊕q

T T F

T F T

F T T

F F F

Table 1.7: Truth table for XOR

M Y
true but not both and is false otherwise.

DE
Properties of Exclusive OR

(i) p ⊕ q ≡ q ⊕ p (Commutative)

A
(ii) (p ⊕ q) ⊕ r ≡ p ⊕ (q ⊕ r) (Associative)

AC
(iii) p ∧ (q ⊕ r) ≡ (p ∧ q) ⊕ (p ∧ r) (Distributive)

1.3.6 Tautologies and Contradictions

R E
A compound proposition that is always true for all possible truth values of its variables or,
CA

in other words contain only T in the last column of its truth table is called a tautology. A
compound proposition that is always false for all possible values of its variables or, in other
words contain only F in the last column of its truth table is called a contradiction. Finally a
proposition that is neither a tautology nor a contradiction is called a contingency.
’S

Propositions like
R

(a) The professor is either a woman or a man,

HE

(b) People either like watching TVs or they don’t

are always true and are called tautologies.

AC

Propositions like
TE

(a) x is prime and x is an even integer greater than 8,

(b) All men are good and all men are bad

are always false and are called contradictions.

Example 1.3.5: Prove that the following propositions are tautology

(a) p∨ ∼ p

(b) ∼ (p ∧ q) ∨ q

(c) p ⇒ (p ∨ q)

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Teacher’s Care Academy Computer Science Unit I - Discrete Structures and Optimization

Solution.

(a) The truth table of the given proposition is shown below. Since the truth value is TRUE for
all possible values of the propositional variables which can be seen in the last column of
the table, the given proposition is a tautology.

p ∼p p∨ ∼ p

T F T

Y
F T T

M
DE
(b) We construct the truth table for the expression in question. It can be seen that for any
possible assignment of p and q, the expression ∼ (p ∧ q) ∨ q is true, which establishes that

A
it is a tautology.

AC
p q p∧q ∼ (p ∧ q) ∼ (p∧q)∨q

T T T F T
E
T F F T T
R
F T F T T
CA

F F F T T

(c) We construct the truth table of the given expression. It can be seen from the last column
’S

of the truth table that the expression is true for all possible assignments of p and q. Hence
the proposition is a tautology.
R
HE

p q p∨q p ⇒ (p ∨ q)

T T T T
AC

T F T T

F T T T
TE

F F F F

1.4 Normal Forms

By comparing truth tables, one determine whether two logical expressions P and Q are equiv-
alent. But the process is very tedious when the number of variable increases. A better method
is to transform the expression P and Q to some standard forms of expressions P 0 and Q0 such

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 COMPETITIVE EXAM
FOR

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR TRB

2024 - 25
 INDEX
S.N. CHAPTER P.N.
CHAPTER – I - SOFTWARE PROCESS MODELS
1.1. WHAT IS SOFTWARE ENGINEERING? 1
1.2. SOFTWARE PROCESS, GENERIC PROCESS MODEL 2
1.2.1. FRAMEWORK ACTIVITIES
1.2.2. TASK SET AND PROCESS PATTERNS
1.2.3. PROCESS MODEL TYPES
1.2.4. CHARACTERISTICS OF SOFTWARE MODEL
1.3. PROCESS LIFE-CYCLE MODELS 12
1.4. PRESCRIPTIVE PROCESS MODELS 17
1.4.1. THE WATERFALL LIFE CYCLE MODEL
1.4.2. INCREMENTAL PROCESS MODELS
1.4.3. THE RAD MODEL
1.4.4. EVOLUTIONARY PROCESS MODELS
1.4.5. THE PROTOTYPING MODEL
1.4.6. SPIRAL MODEL
1.5. PROJECT MANAGEMENT 29
1.6. COMPONENT-BASED DEVELOPMENT 30
1.7. ASPECT-ORIENTED SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT (AOSD) 30
1.8. THE FORMAL METHODS MODEL 31
1.9. AGILE PROCESS MODELS 32
1.9.1. EXTREME PROGRAMMING (XP)
1.9.2. ADAPTIVE SOFTWARE DEVELOPMENT (ASD)
1.9.3. SCRUM
1.9.4. DYNAMIC SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT METHOD (DSDM)
1.9.5. FEATURE DRIVEN DEVELOPMENT (FDD)
1.9.6. CRYSTAL
1.9.7. AGILE MODELING (AM)
1.10. WEB ENGINEERING 39
IMPORTANT / POSSIBLE QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION 39
 CHAPTER – II - SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS
2.1. SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS - INTRODUCTION 41
2.2. FUNCTIONAL AND NON-FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS 44
2.3. ELICITING REQUIREMENTS 46
2.4. DEVELOPING USE CASES 48
2.5. REQUIREMENT ANALYSIS AND MODELING 50
2.5.1. THE ELEMENTS OF ANALYSIS MODEL
2.5.2. ANALYSIS AND MODELLING
2.5.3. DATA FLOW DIAGRAM (DFD)
2.6. REQUIREMENTS REVIEW 55
2.6.1. THE REVIEW MEETING
2.6.2. REVIEW GUIDELINES
2.7. SOFTWARE REQUIREMENT AND SPECIFICATION (SRS) 60
DOCUMENT
2.7.1. CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD SRS
2.7.2 PROPERTIES OF A GOOD SRS DOCUMENT
2.7.4. PROBLEMS IN SRS
2.7.5. CHARACTERISTICS OF SRS
IMPORTANT / POSSIBLE QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION 67

CHAPTER – III - SOFTWARE DESIGN

3.1. INTRODUCTION 69
3.2. DESIGN WITHIN THE CONTEXT OF SOFTWARE 69
ENGINEERING
3.3. THE DESIGN PROCESS 70
3.4. DESIGN CONCEPTS 72
3.4.1. ABSTRACTION
3.4.2. ARCHITECTURE
3.4.3. PATTERNS
3.4.4. SEPARATION OF CONCERNS
3.6. MODULARIZATION 74
3.5.1. MODULARITY
 3.5.2. MODULAR DESIGN
3.5.2.1. INFORMATION HIDING
3.5.2.2 FUNCTIONAL INDEPENDENCE
3.6. THE DESIGN MODEL 84
3.6.1. DATA DESIGN ELEMENTS
3.6.2. ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN ELEMENTS
3.6.3. INTERFACE DESIGN ELEMENTS
3.6.4. COMPONENT-LEVEL DESIGN ELEMENTS
3.7. DESIGN DOCUMENTATION 88
IMPORTANT / POSSIBLE QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATIONS 89

CHAPTER – IV -SOFTWARE QUALITY

4.1. MCCALL’S QUALITY FACTORS 91
4.1.1. QUALITY FACTORS
4.1.2. QUALITY CRITERIA
4.2. ISO 9126 QUALITY FACTORS 96
4.3. QUALITY CONTROL 99
4.4. QUALITY ASSURANCE 101
4.4.1. OBJECTIVES OF SQA:
4.4.2. THE PRINCIPLES OF SQA SOURCE:
4.4.3. HOW TO IMPLEMENT SOFTWARE QUALITY
ASSURANCE?
4.4.4. IMPORTANCE OF SOFTWARE QUALITY
ASSURANCE
4.4.5. SOFTWARE QUALITY ASSURANCE TECHNIQUES
4.4.6. SOFTWARE QUALITY ASSURANCE VERSUS
SOFTWARE QUALITY CONTROL
4.5. RISK MANAGEMENT 106
4.5.1. PRINCIPLES OF RISK MANAGEMENT
4.5.2. RISK MANAGEMENT PLAN
4.6. RISK MITIGATION 109
4.6.1. TYPES OF RISK MITIGATION STRATEGIES
4.6.2. EVALUATING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF RISK
MITIGATION STRATEGIES
 4.6.3. RISK MITIGATION AND TESTING

4.6.4. RISK MITIGATION AND REVIEWS

4.6.5. THE BENEFITS OF RISK MITIGATION

4.6.6. RISK MITIGATION BEST PRACTICES

4.6.7. THE RMMM PLAN

4.7. SOFTWARE RELIABILITY 114

4.7.1. SOFTWARE RELIABILITY MODELS
IMPORTANT / POSSIBLE QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATION 116

CHAPTER – V - ESTIMATION AND SCHEDULING OF SOFTWARE PROJECTS

5.1. SOFTWARE SIZING 118
5.2. LOC AND FP BASED ESTIMATIONS 119
5.2.1. LOC:
5.2.2. FUNCTION POINT (FP)
5.3. ESTIMATING COST AND EFFORT 122
5.4. COST ESTIMATION MODELS 124
5.4.1. NON-ALGORITHMIC METHODS
5.4.2. ALGORITHMIC METHODS
5.4.2.1. COST FACTORS
5.4.2.2. LINEAR MODELS
5.4.2.3. MULTIPLICATIVE MODELS
5.4.2.4. POWER FUNCTION MODELS
5.5. CONSTRUCTIVE COST MODEL (COCOMO) (NET-2005) 127
5.5.1. COCOMO CALCULATION PROCESS
5.6. PROJECT SCHEDULING AND STAFFING 131
5.6.1. SCHEDULE REPRESENTATION
5.6.2. WHAT IS STAFFING?
5.6.3. TYPES OF STAFFING
5.6.4. STEPS IN STAFFING PROCESS
5.7. TIME-LINE CHARTS 138
IMPORTANT / POSSIBLE QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATIONS 139
 CHAPTER – VI - SOFTWARE TESTING
6.1. INTRODUCTION 141
6.1.1. PRINCIPLES OF SOFTWARE TESTING
6.1.2. CHARACTERISTICS OF SOFTWARE TESTING
6.2. VERIFICATION AND VALIDATION 143
6.2.1. ERROR, FAULT, BUG AND FAILURE
6.2.2. SOFTWARE TESTING STRATEGY ISSUES
6.3. UNIT AND INTEGRATION TESTING 150
6.3.1. SYSTEM TESTING
6.4. WHITE-BOX TESTING AND BLACK-BOX TESTING 156
6.4.1. WHITE BOX TESTING
6.4.2. BLACK BOX TESTING
6.4.3. BASIS PATH TESTING
6.4.4. CONTROL STRUCTURE TESTING
6.4.5. DERIVING TEST CASES
6.4.6. ALPHA AND BETA TESTING
6.4.7. REGRESSION TESTING
6.4.8. PERFORMANCE TESTING
6.4.9. STRESS TESTING
IMPORTANT / POSSIBLE QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATIONS 177

CHAPTER – VII - SOFTWARE CONFIGURATION MANAGEMENT

7.1. INTRODUCTION 179
7.2. CHANGE CONTROL AND VERSION CONTROL 182
7.3. SOFTWARE REUSE 184
7.4. SOFTWARE REENGINEERING 186
7.5. REVERSE ENGINEERING 188
IMPORTANT / POSSIBLE QUESTIONS FOR EXAMINATIONS 192

8. SOFTWARE ENGINEERING GLOSSARY 193

9. POSSIBLE IMPORTANT QUESTIONS 224

 1

TEACHER’S CARE ACADEMY, KANCHIPURAM

TNPSC-TRB- COMPUTER SCIENCE -TET COACHING CENTER
HEAD OFFICE: NO. 38/23, VAIGUNDA PERUMAL KOIL,
SANNATHI STREET, KANCHIPURAM – 1. CELL: 9566535080
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B.Off 3:266-C, Advaitha Ashram Road,(Opp to New Bus Stand), Salem-636 004.

TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

Trichy: 76399 67359 Salem: 93602 68118

CHAPTER – I - SOFTWARE PROCESS MODELS

1.1. WHAT IS SOFTWARE ENGINEERING?

• Software is defined as computer programs, procedures, rules and possibly associated

documentation and data pertaining to the operation of a computer based systems.

• Computer software is often divided into two categories:

1. System software. This software includes the operating system and all utilities that
enable the computer to function.

2. Application software. These consist of programs that do real work for users. For
example, word processors, spreadsheets, and database management systems
fall under the category of applications software.

Definition:

• Software Engineering is the application of a systematic, disciplined, quantifiable

approach to the development, operation and maintenance of software, i.e., the
application of engineering to software.

• Software Engineering deals with cost-effective solutions to practical problems by

applying scientific knowledge in building software artifacts in the service of mankind.

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 2

• Software Engineering is the application of methods and scientific knowledge to create

practical cost-effective solutions for the design, construction, operation and
maintenance of software.

• Software Engineering is a discipline whose aim is the production of fault free software
that satisfies the user’s needs and that is delivered on time and within budget. (NET-
JUNE-2012)
TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

1.2. SOFTWARE PROCESS, GENERIC PROCESS MODEL

• A process is a collection of activities, actions, and tasks that are performed when
some work product is to be created.

• An activity strives to achieve a broad objective (e.g., communication with

stakeholders) and is applied regardless of the application domain, size of the project,
complexity of the effort, or degree of rigor with which software engineering is to be
applied.

• An action (e.g., architectural design) encompasses a set of tasks that produce a major
work product (e.g., an architectural design model).

• A task focuses on a small, but well-defined objective (e.g., conducting a unit test) that
produces a tangible outcome.

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 3

• A process framework establishes the foundation for a complete software engineering

process by identifying a small number of framework activities that are applicable to all
software projects, regardless of their size or complexity.

• In addition, the process framework encompasses a set of umbrella activities that are
applicable across the entire software process.

TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

• A generic process framework for software engineering encompasses five activities:
(NET-JUNE-2011)

1. Communication: Before any technical work can commence, it is critically

important to communicate and collaborate with the customer. The intent is to
understand stakeholders’ objectives for the project and to gather requirements
that help define software features and functions.

2. Planning: Any complicated journey can be simplified if a map exists. A software

project is a complicated journey, and the planning activity creates a "map" that
helps guide the team as it makes the journey. The map - called a software project
plan - defines the software engineering work by describing the technical tasks to
be conducted, the risks that are likely, the resources that will be required, the work
products to be produced, and a work schedule.

3. Modeling: Whether you’re a landscaper, a bridge builder, an aeronautical

engineer, a carpenter, or an architect, we work with models every day. We create
a "sketch" of the thing so that you’ll understand the big picture - what it will look
like architecturally, how the constituent parts fit together, and many other
characteristics.

4. Construction: This activity combines code generation (either manual or

automated) and the testing that is required uncovering errors in the code.

5. Deployment: The software is delivered to the customer who evaluates the

delivered product and provides feedback based on the evaluation.

• In addition, a set of umbrella activities project tracking and control, risk management,
quality assurance, configuration management, technical reviews, and others are
applied throughout the process. This aspect is called process flow. It describes how
the framework activities and the actions and tasks that occur within each framework
activity are organized with respect to sequence and time and is illustrated in following
figure.

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TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

1.2.1. Framework Activities

• Software engineering process framework activities are complemented by a number
of umbrella activities. In general, umbrella activities are applied throughout a software
project and help a software team manage and control progress, quality, change, and
risk. Typical umbrella activities include:
1. Software project tracking and control: allows the software team to assess
progress against the project plan and take any necessary action to maintain the
schedule.
2. Risk management: assesses risks that may affect the outcome of the project or
the quality of the product.

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3. Software quality assurance: defines and conducts the activities required to

ensure software quality.
4. Technical reviews: assesses software engineering work products in an effort to
uncover and remove errors before they are propagated to the next activity.
5. Measurement: defines and collects process, project, and product measures that
assist the team in delivering software that meets stakeholders’ needs; can be used

TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

in conjunction with all other framework and umbrella activities.
6. Software configuration management: manages the effects of change
throughout the software process.
7. Reusability management: defines criteria for work product reuse and establishes
mechanisms to achieve reusable components.
8. Work product preparation and production: encompasses the activities required to
create work products such as models, documents, logs, forms, and lists.

• A software process can be characterized as shown below:

• A common process framework is established by defining a small number of

framework activities that are applicable to all software projects, regardless of their
size or complexity.

• A number of task sets - each a collection of software engineering work tasks, project
milestones, work products, and quality assurance points - enable the framework
activities to be adapted to the characteristics of the software project and the
requirements of the project team.

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• A set of activities whose goal is the development or evolution of software. Generic

activities in all software processes are:
1 Specification: what the system should do and its development constraints.
2 Development: production of the software system.
3 Validation: checking that the software is what the customer wants.
4 Evolution: changing the software in response to changing demands.
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Software Process Model

• A simplified representation of a software process, presented from a specific
perspective. Example: Process perspectives are:
➢ Workflow perspective - sequence of activities
➢ Data-flow perspective - information flow
➢ Role/action perspective – who does what

• Software engineering approach pivots around the concept of process. A process

means “a particular method of doing something, generally involving a number of steps
or operations.” In software engineering, the phrase software process refers to the
method of developing software.

• A software process is a set of activities, together with ordering constraints among

them, such that if the activities are performed properly and in accordance with the
ordering constraints, the desired result is produced.

• The desired result is high-quality software at low cost. Clearly, if a process does not
scale up and cannot handle large software projects or cannot produce good-quality
software, it is not a suitable process.

• Major software development organizations typically have many processes executing

simultaneously. Many of these do not concern software engineering, though they do
impact software development. These could be considered non-software engineering
process models.

• Business process models, social process models, and training models, are all
examples of processes that come under this. These processes also affect the
software development activity but are beyond the purview of software engineering.

• Software Process framework is a set of guidelines, concepts and best practices that
describes high level processes in software engineering. It does not talk about how
these processes are carried out and in what order.

• Each software development project starts with some needs and is expected to end
with some software that satisfies those needs.

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• A software process specifies the abstract set of activities that should be performed to
go from user needs to the final product.

• The actual act of executing the activities for some specific user needs is a software
project. And all the outputs that are produced while the activities are being executed
are the products.

• One can view the software process as an abstract type, and each project is done

TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

using that process as an instance of this type.

• In other words, there can be many projects for a process and there can be many
products produced in a project.

• This relationship is shown in below figure:

• The sequence of activities specified by the process is typically at an abstract level

because they have to be usable for a wide range of projects. Hence, "implementing"
them in a project is not straightforward. To clarify this, let us take the example of book
writing. A process for book writing on a subject will be something like this:
1. Set objectives of the book – audience, marketing etc.
2. Outline the contents.
3. Research the topics covered.
4. Do literature survey.
5. Write and/or compile the content.
6. Get the content evaluated by a team of experts.
7. Proof read the book.
8. Make corrections, if any.
9. Get the book typeset.
10. Print the book.

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11. Bind the book.

• Overall, the process specifies activities at an abstract level that are not project-
specific.

1.2.2. Task Set and Process Patterns

• Task set is a collection of software engineering work tasks, milestones and
deliverables that must be accomplished to complete a particular software project.
TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

• Task sets are different for different types of projects

• Most organizations encounter following types of projects

▪ Concept development projects
➢ Explore some new business concept or application of new technology
▪ New application development projects
➢ Undertaken as a consequence of specific customer request
▪ Application Enhancement projects
➢ Involve modification to functions, performance or interfaces (observable by
end-user) in existing software
▪ Application maintenance projects
➢ That correct, adapt or extend existing software in ways that may not be
obvious to end user
▪ Reengineering projects
➢ Undertaken for rebuilding an existing system in whole or part

• Process patterns can be defined as the set of activities, actions, work tasks or work
products and similar related behaviour followed in a software development life cycle.

• Process patterns can be more easily understood by dividing it into terms: "Process",
which means the steps followed to achieve a task and "patterns", which means the
recurrence of same basic features during the lifecycle of a process. Thus in a more
universal term process patterns are common or general solution for a complexity.

• Typical Examples are:

1. Customer communication (a process activity).
2. Analysis (an action).
3. Requirements gathering (a process task).
4. Reviewing a work product (a process task).
5. Design model (a work product).

• Patterns can be defined at any level of abstraction. A pattern might be used to

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describe a problem (and solution) associated with a complete process model (e.g.,
prototyping).

• In other situations, patterns can be used to describe a problem (and solution)

associated with a framework activity (e.g., planning) or an action within a framework
activity (e.g., project estimating).

• Ambler has proposed a template for describing a process pattern:

TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

• Pattern Name. The pattern is given a meaningful name describing it within the context
of the software process (e.g., Technical Reviews).

• Forces. The environment in which the pattern is encountered and the issues that
make the problem visible and may affect its solution.

• Type. The pattern type is specified. Ambler suggests three types:

1. Stage pattern—defines a problem associated with a framework activity for the

process. Since a framework activity encompasses multiple actions and work tasks, a
stage pattern incorporates multiple task patterns that are relevant to the stage. This
pattern would incorporate the task pattern Requirements Gathering and others.
2. Task pattern—defines a problem associated with a software engineering action or
work task and relevant to successful software engineering practice.
3. Phase pattern—define the sequence of framework activities that occurs within the
process, even when the overall flow of activities is iterative in nature. An example of a
phase pattern might be Spiral Model or Prototyping.

1.2.3. Process Model Types

• A software process model is a simplified description of a software process, which is
presented from a particular perspective.

• Models, by their very nature, are simplifications, so a software process model is an

abstraction of the actual process, which is being described.

• Process models may include activities, which are part of the software process,
software products and the roles of people involved in software engineering. Some
examples of the types of software process model that may be produced are:
1. A workflow model: This shows the sequence of activities in the process along
with their inputs, outputs and dependencies. The activities in this model
represent human actions.
2. A dataflow or activity model: This represents the process as a set of activities
each of which carries out some data transformation. It shows how the input to
the process such as a specification is transformed to an output such as a design.

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The activities here may be at a lower level than activities in a workflow model.
They may represent transformations carried out by people or by computers.
3. A role/action model: This represents the roles of the people involved in the
software process and the activities for which they are responsible.
TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

• There are a number of different general models or paradigms of software

development:
➢ The waterfall approach: This takes the above activities and represents them
as separate process phases such as requirements specification, software
design, implementation, testing and so on. After each stage is defined it is
‘signed off’ and development goes on to the following stage.

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➢ Evolutionary development: This approach interleaves the activities of

specification, development and validation. An initial system is rapidly developed
from very abstract specifications. This is then refined with customer input to
produce a system which satisfies the customer’s needs. The system may then
be delivered. Alternatively, it may be reimplemented using a more structured
approach to produce a more robust and maintainable system.

TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

➢ Formal transformation: This approach is based on producing a formal
mathematical system specification and transforming this specification, using
mathematical methods to a program. These transformations are ‘correctness
preserving’. This means that you can be sure that the developed program meets
its specification.

➢ System assembly from reusable components: This technique assumes that

parts of the system already exist. The system development process focuses on
integrating these parts rather than developing them from scratch.

1.2.4. Characteristics of Software Model

• Software engineering can be defined as: “Software engineering is the branch of
engineering in which the software is developed in a manner that it will have all the
properties like maintenance, extensibility and is within time and budget and also
satisfies all the requirements given by user." Producing software does not mean
producing just software but it means to develop the software in a cost effective
manner. Characteristics of well engineered software are:

• Efficiency: Software is said to be well-organized if it uses the available resources in

the most efficient manner. The software should be able to offer a quick response in
the least processing time using the resources at minimum level.

• Resources refer to the memory and processor utilization. The software should
efficiently perform what the user demanded and give appropriate response in each
case i.e. the output given is accurate or not.

• Maintainability: This characteristic of the software is important for both the software
engineer and the user. If the change is to be required in the software then the change
leads to the change in the software so that it performs in accordance with the user
requirement. The software engineer has to respond very fast if there is any change in
the user requirements. Changes should be performed like this that it will not affect the
overall integrity of the software.

• On-time: The software should be developed on-time. If the software is urbanized late
then it is of no use. A good engineer always develops the software on-time.

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• Within Budget: Some of the software gets swarming. Overrun does not mean that
the cost of the software exceeds the limit given by user. But, it means that the software
cost is out of control. So, the software should be developed in such a manner that it
will not overrun and the software being developed is within budget.

• Functionality: The software system is developed in a manner that it performs the

entire task perfectly for which it is developed. The software should respond correctly
TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

as the user wants.

• Adaptability: The software should be adaptable. Software is desired to be adaptable

all the changes efficiently. The software should easily adopt all the changes in the
software with no change in the efficiency of the software.

• Dependability: It is the ability of the software that should not cause any physical or
economic damage in the event of system failure. It includes a range of characteristics
like: Reusability, security, and safety.

• Usability: Software becomes usable if it does not call for extra efforts to be learned.
Usability increases with good documentation provided along with the software. In
software operations a lot depends on the quality of user manual. If software satisfies
all the above characteristics then it is said to be good software or the software is well
engineered.

1.3. PROCESS LIFE-CYCLE MODELS

• The software-development life-cycle is used to facilitate the development of a large
software product in a systematic, well-defined, and cost-effective way.

• An information system goes through a series of phases from conception to

implementation. This process is called the Software-Development Life-Cycle. Various
reasons for using a life-cycle model include:
1. Helps to understand the entire process
2. Enforces a structured approach to development
3. Enables planning of resources in advance
4. Enables subsequent controls of them
5. Aids management to track progress of the system

• The software development life-cycle consists of several phases and these phases
need to be identified along with defining the entry and exit criteria for every phase. A
phase can begin only when the corresponding phase-entry criteria are satisfied.
Similarly, a phase can be considered to be complete only when the corresponding
exit criteria are satisfied. If there is no clear indication of the entry and exit for every
phase, it becomes very difficult to track the progress of the project.

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• The software development life-cycle can be divided into 5-9 phases, i.e., it must have
a minimum of five phases and a maximum of nine phases. On average it has seven
or eight phases. These are:
1. Project initiation and planning/Recognition of need/Preliminary investigation
2. Project identification and selection/Feasibility study
3. Project analysis

TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

4. System design
5. Coding
6. Testing
7. Implementation
8. Maintenance

1. Recognition of Need. Recognition of need is nothing but the problem definition. It is

the decision about problems in the existing system and the 2-impetus for system
change. The first stage of any project or system-development life-cycle is called the
preliminary investigation.
➢ This investigation provides the organization’s computer steering committee and
any project team a set of terms or references for more detailed work. This is
carried out by a senior manager and will result in a study proposal.
➢ At this stage the need for changes in the existing system are identified and
shortcomings of the existing system are detected. These are stated clearly
providing the basis for the initial or feasibility study.

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 UNIT-VI DATA STRUCTURES & ALGORITHMS
(VOLUME-1)

S.No CONTENT Page No.

UGC NET SYLLABUS & Reference Books 1

Data Structure (Introduction) 2

CHAPTER 1 : ARRAYS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

1.1 Arrays Terminology 3

1.2 Operations on array 4

1.3 Types of Arrays 11

1.4 Applications of Arrays in Data Structures 12

1.5 Advantages & Disadvantages of Arrays in Data Structures 13

CHAPTER 2 : SPARSE MATRIX

2.1 What is a Matrix? 15

2.2 What is Sparse Matrix? 15

2.3 Representation of Sparse Matrix 16

2.3.1. Array representation of the Sparse Matrix 16

2.3.2. Linked list representation of the Sparse Matrix 18

2.4 Dense Matrix 19

2.4.1. Characteristics of Dense Matrices 19

2.4.2. Operations on Dense Matrices 19

2.4.3. Use cases 20

CHAPTER 3 : STACK

3.1 Introduction 21

3.1.1. Definition 22

1
3.2 Operations on Stacks 22

3.3 Applications of Stack 24

3.3.1. Expression Evaluation 24

3.3.2. Expression Conversion 25

3.3.3. Polish Notation 30

3.3.4. Reversing Strings 36

3.3.5. Backtracking 37

3.3.6. Parenthesis Matching 37

3.3.7. Syntax Parsing 38

3.3.8. Function call 39

CHAPTER 4 : QUEUE

4.1 Introduction 40

4.2 Basic features of Queue 41

4.3 Applications of Queue 41

4.4 Implementation of queue Data Structure 42

CHAPTER 5 : VARIOUS QUEUE STRUCTURE

5.1 Circular Queue 44

5.2 5.2. Priority Queue 45

5.2.1. Characteristics of a Priority Queue 45

5.2.2. Types of priority Queue 46

5.2.3. Representation of Priority Queue 47

5.2.4. Basic Operations 48

5.2.5. Applications of Priority Queue 48

5.2.6. Implementation of Priority Queue: 48

5.3 Deque 49

5.3.1. Operations on a Dequeue 49

CHAPTER 6 : LINKED LISTS
2
6.1 Introduction 51

6.1.1. Advantages of Linked Lists 51

6.1.2. Disadvantages of Linked Lists 52

6.1.3. Applications of Linked Lists 52

6.2 Types of linked lists 52

6.2.1. Singly Linked List 52

6.2.2. Doubly Linked List 62

6.2.3. Circular Linked List 63

6.2.4. Doubly Circular Linked List 64

CHAPTER 7 : TREES

7.1 Introduction 65

7.2. Basic Terminology 66

7.3 Advantages of Tree 67

CHAPTER 8 : FOREST

8.1 What is Tree and Forest 67

8.1.2. Forest 68

8.2 Properties of Trees 68

8.3 Spanning Tree 68

8.3.1. Cutting- Down Method 69

8.3.2. Building - up Method 70

CHAPTER 9 : BINARY TREE

9.1 Introduction 72

9.1.1. Tree vs Binary Tree 73

9.2 Properties of Binary Tree 73

9.3 Representation of Binary Tree 73

9.3.1. Linear Representation of Binary Tree 74

9.3.2. Linked representation of Binary Tree 75

3
9.4 Types of binary Tree 76

9.4.1.Strictly Binary Tree 76

9.4.2.Complete Binary Tree 76

9.4.3. Skewed binary tree 76

9.5 Operations on Binary Tree 77

9.5.1.Insertion 77

9.5.2.Deletion 80

9.5.3.Traversal 82

9.5.4.Merging 86

CHAPTER 10 : THREADED BINARY TREES

10.1 Introduction 89

10.2 Representation of Threaded Binary Tree 89

10.3 Advantages of Threaded Binary Tree 90

10.4 Operations on Threaded Binary Tree 90

CHAPTER 11 : BINARY SEARCH TREE

11.1 Introduction 94

11.2 Operations on a Binary Search Tree 95

11.2.1. Searching 95

11.2.2.Insertion 96

11.2.3.Deletetion 97

11.2.4.Traversing 99

CHAPTER 12 : BALANCED BINARY TREE

12.1 Introduction 104

12.2 Types of Balanced Trees 104

12.2.1. AVL tree 105

12.2.2. Splay Tree 109

12.2.3. Red-black Tree 115

4
 12.2.4. B Tree 119

12.2.5. B+ Tree 122

12.2.6. B* Tree 129

CHAPTER 13 : HEAP TREE

13.1 Introduction 132

13.2 Min Heap 133

13.3. Max Heap 134

13.4 Applications of Heap Tree 135

13.5 Insertion on Heap tree 135

13.6 Deletion on Heap tree 139

CHAPTER 14 : DATA STRUCTURE FOR SETS

14.1 More on Lists 143

14.2 Using lists as Stacks 144

14.3 Using lists as Queues 145

CHAPTER 15 : GRAPH

15.1 Introduction 145

15.2 Graph Terminology 147

CHAPTER 16 : ALGORITHMS FOR SEARCHING AND SORTING

16.1 Searching 150

16.1.1. Linear or Sequential Search 151

16.1.2. Binary Search 152

16.1.3. Binary Tree Search 153

16.2 Sorting 155

16.2.1. Internal Sorting 155

16.2.2. External Sorting 155

16.2.1.1. Bubble Sort 155

16.2.1.2. Selection Sort 159

16.2.1.3. Quick Sort 161

16.2.1.4. Merge Sort 164

5
 16.2.1.5. Radix Sort 167

16.2.1.6. Insertion Sort 169

16.2.1.7. Heap Sort 171

16.2.1.8. Shell Sort 177

16.3 Complexity 179

16.3.1. Time Complexity 179

16.3.2. Space Complexity 180

CHAPTER 17 : HASHING IN DATA STRUCTURE

17.1 Introduction to Hashing in Data Structure 180

17.2 What is Hashing? 180

17.3 How does Hashing in Data Structures work? 181

17.4 Hash key 181

17.5 Hash function 181

17.6 Hash table 182

17.7 Use cases of Hashing in DSA 182

17.8 Types of Hash Functions 183

17.8.1. Division Method 183

17.8.2.Mid Square Method 183

17.8.3. Folding Method 184

17.8.4. Multiplication Method 185

17.9 What is a Hash Collision 186

17.9.1. Collision Resolution Techniques in Data Structures 186

17.9.1.1. Open hashing/separate chaining/closed addressing 187

17.9.1.2. Closed hashing (open addressing) 187

17.10 Importance of Hashing 189

17.11 Limitations of Hashing 189

6
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UNIT VI: DATA STRUCTURES & ALGORITHMS

SYLLABUS

Data Structures: Arrays and their Applications; Sparse Matrix, Stacks, Queues, Priority
Queues, Linked Lists, Trees, Forest, Binary Tree, Threaded Binary Tree, Binary Search
Tree, AVL Tree, B Tree, B+ Tree, B* Tree, Data Structure for Sets, Graphs, Sorting and
Searching Algorithms; Hashing.
Performance Analysis of Algorithms and Recurrences: Time and Space
Complexities; Asymptotic Notation, Recurrence Relations.
Design Techniques: Divide and Conquer; Dynamic Programming, Greedy Algorithms,
Backtracking, Branch and Bound.
Lower Bound Theory: Comparison Trees, Lower Bounds through Reductions.
Graph Algorithms: Breadth-First Search, Depth-First Search, Shortest Paths, Maximum
Flow, Minimum Spanning Trees.
Complexity Theory: P and NP Class Problems; NP-completeness and Reducibility.
Selected Topics: Number Theoretic Algorithms, Polynomial Arithmetic, Fast Fourier
Transform, String Matching Algorithms.
Advanced Algorithms: Parallel Algorithms Algorithms, Randomized Algorithms.

BOOKS TO STUDY:
1) Classic Data Structures - D.Samanta
2) Data Structures made simple - Sathish Jain, Shashi Singh.
3) Data Types and structures - Gotlieb, C.C. and L.R.Gotlieb.
4) Ellis Horowitz, Sartaj Sahni, Sanguthevar Rajasekaran, "Fundamentals of
Computer Algorithms", 2nd Edition, University Press, 2008.
5) T. H. Cormen, C. L. Leiserson, R. L. Rivest, and C. Stein, "Introduction to
Algorithms", MIT Press
 2

UNIT VII - DATA STRUCTURES & ALGORITHMS

INTRODUCTION
WHAT IS MEANT BY A DATA?
❖ Data is a Single (or) a set of values. (Or) Facts and statistics collected together
for reference or analysis
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WHAT IS MEANT BY DATA STRUCTURE?

• It is a logical or mathematical model of a particular organization of data.
(Or)
• Data Structure is a specialized format for organizing and storing data so that it
can be accessed and worked with in appropriate ways to make a program
efficient.
• Data Structure = Organized Data + Allowed Operations.

APPLICATIONS OF DATA STRUCTURE

Areas Type of Data Structure

Operating System Arrays and Tables
Data Base Management System Array, Tables, B – Tress
Compiler Design Hash Tables (look up an identifier)
Hierarchical Data Model Trees

Categories of data structures:

• Two types:
1) Linear data structure → Single generic type (UGC NET 2012)
2) on-linear data structure → Multiple Individual type

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1. ARRAY AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

• An array is a collection of items stored at contiguous memory locations.
• The idea is to store multiple items of the same type together.

TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

• This makes it easier to calculate the position of each element by simply adding an
offset to a base value, i.e., the memory location of the first element of the array
(generally denoted by the name of the array).
• Array data structure is typically used to implement hash table (UGC NET 2023)

1.1. ARRAYS TERMINOLOGY:

Size:
➢ Number of elements in an array is called the size of the array. Also called as
length or dimension.
Type:
➢ Type of an away represents the kind of data type. Ex: int, string
Base:
➢ Base of an array is address of memory location where the first element in the
array is located.
Range of index:
➢ Indices of array elements any charge can be referenced by subscript like Ai or
A[i], this subscript is known as index. Index is always as integer value. Every
element is identified by a subscripted or indexed variable
➢ Ex:
✓ Int A[100]; The range of index is from 0 to 9
✓ A:Array[-5….19] of integer: The Points of the rage is -5,-4,-3,….18,19.
✓ Here L is the Lower Bound.
✓ If the range of index varies from L…U then the size of the away can be
calculated as Size(A)=U-L+1.
Word:
➢ It denotes the size of an element. In memory location computer can store an
element of word size w. This word size varies from machine to machine such as
1 byte to 8 bytes.

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1.2. OPERATIONS ON ARRAY

❖ The common operations can be performed on an array are
✓ Traversing-processing each element in the array.
✓ Sorting -Organizing the elements in some order.
✓ Searching -Finding the location of an element with a given value.
TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

✓ Insertion - Adding a new element.

✓ Deletion -Removing an element.
✓ Merging -Combining two arrays into a single array.
❖ Although searching, and traversal of an array is an easy job, insertion and
deletion is time consuming. The elements need to be shifted down before
insertion and shifted up after deletion.

1. Traversing:
This operation is used visiting all elements in an array.
Example: Array ‘a’ contains the following elements:
5 3 4 8 7

The result of traversing is:

5
3
4
8
7
The algorithm for traversing is as follows:
1) Read the Array elements.
2) Display the elements of the array.
Algorithms: Traverse-array ( )
Input: An array A with elements
Output: According to process ( )

Steps:
1. i=L // start from first location L
2. while i<=U do // U upper bound
1. Process (A[i])

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 5

2. i=i+1 // move to next position

3. End while
4. Stop
Here process ( ) is an procedure which when called for an element can perform
an action

2. Sorting:

TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

❖ This operation if performed on an array will sort it in a specified order. The
algorithm is used to store the elements of an integer array in ascending order or
descending order.
Example:

Before Sort After Sort

10 2 3 4 6 9 1 1 2 3 4 6 9 10

Algorithm steps:
1) Read the array elements.
2) Set the first position by comparing the first position of the array element
with other array element. If the value is smaller than the first position
element then swap the elements.
3) Set the second position by comparing the elements. If the value is smaller
than the second position element then swap the elements.
4) Set the other positions likewise.
Input: An array with integer data
Output: An array with sorted element in an order according to ORDER ( )
Steps:
1. i= U
2. While i>= L do
1. j=L // start comparing from first
2. While j< i do
1. If ORDER (A[j, A[j+1]) = FALSE // if A[j] and A[j+1]
are not in order
1. Swap (A[j], A[j+1]) // Interchange the
elements
2. Endif

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3. j=j+1 // Go to next statement

3. Endwhile
4. i=i-1
3. Endwhile
4. Stop
❖ Here order ( ) is a procedure to test whether two elements are in order and
TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

SWAP ( ) is a procedure to interchange the elements between two consecutive

locations.

A[J+1]
A[J]
A[J]
A[J+1]

Fig: Swapping of two elements in an array

3. Searching:
❖ This operation is applied to search an element of interest in an array
Example:
4 5 6 8 9

Element to search: 8
The given element is present in the position: 4

Algorithm steps:
1) Read the element to search.
2) Compare the element to the array elements.
3) If it matches then, display the position of the array.
4) Otherwise compare the entire array.
5) If match not found display the message “search is unsuccessful, key is
not in the array “

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Algorithm: Search_array(key)
Input: Key is the element to be searched
Output: Index of key in A or a message on failure
Steps:
1. i=L, found=0, location=0 // found=0 indicates search is not
finished and unsuccessful

TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

2. While (i<=U) and (found =0) do
1. if compare(A[i], key)= true then
1. Found=1
2. Location =i
2. Else
1. i=i+1
3. End if
3. End while
4. If found=0 then
1. Print “search is unsuccessful; key is not in the array “
5. Else
1. Print “search is successful: key is in the array at location “, location
6. End if
7. Return (location)
8. Stop--
4. Insertion:
❖ This operation is used to insert an element into an array provided that the array
is not full.
Example:
Array
4 5 6 8 9

Insert -2 at position: 3

4 5 6 8 9 Shifting one position right

4 5 -2 6 8 9 After insertion

Fig: Insertion of an element

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Algorithm steps:
1) Read the number to insert and the position to insert.
2) Shift the numbers from the specified position, one place to the right from
their existing position.
3) Place the number at the vacant place.
TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

Algorithm: insert (key, location)

Input: key is the item; location is the index of the element where it is to be stored.
Output: array enriched with key
Steps:
1. if A[U] # NULL then
1. print “ Array is full , no insertion possible”
2. Exit
2. Else
1. i = U
2. While i> location do
1. A[i+1]=A[i]
2. i = i-1
3. End while
4. A[location] =key
5. U=U+1
3. End if
4. Stop

5. Deletion:
This operation is used to delete a particular element from an array. The element
will be deleted by overwriting it with its subsequent element and this subsequent
element then is to be deleted.
Example: Delete the element in the position: 3

Before deletion:
4 5 6 8 9
After deletion:
4 5 8 9 0 0

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Algorithm steps:
1) Read the position to delete.
2) Shift the numbers placed after the position, where the number is to
be deleted.
3) Leave the last position blank.

Algorithm: delete (key)

TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

Input: key is the element to be deleted.
Output: slimed array without key
Steps:
1. i = search_array (a, key)
2. if i=0 then
1. print “ key is not found, no deletion”
2. Exit
3. Else
1. While i< U do
1. A[i] = A[i+1]
2. i = i+1
3. End while
4. End if
5. A[U] = NULL
6. U=U-1
7. Stop

6. Merging:
❖ Merging is an important operation when we need to compact the lements from
two different arrays into a single array.

Rules:
1) Copy all the elements of first array into a new array(third array)
2) Copy the second array into the third array after the position ,at which the
last elements of the first array copied.

Types
➢ Merging can be done in two ways:
 Merging without sorting.

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 Merging with sorting.

1 1
3 3
7 7
2
TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

2 8

4
8

Fig: merging of A1 and A2 to A

Algorithm: merge (A1, A2: A)

Input: Two arrays A1 [L1…U1], A2 [l2…U2]
Output: Result array A [L…U] , where L=L1 and U=U1+(U2-L2+1) when A1 is append
after A2

Steps:
1. i1=L1, i2=L2; // initialization of variables
2. L=L1, U=U1+U2 –L2 +1 // initialization of lower and upper
bounds of an array
3. i=L
4. Allocate memory for a[L…U]
5. while i1<U do // to copy array A1 into the first
part of A
1. A[i] = A1[i1]
2. i=i+1, i1=i1+1
6. End while
7. While i2<=U2 do // To copy the array A2 into last part of
A
1. A[i] = A2[i2]
2. i=i+1, i2=i2+1

8. End while
9. Stop

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COMPLEXITY ANALYSIS OF OPERATIONS ON ARRAYS

Time Complexity

1.3. TYPES OF ARRAYS

❖ Types of arrays depend upon the number of dimensions of an array.
❖ The count of indices or subscripts required to access one element of an array

TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

define the dimensions of an array.
Types of arrays
1) One-dimensional Array
2) Two-dimensional Array
3) Three-dimensional Array
❖ Two dimensional and three dimensional arrays are also called multi-dimensional
arrays.
1. One-dimensional Array
❖ In a one-dimensional array the elements are stored in contiguous memory
Operation Best Case Average Case Worst Case
Traversal O(1) O(n) O(n)

Insertion O(1) O(n) O(n)

Deletion O(1) O(n) O(n)

Search O(1) O(n) O(n)

Update O(1) O(1) O(1)

locations where each element is accessed by using a single index value. It is a

linear data structure storing all the elements in sequence.
2. Two-dimensional Array
❖ In types of arrays, a two dimensional array is a tabular representation of data
where elements are stored in rows and columns.

❖ A two dimensional array is actually a collection of M X N elements which has M

rows and N columns. To access any element in a two-dimensional array two
subscripts are required for defining position of an element in a specific row and
column.

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❖ The first index is for row number and second is for column index. In the example
shown the first index values row=2 column=3 is used to access element 56.
TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

3. Three-dimensional Array
❖ In types of arrays, a three-dimensional array is an extension to the two
dimensional array with addition of depth.
❖ It can be seen as a cube that has rows, columns and depth as third dimension.
To access any element in a three-dimensional array three subscripts are
required for position of element in a specific row, column and depth.
❖ The first index is for depth (dimension or layer), second is for row index and third
is for column. In the example shown the index values (2,0,3) is used to access
element 24.

1.4. APPLICATIONS OF ARRAYS IN DATA STRUCTURES

• Storing and accessing data: Arrays are used to store and retrieve data in a
specific order. For example, an array can be used to store the scores of a group
of students, or the temperatures recorded by a weather station.
• Sorting: Arrays can be used to sort data in ascending or descending order.
Sorting algorithms such as bubble sort, merge sort, and quicksort rely heavily on
arrays.

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• Searching: Arrays can be searched for specific elements using algorithms such
as linear search and binary search.
• Matrices: Arrays are used to represent matrices in mathematical computations
such as matrix multiplication, linear algebra, and image processing.
• Stacks and queues: Arrays are used as the underlying data structure for
implementing stacks and queues, which are commonly used in algorithms and

TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

data structures.
• Graphs: Arrays can be used to represent graphs in computer science. Each
element in the array represents a node in the graph, and the relationships between
the nodes are represented by the values stored in the array.
• Dynamic programming: Dynamic programming algorithms often use arrays to
store intermediate results of sub problems in order to solve a larger problem.
• Image processing: Arrays can be used to represent and process images. Each
element in the array represents a pixel in the image, and operations can be
performed on the array to manipulate the image.
• Numerical computations: The application of an array is extensive in numerical
computations, such as in linear algebra and signal processing. For example, a
matrix can be represented as a two-dimensional array, and operations like matrix
multiplication can be performed efficiently using arrays.
• Games and simulations: Arrays can be used to represent game boards, game
pieces, and game states. They are also used in simulations to store and
manipulate data over time.

1.5. ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF ARRAYS IN DATA

STRUCTURES
Advantages
• Efficient access: Arrays offer fast and efficient access to elements because each
element can be accessed directly through its index. This makes array traversal
quick and straightforward.
• Versatility: Arrays can be used to store any type of data like integers, characters,
and strings. They can also be used to store user-defined data types, such as
structures and classes.
• Flexibility: Arrays are used to implement other data structures like stacks,
queues, trees, graphs, etc.
• Easy to remember: Arrays represent multiple data items of the same type using
a single name. Therefore, it’s easier to remember an array name than
remembering the names of several variables.

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Disadvantages
• Fixed-size: The size of an array is fixed at the time of its creation, which means
that once the array is created, its size cannot be changed. This can be a limitation
in situations where the size of the data is not known in advance.
• Memory wastage: There will be a wastage of memory if we store less number of
elements than the declared size because there is static memory allocation in
TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

arrays.
• Inefficient insertion and deletion: Arrays store data in contiguous memory
locations, which makes deletion and insertion very difficult to implement. All the
elements after insertion or deletion must be shifted to accommodate the new
element or fill in the gap. This can be a time-consuming process, especially for
large arrays.
• Homogeneous data: Arrays can only store elements of the same data type, which
can be a limitation in situations where the user needs to store data of different
types.
• No built-in support for dynamic resizing: While some programming languages
provide built-in support for dynamic resizing of arrays, many do not. In those
cases, the developer may have to implement their own resizing logic, which can
be complex and error-prone.

EXCERICE 1: (PART-A)
1) What is Data Structure?
A) Address of the variable B) Subset of all variables
C) The memory representation of data D) The type of the variable
2) Which of the following is a collection of heterogeneous elements?
A) Array B) Structure C) Stack D) Queue
3) __________is a linear data structure
A) Tree B) Array C) Graph D) None of these.
4) The Smallest element of an array index is __________
A) Smallest Bound B) Lower Bound
C) First Bound D) Higher Bound
5) Two Dimensional Array are also called a
A) Table Array B) Matrix Array
C) Both A & B D) None of above
6) An Array of n elements will be declared in c as

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A) Array [n+1] B) Array [n-1]

C) Array [n] D) Array
7) The First Element of a 0 based array can be accessed by
A) Array [0] B) Array [n-1]
C) Array D) Both A & C
8) Which of the following data structure can’t store the nonhomogeneous data

TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

elements?
A) Arrays B) Stacks
C) Records D) None of the above
9) In an array range specifies__________
A) Scope of the Array B) Number of the Elements in the Array
C) The Group of the Array D) Size-1 of the array
10) Which of the following data structures are indexed structures?
A) Linear arrays B) Linked lists
C) Both (A) & (B) D) None of above

2.SPARSE MATRIX
2.1. WHAT IS A MATRIX?
• A matrix can be defined as a two-dimensional array having 'm' rows and 'n'
columns. A matrix with m rows and n columns is called m × n matrix. It is a set of
numbers that are arranged in the horizontal or vertical lines of entries.

• For example:

2.2. WHAT IS SPARSE MATRIX?

• A matrix is a two-dimensional data object made of m rows and n columns,
therefore having total m x n values. If most of the elements of the matrix have 0
value, then it is called a sparse matrix.

• There are the following benefits of using the sparse matrix -

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COMPETITIVE EXAM
FOR
TEACHER’S CARE ACADEMY, KANCHIPURAM
TNPSC-TRB- COMPUTER SCIENCE -TET COACHING CENTER
HEAD OFFICE: NO. 38/23, VAIGUNDA PERUMAL KOIL,
SANNATHI STREET, KANCHIPURAM – 1. CELL: 9566535080
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Trichy : 76399 67359 Salem : 93602 68118

UNIT-8: DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORKS

SYLLABUS
Data Communication: Components of a Data Communication System, Simplex,
Half- Duplex and Duplex Modes of Communication; Analog and Digital Signals;
Noiseless and Noisy Channels; Bandwidth, Throughput and Latency; Digital and
Analog Transmission; Data Encoding and Modulation Techniques; Broadband and
Baseband Transmission; Multiplexing, Transmission Media, Transmission Errors,
Error Handling Mechanisms.
Computer Networks: Network Topologies, Local Area Networks, Metropolitan Area
Networks, Wide Area Network, Wireless Networks, Internet.
Network Models: Layered Architecture, OSI Reference Model and its Protocols;
TCP/IP Protocol Suite, Physical, Logical, Port and Specific Addresses; Switching
Techniques.
Functions of OSI and TCP/IP Layers: Framing, Error Detection and Correction; Flow
and Error Control; Sliding Window Protocol, HDLC, Multiple Access – CSMA/CD,
CSMA/CA, Reservation, Polling, Token Passing, FDMA, CDMA, TDMA, Network
Devices, Backbone Networks, Virtual LANs.
IPv4 Structure and Address Space; Classful and Classless Addressing; Datagram,
Fragmentation and Checksum; IPv6 Packet Format, Mapping Logical to Physical
Address (ARP), Direct and Indirect Network Layer Delivery; Routing Algorithms, TCP,
UDP and SCTP Protocols; Flow Control, Error Control and Congestion Control in TCP
and SCTP.
World Wide Web (WWW): Uniform Resource Locator (URL), Domain Name Service
(DNS), Resolution–Mapping Names to Addresses and Addresses to Names;
Electronic Mail Architecture, SMTP, POP and IMAP; TELNET and FTP.
Network Security: Malwares, Cryptography and Steganography; Secret-Key
Algorithms, Public-Key Algorithms, Digital Signature, Virtual Private Networks,
Firewalls.
Mobile Technology: GSM and CDMA; Services and Architecture of GSM and Mobile
Computing; Middleware and Gateway for Mobile Computing; Mobile IP and Mobile
Communication Protocol; Communication Satellites, Wireless Networks and
Topologies; Cellular Topology, Mobile Adhoc Networks, Wireless Transmission and
Wireless LANs; Wireless Geolocation Systems, GPRS and SMS.
Cloud Computing and IoT: SaaS, PaaS, IaaS, Public and Private Cloud;
Virtualization, Virtual Server, Cloud Storage, Database Storage, Resource
Management, Service Level Agreement, Basics of IoT.
S.No CONTENT Page No.
CHAPTER 1: DATA COMMUNICATION
1.1 Components of Data Communication System 1
1.2 Modes of Communication (Transmission Mode) 3
1.3 Way of Communication 5
1.4 Signal 9
1.4.1. Digital and Analog Transmission 12
1.4.2. Bit Rate and Baud Rate 13
1.5 Noise 15
1.5.1. Noisy Channel 17
1.5.2. Noiseless Channel 19
1.6 Communication Channel 20
1.6.1. Bandwidth and Data Transfer Rate 22
1.6.2. Frequency 28
1.7 Latency (Delays In Computer Network) 30
1.7.1. End – To - End End Delay 31
1.8 Data Encoding and Modulation Techniques 34
1.9 Multiplexing And Demultiplexing 36
1.10 Transmission Media (Communication Channel) 41
1.10.1. Types of Transmission Medium 41
1.10.2. Guided Transmission Medium 43
1.10.3. Wireless Transmission 46
1.10.4. Communication Satellites 50
1.11 Error 53
1.11.1. Types Of Errors In Computer Network 53
1.11.2. Transmission Errors 55
1.11.3. Error Handling Mechanisms 56
1.12 Network Definition 58
1.12.1. Uses of Computer Network 58
1.12.2. Peer-To-Peer Network and Client Server Network 59
1.13 Evolution of Computer Network 60
1.14 Internet, Intranet & Extranet 61

2.1 Network Topologies 65

2.1.1. Bus Topologies 65
2.1.2. Star Topologies 66
2.1.3. Tree Topologies 67
 2.1.4. Ring Topologies 67
2.1.5. Mesh Topologies 68
2.1.6. Hybrid Topologies 69
2.2 Local Area Network (LAN) 70
2.3 Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN) 71
2.4 Wide Area Networks (WAN) 71
2.5 Personal Area Network (PAN) 72
2.6 Campus Area Network (CAN) 72
2.7 Storage Area Network (SAN) 72
2.8 Wireless Network 73
2.9 Types of LAN Technologies 74
2.9.1. Ethernet 74
2.9.2. Fast Ethernet 77
2.9.3. Gigabit Ethernet 77
2.9.4. 10 Gigabit Ethernet 77
3.1 Layered Architecture 79
3.1.1. Protocol Hierarchies 79
3.2 OSI Reference Model 84
3.2.1. Seven Layers of OSI Reference Model 85
3.3 TCP/IP Protocol Suit (Network Protocols) 89
3.3.1. Transmission Control Protocol / Internet
90
Protocol(TCP/IP)
3.3.2. List of Layers and It’s Protocols 93
3.3.3. Application Layer Protocols 94
3.3.4. Transport Layer Protocols (TCP and UDP) 101
3.3.5. Network Layer Protocols 102
3.3.6. Physical Layer Protocols 102
3.3.7. ALOHA Net 103
3.4 Physical, Logical, Port And Specific Addresses 105
3.5 Switching Techniques 106
3.5.1. Circuit Switching 106
3.5.2. Packet Switching 107
3.5.3. Message Switching 108
3.5.4. Difference Between Packet Switching And Circuit
108
Switching
CHAPTER 4 : FUNCTIONS OF OSI AND TCP/IP LAYERS
4.1 Framing 111
 4.1.1. Character Count 112
4.1.2. Flag Bytes With Byte Stuffing 113
4.1.3. Flag Byte With Bit Stuffing 114
4.2 Error Detection Techinques 115
4.2.1. VRC (Vertical Redundancy Check) or Simple Parity
116
Check
4.2.2. LRC (Longitudinal (or Horizontal) Redundancy
117
Checking ) or Two-Dimensional Parity Check
4.2.3. Checksum 117
4.2.4. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) 117
4.3 Error Correction Techinques 118
4.3.1. Hamming Code 119
4.4 Flow Conrol 123
4.4.1. For Noiseless Channel 123
4.4.2. For A Noisy Channel 125
4.5 HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control) 131
4.5.1. Transfer Modes 131
4.5.2. HDLC Frame 132
4.6 Multiple Access 134
4.6.1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDMA) 136
4.6.2. Time Division Multiplexing (TDMA) 137
4.6.3. Division Multiple Access (CDMA) 138
4.6.4. Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) 139
4.6.5. Carrier Sense Multiple Access With Collision Avoidance
141
(CSMA/CA)
4.6.6. Carrier Sense Multiple Access With Collision Detection
142
(CSMA/CD)
4.6.7. Difference Between CSMA/CA & CSMA/CD 143
4.7 Network Devices 146
4.7.1. Ethernet Card (NIC) 146
4.7.2. Hub 147
4.7.3. Switch 147
4.7.4. Repeater 148
4.7.5. Bridge 149
4.7.6. Router 149
4.7.7. Gateway 150
4.7.8. Modem 151
4.7.9. Wi-Fi Card 151
4.8 Backbone Networks 152
4.8.1. Backbone LANs 153
4.9 Wireless LAN (WLAN) 155
4.9.1. How Does Wireless Local Area Network Work? 156
4.9.2. Components of WLAN Architecture 157
4.9.3. Wireless Lan Standards and Modes 158
4.10 Virtual LAN (VLAN) 159
4.10.1. Types of VLAN 161
4.10.2. Features and Benefits of VLAN 161
4.10.3. The Key Features of VLAN 162
4.10.4. Types of Connections In VLAN 162
4.10.5. Real-Time Applications of VLAN 162
5.1 Media Access Control (MAC) 164
5.1.1. Format of MAC Address 165
5.1.2. Types of MAC Address 166
5.2 IP Address (IPv4 Overview) 168
5.2.1. What Is Network? 168
5.2.2. IPv4 - OSI Model 169
5.2.3. Network Layer 170
5.2.4. IPv4 - TCP/IP Model 170
5.2.5. IPv4 - Packet Structure 171
5.2.6. IPv4 Datagram: 171
5.2.7. IPv4 Fragmentation 173
5.2.8. IPv4 Checksum 174
5.2.9. IPv4 Addressing Schemes (Classful And Classless
175
Addressing)
5.2.10. IPv4 – Addressing Modes 176
5.2.11. IPv4 - Address Classes 178
5.2.12. IPv4 - Subnetting 181
5.3 IPv6 192
5.3.1. Format of An IPv6 Address 192
5.3.2. Types of IPv6 Addresses 193
5.3.3. Advantages of IPv6 193
5.3.4. Disadvantages of IPv6 194
5.3.5. Differenece Between IPv6 And Ipv4 194
5.3.6. IPv6 - Packet Format (Headers) 194
 Mapping Logical to Physical Address (Address Resolution
5.4 198
Protocol (ARP))
5.4.1. Types of Mapping In ARP 199
5.4.2. How ARP Works? 199
5.4.3. Types of ARP 200
5.5 Direct and Indirect Network Layer Delivery 202
5.5.1. Direct Network Layer Delivery 202
5.5.2. Indirect Network Layer Delivery 202
5.6 Routing 204
5.6.1. Classification of Routing Algorithms 204
5.6.2. Shortest Path Routing 207
5.6.3. Flooding (Flow Based Routing) 209
5.6.4. Distance Vector Routing 210
5.6.5. Link State Routing 210
5.6.6. Hierarchical Routing 211
5.7 TCP, UDP And SCTP Protocols 213
5.8 Congestion Control 214
5.8.1. General Principles of Congestion Control 214
5.8.2. Traffic Shaping 214
5.8.3. Flow Specification 215
5.8.4. Congestion Control In Virtual Circuit Subnets 215
5.8.5. Congestion Control In Datagram Subnets 216
Flow Control, Error Control and Congestion Control In
5.9 216
TCP And SCTP.
 1

CHAPTER 1
DATA COMMUNICATION
1.1 COMPONENTS OF DATA COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
➢ Sending or Receiving information, such as speaking, writing, telephone lines ,
computers or using some other medium is communication.
➢ The communication system basically deals with the transmission of information from
one point to another using the well-defined steps which are carried out in sequential
manner. The system for data transmission makes use of the sender and destination
address, In this other so many elements are also there that allows it to transfer data
from one set of point to another set of point after dividing the elements of
communication system in groups and these interface elements acts as the
main component for data communication.

➢ A data communication system comprises several components that work together to

facilitate the exchange of data between two or more devices. These components
ensure that data is transmitted accurately, efficiently, and securely. The main
components of a data communication system include:

1. Message:
➢ The message is the information or data that needs to be transmitted from the source
to the destination.
➢ It can take various forms, such as text, numbers, images, audio, video, or any other
type of digital data.

2. Sender/Transmitter:
➢ The sender or transmitter is the device that originates and sends the message.
➢ It converts the message into electrical, electromagnetic, or optical signals suitable for
transmission over the communication channel.

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 2

3. Receiver:
➢ The receiver is the device that receives the transmitted signals from the sender.
➢ It converts the received signals back into the original message format for interpretation
by the destination device.

4. Communication Channel/Medium:
➢ The communication channel or medium is the physical or logical pathway through
which the signals travel from the sender to the receiver.
TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

➢ It can be wired (e.g., twisted-pair cables, coaxial cables, optical fibers) or wireless
(e.g., radio waves, microwaves, infrared).
➢ The choice of communication channel depends on factors such as distance, data rate,
cost, and environmental conditions.

5. Protocol:
➢ A protocol is a set of rules, conventions, and standards that governs how data is
transmitted and received between devices in a network.
➢ It defines parameters such as data format, error detection and correction, flow control,
and addressing.
➢ Protocols ensure interoperability and reliable communication between different
devices and systems.

6. Encoder/Decoder:
➢ Encoders and decoders are responsible for converting the message into a format
suitable for transmission and then back into its original form upon reception.
➢ They may perform functions such as data compression, encryption, modulation, and
demodulation.

7. Modem (Modulator-Demodulator):
➢ A modem is a device that modulates digital signals into analog signals for transmission
over analog communication channels and demodulates analog signals back into digital
signals upon reception.
➢ It enables communication between digital devices over analog communication
networks such as telephone lines.

8. Switching and Routing Equipment:

➢ Switches and routers are network devices that direct data traffic between multiple
devices and networks.
➢ They ensure that data packets are delivered to their intended destinations efficiently
and securely.

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➢ Switches operate at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model, while routers
operate at the network layer (Layer 3).
9. Multiplexers/Demultiplexers:
➢ Multiplexers combine multiple signals or data streams into a single transmission
channel, allowing for more efficient use of bandwidth.
➢ Demultiplexers separate the combined signals back into their original individual signals

TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

upon reception.
10. Terminal Equipment:
➢ Terminal equipment includes devices such as computers, terminals, printers,
scanners, and other end-user devices that generate or consume data.
➢ They interact with the communication system to send or receive messages.
➢ These components work together to enable effective communication and data
exchange between devices across various communication networks and systems.
Each component plays a specific role in the transmission, reception, processing, and
delivery of data within the communication system.

1.2. MODES OF COMMUNICATION ( TRANSMISSION MODE)

➢ There are several modes of communication that define how data is transmitted
between two communicating parties. These modes determine the direction of data
flow and the interaction between the sender and receiver. The most common modes
of communication include:
1. Simplex Mode:
➢ In simplex mode, communication occurs in only one direction, either from the sender
to the receiver or from the receiver to the sender.
➢ The sender or transmitter can only transmit data, while the receiver can only receive
data.
➢ Examples of simplex mode include television broadcasting and keyboard input to a
computer.
2. Half-Duplex Mode:
➢ In half-duplex mode, communication can occur in both directions, but not
simultaneously.
➢ A communication channel is shared between the sender and receiver, allowing both
parties to transmit and receive data.
➢ However, only one party can transmit at a time, while the other party listens or
receives.
➢ Walkie-talkies and two-way radios operate in half-duplex mode.

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3. Full-Duplex Mode:
➢ In full-duplex mode, communication occurs in both directions simultaneously.
➢ Each party can transmit and receive data independently without any interference.
➢ Dedicated channels are used for transmitting and receiving, allowing for
simultaneous communication.
➢ Examples of full-duplex mode include telephone conversations and most modern
computer networks.
TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

4. Asynchronous Mode:
➢ In asynchronous mode, data transmission is not synchronized with a common clock
signal between the sender and receiver.
➢ Each data character is preceded by start and stop bits to indicate the beginning and
end of the data transmission.
➢ Asynchronous communication is commonly used in serial communication interfaces,
such as RS-232.

5. Synchronous Mode:
➢ In synchronous mode, data transmission is synchronized with a common clock
signal shared between the sender and receiver.
➢ Data is transmitted in blocks or frames, with each frame preceded by
synchronization bits or headers.
➢ Synchronous communication allows for higher data rates and more efficient
bandwidth utilization.
➢ Examples of synchronous communication protocols include Ethernet and
SONET/SDH.

• transfer speed, reliability, and cost considerations.

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BASIS FOR SIMPLEX HALF DUPLEX FULL DUPLEX

COMPARISON
Direction of Communication is Communication is Communication is two
Communication unidirectional. two-directional but, directional and done
one at a time. simultaneously.
Send/Receive A sender can send A sender can send A sender can send as

TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

data but, cannot as well as receive well as receive the
receive. the data but one at a data simultaneously.
time.
Performance The half-duplex and The full duplex Full duplex has better
full duplex yields mode yields higher performance as it
better performance performance than doubles the utilization
than the Simplex. half duplex. of bandwidth.
Example Keyboard and Walkie-Talkies. Telephone.
monitor.

1.3. WAY OF COMMUNICATION

➢ The way of communication can be either of the following

• Unicast (one to one communication)

• Broadcast (One to all communication)

• Multicast (One to many Communication)

1. Unicast
➢ This type of information transfer is useful when there is
a participation of single sender and single recipient. So,
in short, you can term it as a one-to-one transmission.
➢ For example, a device having IP address 10.1.2.0 in a
network wants to send the traffic stream (data packets) to the device with IP address
20.12.4.2 in the other network, then unicast comes into the picture. This is the most
common form of data transfer over the networks.

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2. Broadcast
Broadcasting transfer (one-to-all) techniques can be classified into two types :

a. Limited Broadcasting
➢ Suppose you have to send stream of packets to all the devices over the network
that you reside, this broadcasting comes handy.
➢ For this to achieve, it will append 255.255.255.255 (all
the 32 bits of IP address set to 1) called as Limited
TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

Broadcast Address in the destination address of the

datagram (packet) header which is reserved for information
transfer to all the recipients from a single client (sender) over the network.

b. Direct Broadcasting
➢ This is useful when a device in one network wants
to transfer packet stream to all the devices over
the other network.
➢ This is achieved by translating all the Host ID part
bits of the destination address to 1, referred
as Direct Broadcast Address in the datagram header for information transfer.
➢ This mode is mainly utilized by television networks for video and audio distribution.
One important protocol of this class in Computer Networks is Address Resolution
Protocol (ARP) that is used for resolving IP address into physical address which is
necessary for underlying communication.

3. Multicast
➢ In multicasting, one/more senders and one/more recipients participate in data
transfer traffic. In this method traffic recline between the boundaries of unicast (one-
to-one) and broadcast (one-to-all).
➢ Multicast lets server’s direct single copies of data streams that are then simulated
and routed to hosts that request it. IP multicast requires support of some other
protocols like IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol), Multicast
routing for its working. Also in Classful IP addressing Class D is reserved for
multicast groups.

4. Point-to-Point Communication:
➢ In point-to-point communication, data is transmitted between two individual nodes,
typically over a dedicated communication link.
➢ Examples include serial communication between two devices using cables or
wireless communication between two mobile devices.

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5. Client-Server Communication:
➢ In client-server communication, one or more client devices request services or
resources from a central server.
➢ The server responds to client requests by providing the requested data or
performing the requested tasks.
➢ This model is prevalent in networked environments, such as web browsing, email
services, and file sharing.

TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

6. Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Communication:
➢ Peer-to-peer communication enables direct interaction between individual nodes
without the need for a central server.
➢ Each node can act as both a client and a server, exchanging data and resources
with other peers on the network.
➢ P2P networks are commonly used for file sharing, distributed computing, and
decentralized applications.
7. Inter-Process Communication (IPC):
➢ IPC facilitates communication between different processes or threads running on
the same or different devices within a network.
➢ Methods such as pipes, sockets, shared memory, and message passing are used
for IPC in operating systems and distributed computing environments.
8. Remote Procedure Call (RPC):
➢ RPC allows a process to execute code or invoke procedures on a remote system
as if they were local.
➢ It abstracts the complexities of network communication, enabling seamless
interaction between distributed components.
➢ RPC is widely used in client-server applications, distributed systems, and remote
administration tasks.

CHAPTER 1.1, 1.2 & 1.3 MCQ

1. Which component is responsible for converting digital signals to analog signals
for transmission over analog communication channels?
A) Modem B) Router C) Switch D) Gateway
2. Which component of data communication is responsible for encoding data into
signals suitable for transmission?
A) Sender B) Receiver C) Transmission medium D) Modem
3. Which communication mode is best suited for applications where real-time
bidirectional communication is required?
(A) Simplex (B) Half Duplex (C) Full Duplex (D) Multiplexing
4. Which communication mode does not require a common clock signal between
the sender and receiver?
(A) Asynchronous (B) Synchronous (C) Full Duplex (D) Simplex

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5. Which communication mode is more suitable for high-speed data transfer

applications that require precise timing and synchronization?
(A) Asynchronous (B) Synchronous (C) Full Duplex (D) Simplex
6. Which type of communication is often used for sending important network
control messages, such as routing updates and network management commands?
(A) Unicast (B) Multicast (C) Broadcast (D) AnyCast
7. Which type of communication is more bandwidth-efficient when transmitting
data to multiple recipients located in different parts of the network?
TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

(A) Unicast (B) Multicast (C) Broadcast (D) AnyCast

8. Which communication mode is commonly used in applications where data
transfer rates are relatively low and timing precision is not critical?
(A) Asynchronous (B) Synchronous (C) Full Duplex (D) Simplex
9. Which of the following is an example of a point-to-point communication link?
(A) Sending an email to multiple recipients
(B) Making a phone call from one phone to another
(C) Broadcasting a message on social media
(D) Sharing a file on a network drive
10. Which of the following is an example of client-server communication?
(A) Sending an email to multiple recipients
(B) Broadcasting a message on social media
(C) Accessing a website hosted on a remote server
(D) Sharing files on a peer-to-peer network
11. What is the primary characteristic of a Peer-to-Peer (P2P) network?
(A) Centralized control (B) Client-server architecture
(C) Decentralized architecture (D) Hierarchical structure
12. Communication between a computer and a keyboard involves __________
transmission
(A) Simplex (B) Automatic (C) Full-duplex (D) Half-duplex
13. Communication channel is shared by all the machines on the network in
(A) Multicast network (B) Broadcast network
(C) Unicast network (D) None of these
14. In a peer to peer network, who controls the devices?
(A) First computer (B) Last computer
(C) No device controls (D) All devices control
15. Choose the correct statements about a Client-Server networking model.
(A) Server software is costly to acquire and renew
(B) Dedicated admin people are required to monitor and grant resources to normal
computers or nodes. So this client-server network is highly secure.
(C) The hardware of a Server PC is costly
(D) All the above

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1.4. SIGNAL
➢ A signal is an electromagnetic or electrical current that carries data from one system
or network to another.
➢ In electronics, a signal is often a time-varying voltage that is also an electromagnetic
wave carrying information, though it can take on other forms, such as current.
➢ There are two main types of signals used in electronics: analog and digital signals.
a.) Analog Signal

TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

➢ Because a signal varies over time, it's helpful to plot it on a graph where time is plotted
on the horizontal, x-axis, and voltage on the vertical, y-axis.
➢ Looking at a graph of a signal is usually the easiest
way to identify if it's analog or digital; a time-
versus-voltage graph of an analog signal should
be smooth and continuous.
➢ While these signals may be limited to a range of
maximum and minimum values, there are still an infinite number of possible values
within that range.
For example:
➢ The analog voltage coming out of your wall socket might be clamped between -120V
and +120V, but, as you increase the resolution more and more, you discover an
infinite number of values that the signal can actually be (like 64.4V, 64.42V, 64.424V,
and infinite, increasingly precise values).
b.) Digital Signals
➢ Digital signals must have a finite set of possible values.
➢ The number of values in the set can be anywhere between two and a-very-large-
number-that's-not-infinity.
➢ Most commonly digital signals will be one of two values -- like either 0V or 5V.
➢ Timing graphs of these signals look like square waves.

➢ Or a digital signal might be a discrete representation of an analog waveform. Viewed

from afar, the wave function below may seem smooth and analog, but when you look
closely there are tiny discrete steps as the signal tries to approximate values:

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➢ That's the big difference between analog and digital waves. Analog waves are
smooth and continuous, digital waves are stepping, square, and discrete.
c.) Key Differences:
• An analog signal is a continuous signal whereas Digital signals are time separated
signals.
• Analog signal is denoted by sine waves while It is denoted by square waves
• Analog signal uses a continuous range of values that help you to represent
information on the other hand digital signal uses discrete 0 and 1 to represent
TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

information.
• The analog signal bandwidth is low while the bandwidth of the digital signal is high.
• Analog instruments give considerable observational errors whereas Digital
instruments never cause any kind of observational errors.
• Analog hardware never offers flexible implementation, but Digital hardware offers
flexibility in implementation.
• Analog signals are suited for audio and video transmission while Digital signals are
suited for Computing and digital electronics.
d.) Characteristics Of Analog Signal
Here, are essential characteristics of Analog Signal
• These types of electronic signals are time-varying
• Minimum and maximum values which is either positive or negative.
• It can be either periodic or non-periodic.
• Analog Signal works on continuous data.
• The accuracy of the analog signal is not high when compared to the digital signal.
• It helps you to measure natural or physical values.
• Analog signal output form is like Curve, Line, or Graph, so it may not be meaningful.
e.) Characteristics of Digital Signals
Here, are essential characteristics of Digital signals
• Digital signal are continuous signals
• This type of electronic l signals can be processed and transmitted better compared
to analog signal.
• Digital signals are versatile, so it is widely used.
• The accuracy of the digital signal is better than that of the analog signal.
f.) Difference Between Analog and Digital Signal
Here are important differences between Analog and Digital Signal:

Analog Digital

An analog signal is a continuous signal that Digital signals are time separated signals
represents physical measurements. which are generated using digital
modulation.

It is denoted by sine waves It is denoted by square waves

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It uses a continuous range of values that help Digital signal uses discrete 0 and 1 to
you to represent information. represent information.

Temperature sensors, FM radio signals, Computers, CDs, DVDs are some examples
Photocells, Light sensor, Resistive touch of Digital signal.
screen are examples of Analog signals.

TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

The analog signal bandwidth is low The digital signal bandwidth is high.

Analog signals are deteriorated by noise Relatively a noise-immune system without

throughout transmission as well as deterioration during the transmission process
write/read cycle. and write/read cycle.

Analog hardware never offers flexible Digital hardware offers flexibility in

implementation. implementation.

It is suited for audio and video transmission. It is suited for Computing and digital
electronics.

Processing can be done in real-time and It never gives a guarantee that digital signal
consumes lesser bandwidth compared to a processing can be performed in real time.
digital signal.

Analog instruments usually have s scale Digital instruments never cause any kind of
which is cramped at lower end and gives observational errors.
considerable observational errors.

Analog signal doesn't offer any fixed range. Digital signal has a finite number, i.e.,0 and 1.

g.) Advantages of Analog Signals

Here, are pros/benefits of Analog Signals
• Easier in processing
• Best suited for audio and video transmission.
• It has a low cost and is portable.
• It has a much higher density so that it can present more refined information.
• Not necessary to buy a new graphics board.
• Uses less bandwidth than digital sounds
• Provide more accurate representation of a sound
• It is the natural form of a sound.
h.) Advantages of Digital Signals
Here, are pros/advantages of Digital Signals:
• Digital data can be easily compressed.

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• Any information in the digital form can be encrypted.

• Equipment that uses digital signals is more common and less expensive.
• Digital signal makes running instruments free from observation errors like parallax
and approximation errors.
• A lot of editing tools are available
• You can edit the sound without altering the original copy
• Easy to transmit the data over networks
TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

i.) Disadvantages of Analog Signals

Here are cons/drawback of Analog Signals:
• Analog tends to have a lower quality signal than digital.
• The cables are sensitive to external influences.
• The cost of the Analog wire is high and not easily portable.
• Low availability of models with digital interfaces.
• Recording analog sound on tape is quite expensive if the tape is damaged
• It offers limitations in editing
• Tape is becoming hard to find
• It is quite difficult to synchronize analog sound
• Quality is easily lost
• Data can become corrupted
• Plenty of recording devices and formats which can become confusing to store a
digital signal
• Digital sounds can cut an analog sound wave which means that you can't get a
perfect reproduction of a sound
• Offers poor multi-user interfaces
j.) Disadvantage of Digital Signals
• Sampling may cause loss of information.
• A/D and D/A demands mixed-signal hardware
• Processor speed is limited
• Develop quantization and round-off errors
• It requires greater bandwidth
• Systems and processing is more complex.
1.4.1. DIGITAL AND ANALOG TRANSMISSION
➢ Digital and analog transmission are two methods used to transmit data over
communication channels. These methods differ in how they represent and transmit
data signals. Here's a comparison between digital and analog transmission:
a. Digital Transmission:
➢ Representation: Digital transmission uses discrete, binary signals (0s and 1s) to
represent data. Each binary digit (bit) represents a specific voltage level or symbol.

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➢ Signal Characteristics: Digital signals are characterized by distinct voltage levels or

symbols, typically represented by square waveforms. These signals have well-
defined thresholds for interpreting 0s and 1s.
➢ Noise Immunity: Digital signals are less susceptible to noise and interference
compared to analog signals. They can be regenerated and cleaned up using
repeaters and error correction techniques, resulting in improved signal integrity.
➢ Bandwidth Efficiency: Digital transmission allows for higher data transmission rates

TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

and greater bandwidth efficiency compared to analog transmission. Multiple digital
signals can be transmitted simultaneously over the same communication channel
using techniques like multiplexing.
➢ Examples: Ethernet, Fiber Optic Communication, Digital Subscriber Line (DSL),
Satellite Communication.
b. Analog Transmission:
➢ Representation: Analog transmission uses continuous, varying signals to represent
data. These signals can take on an infinite number of values within a specified range.
➢ Signal Characteristics: Analog signals have continuously varying voltage levels or
waveforms that represent the original data. They can be affected by noise, distortion,
and attenuation during transmission.
➢ Noise Sensitivity: Analog signals are more susceptible to noise and distortion
compared to digital signals. Noise and interference can degrade the quality of the
signal and result in errors during data transmission.
➢ Bandwidth Usage: Analog transmission typically requires more bandwidth to
transmit the same amount of information compared to digital transmission. This limits
the data transmission rates and efficiency of analog communication systems.
➢ Examples: Analog Telephone Systems (POTS), AM/FM Radio Broadcasting, Analog
Television (TV) Broadcasting.
➢ In summary, digital transmission offers advantages such as noise immunity, higher
data rates, and greater bandwidth efficiency, making it the preferred choice for
modern communication systems. However, analog transmission is still used in certain
applications where continuous signals are required or legacy systems are in place.

1.4.2. BIT RATE AND BAUD RATE

➢ Bit rate and baud rate are not always the same.
➢ The bit rate is the number of bits transmitted per second,
➢ The baud rate is the number of signal units transmitted per second and one signal
unit is able to represent one or more bits.

➢ Therefore, baud rate is always less than or equal to the bit rate but never greater.

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➢ Bit Rate: The number of bits transmitted per second

• Bit rate = baud rate * number of bits per single unit
• Ex: if 10 baud/Sec and there are 2 bits/baud what is bit rate?
• 10*2=20 bits/Sec
➢ Baud Rate: Number of Signal unit transmitted per second.
• Baud rate= bit rate / number of bits per single unit
• Ex: if 20 bits/Sec and the 2 bits per baud what is baud rate?
TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

• 20/2=10 baud/Sec
Example:
1. If there are 4 bits per baud and there are 40 pits transferred per second , what will
be the baud rate? 40/4=10 Baud/sec
2. If there are 10 baud per second and each baud contains 4 bit then what is bit rate?
10*4=40 bps
3. If there are 10 baud per second and the bit rate is 40 bps then how many signal
elements are there? 40/10=4 bits/baud.
Example:
1.) An analog signal has a bit rate of 8000 bps and a baud rate of 1000.
Then analog signal has _____ signal elements and carry _____ data elements in
each signal.
(A) 256, 8 bits (B) 128, 4 bits (C) 256, 4 bits (D) 128, 8 bits
Answer: (A)
Explanation:
• Analog signal has a bit rate of 8000 bps and a baud rate of 1000. So, each signal
will clearly carry bit rate / baud rate bits. i.e. 8000 / 1000 = 8 bits and 28 = 256
signal. So, option (A) is correct.
CHAPTER 1.4 MCQ

1. The speech signal is obtained after (B) Continuous video streams

(A) Analog to digital conversion (C) Text documents and numerical data
(B) Digital to analog conversion (D) Analog voltage levels
(C) Modulation (D) Quantization 4. Which of the following statements
2. What type of data is typically is true regarding noise immunity?
represented by analog signals? (A) Analog signals are more immune to
(A) Text documents noise than digital signals
(B) Images and graphics (B) Digital signals are more immune to
noise than analog signals
(C) Audio and video
(C) Analog and digital signals have equal
(D) Binary code
immunity to noise
3. What type of data is typically
(D) Noise does not affect either analog or
represented by digital signals?
digital signals
(A) Analog sound waves

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5. Before data can be transmitted, 11. ________ is a type of transmission

they must be transformed to impairment in which the signal loses
________. strength due to the resistance of the
(A) periodic signals transmission medium.
(B) electromagnetic signals (A) Attenuation (B) Distortion
(C) aperiodic signals (C) Noise (D) Decibel
(D) low-frequency sine waves 12. ________ is a type of transmission

TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

impairment in which the signal loses
6. A periodic signal completes one
strength due to the different
cycle in 0.001 s. What is the
propagation speeds of each
frequency?
frequency that makes up the signal.
(A) 1 Hz (B) 100 Hz
(A) Attenuation (B) Distortion
(C) 1 KHz (D) 1 MHz
(C) Noise (D) Decibel
7. In a frequency-domain plot, the
13. ________ is a type of transmission
horizontal axis measures the
impairment in which an outside
________.
source such as crosstalk corrupts a
(A) peak amplitude (B) frequency signal.
(C) phase (D) slope (A) Attenuation (B) Distortion
8. If the bandwidth of a signal is 5 KHz (C) Noise (D) Decibel
and the lowest frequency is 52 KHz,
14. A _________ sine wave is not
what is the highest frequency?
useful in data communications; we
(A) 5 KHz (B) 10 KHz need to send a _______ signal.
(C) 47 KHz (D) 57 KHz (A) composite; single-frequency
9. What is the bandwidth of a signal (B) single-frequency; composite
that ranges from 1 MHz to 4 MHz?
(C) single-frequency; double-frequency
(A) 4 MHz (B) 1 KHz
(D) none of the above
(C) 3 MHz (D) None of the above
15. Frequency and period are ______
10. As frequency increases, the
(A) inverse of each other
period ________.
(B) proportional to each other
(A) decreases (B) increases
(C) the same
(C) remains the same (D) doubles
(D) none of the above

1.5. NOISE
➢ In computer networks, noise refers to
any unwanted or random interference
that disrupts the transmission of data
between devices. It can occur in both
wired and wireless communication
channels and can arise from various
sources, including electromagnetic
interference, signal attenuation, crosstalk, and environmental factors.

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UNIT-10:

Internet of Things
Page
S.No CONTENT
No.
10.2.a Introduction to Internet of Things 1
10.2.b Characteristics: 1
10.2.c Application areas of IoT: 1
10.2.d IoT Categories 2
10.2.e Baseline technologies 2
10.2.e SENSOR 3
10.2.f ACTUATOR 5
10.2.f IOT COMPONENTS 6
10.2.g Service Oriented Architecture of IoT 7
10.2.h Challenges for IoT 8
10.2.i IOT Networking 9
10.2.j IoT identification and Data protocols 12
10.2.k IPv6 13
10.2.I MQTT 15
SMQTT
10.2.m 16
CoAP
10.2.n 16
10.2.o XMPP 17
10.2.p AMQP 18
10.2.q Connectivity Technologies 19
10.2.r Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs): 27
TECHNOLOGIES INVOLVED IN IOT DEVELOPMENT:
10.2.1.1 INTERNET/WEB AND NETWORKING BASICS OSI MODEL 46
10.2.1.2. NETWORKING STANDARDS AND TECHNOLOGIES 46
NETWORK ACCESS AND PHYSICAL LAYER IOT
10.3.1.3 NETWORK TECHNOLOGIES 48

10.2.1.2 Internet Layer Iot Network Technologies 49

10.2.3 Application Layer Iot Network Technologies 50
IOT NETWORKING CONSIDERATIONS AND
10.2.1.4 CHALLENGES 51

10.2.1.5 Wireless Sensor networks: 53

10.2.1.6 Cloud Computing: 54
10.2.17 7Big data analytics: 54
10.2.18 Embedded Systems: 55
10.2.1.9 Communication protocols: 56
THE IOT WORLD FORUM (IOTWF) STANDARDIZED
10.3.2 ARCHITECTURE 57

10.3.3 M2M Communication 60

10.3.3.1 How M2M Works 61
10.3.3.2 M2M Applications 61
10.3.3.3 The Value Of M2M 62
10.2.3 Alternative IoT Models 62
10.2.4 ARCHITECTURE OF IOT 66
10.2.4.1 The Core IoT Functional Stack 67
10.2.4.2 Fog Computing 72
10.2.4.3 Edge Computing 73
10.2.5 FUNCTIONAL BLOCKS OF AN IOT ECOSYSTEM 74
10.2.5.1 IoT devices 76
10.2.5 Smart Objects and Connecting Smart Objects 82
10.2.5.1 Sensors, Actuators, Smart Objects and Control Units 82
10.2.5.2 Trends in Smart Objects 85
10.3.1 IoT ACCESS TECHNOLOGIES 88
10.3.1.1 IEEE 802.15.4 88
10.3.1.2 Standardization and Alliances: 89
10.3.1.3 LoRaWAN 95
10.3.1.4 Competitive Technologies 99
10.3.1.6 IEEE 802.15.4g and 802.15.4e 100
10.3.1.17 IEEE 1901.2a 104
10.3.1.8 IEEE 802.11ah 106
10.3.1.9 The Network Layer 109
10.3.2 IoT Access Technologies -IEEE802.15.4 112
10.3.2.1 Physical Layer 113
10.3.2.2 MAC Layer 115
10.3.2.3 Topology 115
10.3.2.4 Security 118
10.3.3 Constrained nodes and Constrained networks in IoT 119
10.3.3.1 The building blocks of an IoT system 120
10.3.3.2 Constrained networks 121
10.3.3.3 Constrained node networks 124
10.3.4 Optimizing IP for low power and lossy networks 129
10.3.4.1 Supervisory control and Data acquisition 129
10.3.4.1 Background on SCADA 130
10.3.4.2 Adapting SCADA for IP 130
10.3.5 Application Layer Protocols : CoAP and MQTT 135
10.3.5.1 Comparison of CoAP and MQTT 137
TEACHER’S CARE ACADEMY, KANCHIPURAM
TNPSC-TRB- COMPUTER SCIENCE -TET COACHING CENTER
HEAD OFFICE: NO. 38/23, VAIGUNDA PERUMAL KOIL,
SANNATHI STREET, KANCHIPURAM – 1. CELL: 9566535080
B.Off 2: 65C, Thillai Ngr(West), 4th Cross St, Trichy – 620018
B.Off 3: Vijiyaraghavachariar Memorial Hall(Opp to Sundar Lodge), Salem

Trichy : 76399 67359 Salem : 93602 68118

UNIT-8: DATA COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER NETWORKS

SYLLABUS
Data Communication: Components of a Data Communication System, Simplex,
Half- Duplex and Duplex Modes of Communication; Analog and Digital Signals;
Noiseless and Noisy Channels; Bandwidth, Throughput and Latency; Digital and
Analog Transmission; Data Encoding and Modulation Techniques; Broadband and
Baseband Transmission; Multiplexing, Transmission Media, Transmission Errors,
Error Handling Mechanisms.
Computer Networks: Network Topologies, Local Area Networks, Metropolitan Area
Networks, Wide Area Network, Wireless Networks, Internet.
Network Models: Layered Architecture, OSI Reference Model and its Protocols;
TCP/IP Protocol Suite, Physical, Logical, Port and Specific Addresses; Switching
Techniques.
Functions of OSI and TCP/IP Layers: Framing, Error Detection and Correction; Flow
and Error Control; Sliding Window Protocol, HDLC, Multiple Access – CSMA/CD,
CSMA/CA, Reservation, Polling, Token Passing, FDMA, CDMA, TDMA, Network
Devices, Backbone Networks, Virtual LANs.
IPv4 Structure and Address Space; Classful and Classless Addressing; Datagram,
Fragmentation and Checksum; IPv6 Packet Format, Mapping Logical to Physical
Address (ARP), Direct and Indirect Network Layer Delivery; Routing Algorithms, TCP,
UDP and SCTP Protocols; Flow Control, Error Control and Congestion Control in TCP
and SCTP.
World Wide Web (WWW): Uniform Resource Locator (URL), Domain Name Service
(DNS), Resolution–Mapping Names to Addresses and Addresses to Names;
Electronic Mail Architecture, SMTP, POP and IMAP; TELNET and FTP.
Network Security: Malwares, Cryptography and Steganography; Secret-Key
Algorithms, Public-Key Algorithms, Digital Signature, Virtual Private Networks,
Firewalls.
Mobile Technology: GSM and CDMA; Services and Architecture of GSM and Mobile
Computing; Middleware and Gateway for Mobile Computing; Mobile IP and Mobile
Communication Protocol; Communication Satellites, Wireless Networks and
Topologies; Cellular Topology, Mobile Adhoc Networks, Wireless Transmission and
Wireless LANs; Wireless Geolocation Systems, GPRS and SMS.
Cloud Computing and IoT: SaaS, PaaS, IaaS, Public and Private Cloud;
Virtualization, Virtual Server, Cloud Storage, Database Storage, Resource
Management, Service Level Agreement, Basics of IoT.
S.No CONTENT Page No.
CHAPTER 1: DATA COMMUNICATION
1.1 Components of Data Communication System 1
1.2 Modes of Communication (Transmission Mode) 3
1.3 Way of Communication 5
1.4 Signal 9
1.4.1. Digital and Analog Transmission 12
1.4.2. Bit Rate and Baud Rate 13
1.5 Noise 15
1.5.1. Noisy Channel 17
1.5.2. Noiseless Channel 19
1.6 Communication Channel 20
1.6.1. Bandwidth and Data Transfer Rate 22
1.6.2. Frequency 28
1.7 Latency (Delays In Computer Network) 30
1.7.1. End – To - End End Delay 31
1.8 Data Encoding and Modulation Techniques 34
1.9 Multiplexing And Demultiplexing 36
1.10 Transmission Media (Communication Channel) 41
1.10.1. Types of Transmission Medium 41
1.10.2. Guided Transmission Medium 43
1.10.3. Wireless Transmission 46
1.10.4. Communication Satellites 50
1.11 Error 53
1.11.1. Types Of Errors In Computer Network 53
1.11.2. Transmission Errors 55
1.11.3. Error Handling Mechanisms 56
1.12 Network Definition 58
1.12.1. Uses of Computer Network 58
1.12.2. Peer-To-Peer Network and Client Server Network 59
1.13 Evolution of Computer Network 60
1.14 Internet, Intranet & Extranet 61

2.1 Network Topologies 65

2.1.1. Bus Topologies 65
2.1.2. Star Topologies 66
2.1.3. Tree Topologies 67
 2.1.4. Ring Topologies 67
2.1.5. Mesh Topologies 68
2.1.6. Hybrid Topologies 69
2.2 Local Area Network (LAN) 70
2.3 Metropolitan Area Networks (MAN) 71
2.4 Wide Area Networks (WAN) 71
2.5 Personal Area Network (PAN) 72
2.6 Campus Area Network (CAN) 72
2.7 Storage Area Network (SAN) 72
2.8 Wireless Network 73
2.9 Types of LAN Technologies 74
2.9.1. Ethernet 74
2.9.2. Fast Ethernet 77
2.9.3. Gigabit Ethernet 77
2.9.4. 10 Gigabit Ethernet 77
3.1 Layered Architecture 79
3.1.1. Protocol Hierarchies 79
3.2 OSI Reference Model 84
3.2.1. Seven Layers of OSI Reference Model 85
3.3 TCP/IP Protocol Suit (Network Protocols) 89
3.3.1. Transmission Control Protocol / Internet
90
Protocol(TCP/IP)
3.3.2. List of Layers and It’s Protocols 93
3.3.3. Application Layer Protocols 94
3.3.4. Transport Layer Protocols (TCP and UDP) 101
3.3.5. Network Layer Protocols 102
3.3.6. Physical Layer Protocols 102
3.3.7. ALOHA Net 103
3.4 Physical, Logical, Port And Specific Addresses 105
3.5 Switching Techniques 106
3.5.1. Circuit Switching 106
3.5.2. Packet Switching 107
3.5.3. Message Switching 108
3.5.4. Difference Between Packet Switching And Circuit
108
Switching
CHAPTER 4 : FUNCTIONS OF OSI AND TCP/IP LAYERS
4.1 Framing 111
 4.1.1. Character Count 112
4.1.2. Flag Bytes With Byte Stuffing 113
4.1.3. Flag Byte With Bit Stuffing 114
4.2 Error Detection Techinques 115
4.2.1. VRC (Vertical Redundancy Check) or Simple Parity
116
Check
4.2.2. LRC (Longitudinal (or Horizontal) Redundancy
117
Checking ) or Two-Dimensional Parity Check
4.2.3. Checksum 117
4.2.4. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) 117
4.3 Error Correction Techinques 118
4.3.1. Hamming Code 119
4.4 Flow Conrol 123
4.4.1. For Noiseless Channel 123
4.4.2. For A Noisy Channel 125
4.5 HDLC (High-Level Data Link Control) 131
4.5.1. Transfer Modes 131
4.5.2. HDLC Frame 132
4.6 Multiple Access 134
4.6.1. Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDMA) 136
4.6.2. Time Division Multiplexing (TDMA) 137
4.6.3. Division Multiple Access (CDMA) 138
4.6.4. Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) 139
4.6.5. Carrier Sense Multiple Access With Collision Avoidance
141
(CSMA/CA)
4.6.6. Carrier Sense Multiple Access With Collision Detection
142
(CSMA/CD)
4.6.7. Difference Between CSMA/CA & CSMA/CD 143
4.7 Network Devices 146
4.7.1. Ethernet Card (NIC) 146
4.7.2. Hub 147
4.7.3. Switch 147
4.7.4. Repeater 148
4.7.5. Bridge 149
4.7.6. Router 149
4.7.7. Gateway 150
4.7.8. Modem 151
4.7.9. Wi-Fi Card 151
4.8 Backbone Networks 152
4.8.1. Backbone LANs 153
4.9 Wireless LAN (WLAN) 155
4.9.1. How Does Wireless Local Area Network Work? 156
4.9.2. Components of WLAN Architecture 157
4.9.3. Wireless Lan Standards and Modes 158
4.10 Virtual LAN (VLAN) 159
4.10.1. Types of VLAN 161
4.10.2. Features and Benefits of VLAN 161
4.10.3. The Key Features of VLAN 162
4.10.4. Types of Connections In VLAN 162
4.10.5. Real-Time Applications of VLAN 162
5.1 Media Access Control (MAC) 164
5.1.1. Format of MAC Address 165
5.1.2. Types of MAC Address 166
5.2 IP Address (IPv4 Overview) 168
5.2.1. What Is Network? 168
5.2.2. IPv4 - OSI Model 169
5.2.3. Network Layer 170
5.2.4. IPv4 - TCP/IP Model 170
5.2.5. IPv4 - Packet Structure 171
5.2.6. IPv4 Datagram: 171
5.2.7. IPv4 Fragmentation 173
5.2.8. IPv4 Checksum 174
5.2.9. IPv4 Addressing Schemes (Classful And Classless
175
Addressing)
5.2.10. IPv4 – Addressing Modes 176
5.2.11. IPv4 - Address Classes 178
5.2.12. IPv4 - Subnetting 181
5.3 IPv6 192
5.3.1. Format of An IPv6 Address 192
5.3.2. Types of IPv6 Addresses 193
5.3.3. Advantages of IPv6 193
5.3.4. Disadvantages of IPv6 194
5.3.5. Differenece Between IPv6 And Ipv4 194
5.3.6. IPv6 - Packet Format (Headers) 194
 Mapping Logical to Physical Address (Address Resolution
5.4 198
Protocol (ARP))
5.4.1. Types of Mapping In ARP 199
5.4.2. How ARP Works? 199
5.4.3. Types of ARP 200
5.5 Direct and Indirect Network Layer Delivery 202
5.5.1. Direct Network Layer Delivery 202
5.5.2. Indirect Network Layer Delivery 202
5.6 Routing 204
5.6.1. Classification of Routing Algorithms 204
5.6.2. Shortest Path Routing 207
5.6.3. Flooding (Flow Based Routing) 209
5.6.4. Distance Vector Routing 210
5.6.5. Link State Routing 210
5.6.6. Hierarchical Routing 211
5.7 TCP, UDP And SCTP Protocols 213
5.8 Congestion Control 214
5.8.1. General Principles of Congestion Control 214
5.8.2. Traffic Shaping 214
5.8.3. Flow Specification 215
5.8.4. Congestion Control In Virtual Circuit Subnets 215
5.8.5. Congestion Control In Datagram Subnets 216
Flow Control, Error Control and Congestion Control In
5.9 216
TCP And SCTP.
 FUNDAMENTALS OF IoT
PREFACE
10.2.a Introduction to Internet of Things
The Internet of things (IoT) is the inter-networking of physical devices, vehicles (also
referred to as “connected devices” and “smart devices”), buildings, and other items
embedded with electronics, software, sensors, actuators, and network connectivity which
enable these objects to collect and exchange data.
10.2.b. Characteristics:
✓ Things-related services: The IoT is capable of providing thing-related services
within the constraints of things, such as privacy protection and semantic
consistency between physical things and their associated virtual things
✓ Connectivity: Things in I.O.T. should be connected to the infrastructure, without
connection nothing makes sense.
✓ Intelligence: Extraction of knowledge from the generated data is important,
sensor generate data and this data and this data should be interpreted properly.
✓ Scalability: The no. of things getting connected to the I.O.T. infrastructure is
increased day by day. Hence, an IOT setup shall be able to handle the massive
expansion.
✓ Unique Identity: Each IOT device has an I.P. address. This identity is helpful in
tracking the equipment and at times to query its status.
✓ Dynamic and Self-Adapting: The IOT device must dynamically adopt itself to
the changing context. Assume a camera meant for surveillance, it may have to
work in different conditions and at different light situations (morning, afternoon,
night).
✓ Heterogeneity: The devices in the IoT are heterogeneous as based on different
hardware platforms and networks. They can interact with other devices different
networks.
✓ Safety: Having got all the things connected with the Internet possess a major
threat, as our personal data is also there and it can be tampered with, if proper
safety measures are not taken.
10.2.c. Application areas of IoT:
✓ Smart Home: The smart home is one of the most popular applications of IoT. The
cost of
✓ owning a house is the biggest expense in a homeowner’s life. Smart homes are
promised to
✓ save the time, money and energy.
✓ Smart cities: The smart city is another powerful application of IoT. It includes
smart surveillance, environment monitoring, automated transformation, urban
security, smart traffic management, water distribution, smart healthcare etc.
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✓ Wearables: Wearables are devices that have sensors and software installed
which can collect data about the user which can be later used to get the insights
about the user. They must be energy efficient and small sized.
✓ Connected cars: A connected car is able to optimize its own operation,
maintenance as well as passenger’s comfort using sensors and internet
connectivity.
✓ Smart retail: Retailers can enhance the in-store experience of the customers
TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

using IoT. The shopkeeper can also know which items are frequently bought
together using IoT devices.
✓ Smart healthcare: People can wear the IoT devices which will collect data about
user's health. This will help users to analyze themselves and follow tailor-made
techniques to combat illness. The doctor also doesn't have to visit the patients in
order to treat them.
10.2.d IoT Categories
IOT can be classified into two categories:
1. Consumer IoT(CIOT): The Consumer IoT refers to the billions of physical personal
devices, such as smartphones, wearables, fashion items and the growing number of
smart home appliances, that are now connected to the internet, collecting and sharing
data.
✓ A Consumer IoT network typically entails few consumer devices, each of which
has a limited lifetime of several years.
✓ The common connectivity used in this kind of solutions are Bluetooth, WiFi, and
ZigBee. These technologies offer short-range communication, suitable for
applications deployed in limited spaces such as houses, or small offices.
2. industrial internet of things (IIoT): It refers to interconnected sensors, instruments,
and other devices networked together with computers' industrial applications, including
manufacturing and energy management. This connectivity allows for data collection,
exchange, and analysis, potentially facilitating improvements in productivity and
efficiency as well as another economic ben.

10.2.e Baseline technologies

There are various baseline technologies that are very closely related to IOT, They
include: Machine-to-Machine (M2M), Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS), Web Of Things
(WOT)

a) Machine-to-Machine (M2M):
• Machine-to-Machine (M2M) refers to networking of machines (or devices) for the
purpose of remote monitoring and control and data exchange.
• An M2M area network comprises of machines (or M2M nodes) which have embedded
network modules for sensing, actuation and communicating various communication
protocols can be used for M2M LAN such as ZigBee, Bluetooth, M- bus, Wireless M-
Bus etc., These protocols provide connectivity between M2M nodes within an M2M
area network.
• The communication network provides connectivity to remote M2M area networks.
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• The communication network provides connectivity to remote M2M area network.

• The communication network can use either wired or wireless network (IP based).
• While the M2M are networks use either proprietary or non-IP based communication
protocols, the communication network uses IP-based network. Since non-IP based
protocols are used within M2M area network, the M2M nodes within one network
cannot communicate with nodes in an external network.
• To enable the communication between remote M2M are network, M2M gateways are
used

TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

b) Cyber-Physical systems:
✓ Cyber-Physical Systems (CPS) are integrations of computation, networking, and
physical processes. Embedded computers and networks monitor and control the
physical processes, with feedback loops where physical processes affect
computations and vice versa.
✓ In cyber-physical systems, physical and software components are deeply
intertwined, able to operate on different spatial and temporal scales, exhibit
multiple and distinct behavioural modalities, and interact with each other in ways
that change with context.
c) Web of Things: web of things is a term used to describe approaches, software
architectural style of programming patterns that allow real world objects to be part of
WWW. The major portion of the WoT specification is the Thing Description. Thing is an
abstract representation of a physical or virtual entity. A Thing Description includes the
metadata and interfaces of a Thing in a standardized way, with the aim to make the Thing
able to communicate with other Things in a heterogeneous world.
10.2.e SENSOR
Sensor is a device used for the conversion of physical events or characteristics
into the electrical signals. This is a hardware device that takes the input from environment
and gives to the system by converting it.
For example, a thermometer takes the temperature as physical characteristic and then
converts it into electrical signals for the system.

Characteristics of Sensors
1. Range: It is the minimum and maximum value of physical variable that the sensor can
sense or measure. For example, a Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) for the
measurement of temperature has a range of -200 to 800oC.
2. Span: It is the difference between the maximum and minimum values of input. In above
example, the span of RTD is 800 – (-200) = 1000oC.
3. Accuracy: The error in measurement is specified in terms of accuracy. It is defined as
the difference between measured value and true value. It is defined in terms of % of full
scale or % of reading.
4. Precision: It is defined as the closeness among a set of values. It is different from
accuracy.
5.Linearity: Linearity is the maximum deviation between the measured values of a
sensor from ideal curve.

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6.Hysteresis: It is the difference in output when input is varied in two ways- increasing
and decreasing.
7. Resolution: It is the minimum change in input that can be sensed by the sensor.
8. Reproducibility: It is defined as the ability of sensor to produce the same output when
same input is applied.
9. Repeatability: It is defined as the ability of sensor to produce the same output every
time when the same input is applied and all the physical and measurement conditions
TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

kept the same including the operator, instrument, ambient conditions etc.
10. Response Time: It is generally expressed as the time at which the output reaches a
certain percentage (for instance, 95%) of its final value, in response to a step change of
the input.

Classification of sensors:
Sensors based on the power requirement sensor is classified into two types: Active
Sensors, Passive Sensors.
✓ Active Sensors: Does not need any external energy source but directly generates
an electric signal in response to the external.
✓ Example: Thermocouple, Photodiode, Piezoelectric sensor.
✓ Passive Sensors: The sensors require external power called excitation signal.
Sensors modify the excitation signal to provide output.
✓ Example: Strain gauge.
✓ Sensors based on output sensor is classified into two types: Analog Sensors,
Digital Sensors.
✓ Analog Sensors
• Analog Sensors produces a continuous output signal or voltage which is
generally proportional to the quantity being measured.
• Physical quantities such as Temperature, speed, Pressure, Displacement,
Strain etc. are all analog quantities as they tend to be continuous in nature.
• For example, the temperature of a liquid can be measured using a
thermometer or thermocouple (e.g. in geysers) which continuously
responds to temperature changes as the liquid is heated up or cooled down.
✓ Digital Sensors
• Digital Sensors produce discrete output voltages that are a digital
representation of the quantity being measured.
• Digital sensors produce a binary output signal in the form of a logic "1" or
a logic "0" ("ON" or "OFF).
• Digital signal only produces discrete (non-continuous) values, which may
be output as a signal "bit" (serial transmission), or by combing the bits to
produce a signal "byte" output (parallel transmission).

Based on type of data measured sensor is classified into two types: Scalar Sensors and
Vector Sensors.

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✓ Scalar Sensors
•Scalar Sensors produce output signal or voltage which generally
proportional to the magnitude of the quantity being measured.
• Physical quantities such as temperature, color, pressure, strain, etc. are all
scalar quantities as only their magnitude is sufficient to convey an
information.
• For example, the temperature of a room can be measured using

TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

thermometer or thermocouple, which responds to temperature changes
irrespective of the orientation of the sensor or its direction.
✓ Vector Sensors
• Vector Sensors produce output signal or voltage which generally
proportional to the magnitude, direction, as well as the orientation of the
quantity being measured.
• Physical quantities such as sound, image, velocity, acceleration,
orientation, etc. are all vector quantities, as only their magnitude is not
sufficient to convey the complete information.
• For example, the acceleration of a body can be measured using an
accelerometer, which gives the components of acceleration of the body
with respect to the x,y,z coordinate axes.

10.2.f ACTUATOR
Actuator is a device that converts the electrical signals into the physical events or
characteristics. It takes the input from the system and gives output to the environment.
For example, motors and heaters are some of the commonly used actuators.

Types of Actuators
1. Hydraulic Actuators: Hydraulic actuators operate by the use of a fluid-filled cylinder
with a piston suspended at the centre. Commonly, hydraulic actuators produce linear
movements, and a spring is attached to one end as a part of the return motion. These
actuators are widely seen in exercise equipment such as steppers or car transport
carriers.
2. Pneumatic Actuators: Pneumatic actuators are one of the most reliable options for
machine motion. They use pressurized gases to create mechanical movement. Many
companies prefer pneumatic-powered actuators because they can make very precise
motions, especially when starting and stopping a machine. Examples of equipment that
uses pneumatic actuators include: Bus brakes, Exercise machines, Vane motors,
Pressure sensors
3.Electric Actuators: Electrical actuators, as you may have guessed, require
electricity to work. Well-known examples include electric cars, manufacturing machinery,
and robotics
equipment. Similar to pneumatic actuators, they also create precise motion as the flow
of electrical power is constant.
4.Thermal and Magnetic Actuators: Thermal and magnetic actuators usually
consist of shape memory alloys that can be heated to produce movement. The motion of

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thermal or magnetic actuators often comes from the Joule effect, but it can also occur
when a coil is placed in a static magnetic field. The magnetic field causes constant motion
called the Laplace-Lorentz force. Most thermal and magnetic actuators can produce a
wide and powerful range of motion while remaining lightweight.
5.Mechanical Actuators: Some actuators are mostly mechanical, such as pulleys or
rack and pinion systems. Another mechanical force is applied, such as pulling or pushing,
and the actuator will leverage that single movement to produce the desired results. For
TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

instance, turning a single gear on a set of rack and pinions can mobilize an object from
point A to point B. The tugging movement applied on the pulley can bring the other side
upwards or towards the desired location.
6. Soft Actuators: Soft actuators (e.g., polymer based) are designed to handle fragile
objects like fruit harvesting in agriculture or manipulating the internal organs in
biomedicine.
They typically address challenging tasks in robotics. Soft actuators produce flexible
motion due to the integration of microscopic changes at the molecular level into a
macroscopic deformation of the actuator materials.

10.2.f IOT COMPONENTS

Four fundamental components of IoT system, which tells us how IoT works.
i. Sensors/Devices
• First, sensors or devices help in collecting very minute data from the surrounding
environment. All of this collected data can have various degrees of complexities
ranging from a simple temperature monitoring sensor or a complex full video feed.
• A device can have multiple sensors that can bundle together to do more than just
sense things. For example, our phone is a device that has multiple sensors such as
GPS, accelerometer, camera but our phone does not simply sense things.
ii. Connectivity
• Next, that collected data is sent to a cloud infrastructure but it needs a medium for
transport. The sensors can be connected to the cloud through various mediums of
communication and
• transports such as cellular networks, satellite networks, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, wide-area
networks (WAN), low power wide area network and many more.

iii. Data Processing

• Once the data is collected and it gets to the cloud, the software performs processing
on the acquired data.
• This can range from something very simple, such as checking that the temperature
reading on devices such as AC or heaters is within an acceptable range. It can
sometimes also be very complex, such as identifying objects (such as intruders in
your house) using computer vision on video.

iv. User Interface

• Next, the information made available to the end-user in some way. This can achieve
by triggering alarms on their phones or notifying through texts or emails.

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• Also, a user sometimes might also have an interface through which they can actively
check in on their IOT system. For example, a user has a camera installed in his house,
he might want to check the video recordings and all the feeds through a web server.

10.2.g Service Oriented Architecture of IoT

SOA can also use to support IoT as a main contributing technology in devices or
heterogeneous systems.

1.Sensing Layer: IoT can be defined as a worldwide interconnected network, where

TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY
things or devises are controlled remotely. Interconnected things or devices are become
easier, as more and more things are furnished with sensors and RFID technologies.
2.Networking Layer: Networking Layer is responsible to connect all device or things
together so that they can able to share the information with each other over the Internet.
Moreover, network layer also collects data and information from the present IT
infrastructure for example ICT systems, power grids, business systems, healthcare
systems, and transportation systems.
3. Service Layer: This layer depends upon the technology used on the middleware
layer which is responsible for functionalities incorporate between applications and
services in IoT. This middleware technology also provides a cost-effective and efficient
platform for IoT and this platform including software and hardware components which
can be reused when needed.

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4. Interface Layer: The core responsibility of the interface layer has also simplified the
interconnection and management of things. Interface specific profile can be defined as
the subset of services that support interaction with the application used in a network

10.2.h Challenges for IoT

1. Security: Security is the most significant challenge for the IoT. Increasing the number
of connected devices increases the opportunity to exploit security vulnerabilities, as do
TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

poorly designed devices, which can expose user data to theft by leaving data streams
inadequately
protected and in some cases people’s health and safety can be put at risk.
2. Privacy: The IoT creates unique challenges to privacy, many that go beyond the data
privacy issues that currently exist. Much of this stems from integrating devices into our
environments without us consciously using them. This is becoming more prevalent in
consumer devices, such as tracking devices for phones and cars as well as smart
televisions.
3. Scalability: Billions of internet-enabled devices get connected in a huge network, large
volumes of data are needed to be processed. The system that stores, analyses the data
from these IoT devices needs to be scalable.
4. Interoperability: Technological standards in most areas are still fragmented. These
technologies need to be converged. Which would help us in establishing a common
framework and the standard for the IoT devices. As the standardization process is still
lacking, interoperability of IoT with legacy devices should be considered critical. This lack
of interoperability is preventing us to move towards the vision of truly connected everyday
interoperable smart objects.
5. Bandwidth: Connectivity is a bigger challenge to the IoT than you might expect. As
the size of the IoT market grows exponentially, some experts are concerned that
bandwidth- intensive IoT applications such as video streaming will soon struggle for
space on the IoT’s
current server-client model.
6. Standards: Lack of standards and documented best practices have a greater impact
than just limiting the potential of IoT devices. Without standards to guide manufacturers,
developers sometimes design products that operate in disruptive ways on the Internet
without much regard to their impact. If poorly designed and configured, such devices can
have negative consequences for the networking resources they connect to and the
broader Internet.
7. Regulation: The lack of strong IoT regulations is a big part of why the IoT remains a
severe security risk, and the problem is likely to get worse as the potential attack surface
expands to include ever more crucial devices. When medical devices, cars and children’s
toys are all connected to the Internet, it’s not hard to imagine many potential disaster
scenarios unfolding in the absence of sufficient regulation.

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10.2.i IOT Networking

✓ IoT Node: These are machines, things or computers Connected to other nodes
inside a LAN
✓ via the IoT LAN, May be sometimes connected to the internet through a WAN
directly
✓ IoT LAN: It is Local, Short range Comm, May or may not connect to Internet,

TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

Building or
✓ Organization wide
✓ IoT WAN: Connection of various network segments, Organizationally and
geographically wide, Connects to the internet
✓ IoT Gateway: A router connecting the IoT LAN to a WAN to the Internet, can
implement several LAN and WAN, Forwards packets between LAN and WAN on
the IP layer
✓ IoT Proxy: Performs active application layer functions between IoT nodes and
other entities
➢ Gateway Prefix Allotment:
• One of the strategies of address conservation in IoT is to use local
addresses which exist uniquely within the domain of the gateway. These
are represented by the circles in this slide.
• The network connected to the internet has routers with their set of
addresses and ranges.
• These routers have multiple gateways connected to them which can
forward packets from the nodes, to the Internet, only via these routers.
These routers assign prefixes to gateways under them, so that the
gateways can be identified with them.

➢ Impact of Mobility on Addressing

o The network prefix changes from 1 to 2 due to movement, making the IoT
LAN safe from changes due to movements.
o IoT gateway WAN address changes without change in LAN address. This
is achieved using ULA.
o The gateways assigned with prefixes, which are attached to a remote
anchor point by using various protocols such as Mobile IPv6, and are
immune to changes of network prefixes.
o This is achieved using LU. The address of the nodes within the gateways
remains unchanged as the gateways provide them with locally unique
address and the change
➢ in gateway’s network prefix doesn’t affect them.
o Sometimes, there is a need for the nodes to communicate directly to the
internet. This is achieved by tunnelling, where the nodes communicate to a

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remote anchor point instead of channelling their packets through the router
which is achieved by using tunnelling protocols such as IKEv2:internet key
exchange version 2
➢ Multihoming
• Multihoming is the practice of connecting a host or a computer network to
more than one network. This can be done in order to increase reliability or
performance or to reduce cost. There are several different ways to perform
TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

multihoming.
➢ Host multihoming: A single host may be connected to multiple networks. For
example, a mobile phone might be simultaneously connected to a WiFi network
and a 3G network, and a desktop computer might be connected to both a home
network and a VPN. A multihomed host usually is assigned multiple addresses,
one per connected network.
➢ Classical multihoming: In classical multihoming a network is connected to
multiple providers, and uses its own range of addresses (typically from a Provider
Independent (PI) range). The network's edge routers communicate with the
providers using a dynamic routing protocol, typically BGP, which announces the
network's address range to all providers. If one of the links fails, the dynamic
routing protocol recognizes the failure within seconds or minutes, and reconfigures
its routing tables to use the remaining links, transparently to the hosts.
➢ Multihoming with multiple addresses: In this approach, the network is
connected to multiple providers, and assigned multiple address ranges, one for
each provider. Hosts are assigned multiple addresses, one for each provider.
➢ Deviation from regular Web

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Features IoT Stack Web Stack

It is used in non-
constrained network
Function or It is used in constrained network having having no limits on
application low power, low bandwidth and low memory power/BW/memory.
requirements.

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Size of data to tens of bytes hundreds or
be transported thousands of bytes

It uses CBOR (Concise Binary Object It uses HTML, XML

Representation) format as IoT is used for and JSON
Data format tiny messages. CBOR is based on JSON
though CBOR uses binary encoding while formats.
JSON uses text encoding.

Application It uses CoAP protocol at application layer. It uses HTTP protocol

at application layer.
Layer

It uses UDP which is faster due to smaller It uses TCP which is

header size compare to TCP. It is lighter connection oriented
Transport layer protocol compare to TCP. and slower compare to
UDP.
It uses DTLS (Datagram Transport Layer It uses TLS/SSL
Security) protocols for the same.
Security layer
protocol for security.

It uses 6LoWPAN to convert large IPv6 It does not require

packets into small size packets to be protocols like
carried on wireless medium as per
bluetooth, zigbee etc. standards. It does 6LoWPAN.
fragmentation and reassembly. It also Fragmentation and
Internet layer does header compression to reduce reassembly is taken
packet size. care by transport layer
(i.e. TCP) itself.

It will have MAC layer as per IoT wireless It will have MAC layer
technology used viz. bluetooth, zigbee, as per LAN or WLAN or
Datalink or zwave etc. It takes care of medium access DSL or ISDN
MAC layer control and resource allocation and technologies.
management.

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Physical layer It will have physical layer (baseband) as It will have PHY layer
and Radio per IoT wireless technologies viz. as per LAN or WLAN or
Frequency bluetooth, zigbee, zwave etc. It uses DSL or ISDN
(RF) layer frequencies as per cellular or indoor technologies.
wireless technologies and country wide
allocations for the same.
TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

10.2.j IoT identification and Data protocols

IPv4: IP version four addresses are 32-bit integers which will be expressed in dotted
decimal notation.
Example- 192.0.2.126 could be an IPv4 address.

Characteristics of IPv4
• IPv4 could be a 32-Bit IP Address.
• IPv4 could be a numeric address, and its bits are separated by a dot.
• The number of header fields is twelve and the length of the header field is twenty.
• It has Unicast, broadcast, and multicast style of addresses.
• IPv4 supports VLSM (Virtual Length Subnet Mask).
• IPv4 uses the Post Address Resolution Protocol to map to the MAC address.
• RIP may be a routing protocol supported by the routed daemon.
• Networks ought to be designed either manually or with DHCP.
• Packet fragmentation permits from routers and causing host.

IPv4 Datagram Header

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✓ Version: This field indicates the version number of the IP packet so that the
revised version can be distinguished from the previous version. The current IP
version is 4.
✓ Internet Header Length (IIHL): It specifies the length of the IP header in unit 32
bits. In case of no option present in the IP header, IHL will have a value of 5. So,
if the value of IHL is more than 5 then the length of the option field can be easily
calculated.

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✓ Type of Service: This field specifies the priority of the packets based on delay,
throughput, reliability and cost requirements. Three bits are assigned for priority
level and four bits for specific requirements (delay, throughput, reliability and cost).
✓ Total Length: This field specifies the number of bytes of the IP packet including
header and data. As 16 bits are assigned to this field, the maximum length of the
packet is 65635 bytes.
✓ Identification: The identification field is used to identify which packet a particular
fragment belongs to so that fragments for different packets don’t get mixed up.
Flags:
The flag field has three bits:
1. Unused bit
2. Don’t fragment (DF) bit
3. More fragment (MF) bit
✓ Fragment Offset:The fragment offset field identifies the location of the fragment
in a packet. The value measures the offset in a unit of 8 bytes, between the
beginning of the packet to be fragmented and the beginning of the fragment.
✓ Time to live (TTL):This field is used to indicate the amount of time in seconds a
packet is allowed to remain in the network.
✓ Protocol:This field specifies the protocol that is to receive the IP data at the
destination host.
✓ Header Checksum:This field verifies the integrity of the header of the IP packet.
The integrity of the data part is left to the upper layer protocols. The checksum is
generated by the source and it is sent along with the frame header to the next
router.
✓ Source IP address & Destination IP address:
✓ These two fields contain the IP addresses of the source and destination hosts
respectively.
✓ Options:Options fields are rarely used to include special features such as security
level, the route to be taken and time stamp at each router. It is used in RSVP.
✓ Padding:This field is used to make the header a multiple of 32-bit words.

10.2.k IPv6
• Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) is also known as Internet Protocol next
generation (IPng). It also accommodates more feature to meet the global
requirement of growing Internet.

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• To allocate a sufficient number of network address, IPv6 allows 128 bits of IP

address separated into 8 sections of 2 bytes each. Unlike IPv4 where the address
is represented as dotted-decimal notation, IPv6 uses hexadecimal numbers and
colon (“:”) is used as a delimiter between the sections.
Example: IPv6 address may be like this: FA20:B120: 6230:0000:0000: CE12:0006:
ABDF
TEACHER'S CARE ACADEMY

✓ Version: This field is 4 bits long and it defines the version of the IP packet. The value
of it for IPv6 is 6 and IPv4 its value is 4. During the transition period from IPv4 to IPv6,
the routers will be able to distinguish the two versions of the IP packets.
✓ Traffic Class: This field is 20 bits long and it is used to distinguish between the
different requirements for real-time delivery services.
✓ Flow Label: This field is 20 bits long and it is used to allow the source and destination
nodes to set up a pseudo connection with particular properties and requirements. It
is designed to provide special handling of a particular flow of data.
✓ Payload Length: It is of 2 bytes length and signifies the number of bytes that follow
the 40 bytes base header. It is the length of the IP datagram excluding the base
header.
✓ Next Header: This field is of 1 bye length and it defines one of the extension headers
that follow the base header. The extension headers also contain this field to indicate
the next header. if this is the last IP header then Next header field tells which of the
transport protocols (TCP or UDP) the packet is to be passed.
✓ Hop Limit: This field contains 1 byte and it signifies the maximum number of hops a
packet can travel. The time to live field in the IPv4 header did the same task, except
that in IPv4 it was counted in time and in IPv6 it is counted in terms of the number of
routers.
✓ Source Address: It is 16 bytes long and contains the IP address of the source
machine to the network interface.
✓ Destination Address: It is 16 bytes long and usually contains the IP address of
the ultimate destination machine to the network interface. In case of specific
routing, it may contain the IP address of the next router.

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