§ References

The Calculus of Vector-Valued Main Reference

Functions L. Leithold, The Calculus 7. HarperCollins College Publishing,

Pennsylvania, USA, 1996.
Calculus with Analytical Geometry 2
Other References

Karlo S. Orge M. H. Protter and C. B. Morrey, College Calculus with Analytic

Geometry. Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, California, USA,
Department of Mathematics and Statistics 1977.
College of Science and Mathematics
MSU-Iligan Institute of Technology
R. Smith and R. Minton, Calculus, Third Edition. McGraw-Hill, New
Andres Bonifacio Avenue, Tibanga, 9200 Iligan City York, NY, 2008.
J. Stewart, Calculus, Seventh Edition. Brooks/Cole, Belmont, CA,
2012.

Karlo S. Orge (MSU-IIT) MAT070 Chapter 2 1 / 127 Karlo S. Orge (MSU-IIT) MAT070 Chapter 2 2 / 127

§ The Calculus of Vector-Valued Functions § The Calculus of Vector-Valued Functions

Definition
Denote by V3 the set of all vectors in R3 . A vector-valued function is a function
⇀ ⇀
R : D → V3 , where D ⊆ R. For each t ∈ D, we can express R (t) as
⇀ Remarks
R (t) = f (t)ı̂ + g(t)ȷ̂ + h(t)k̂, (⋆)
1 In this section, we will call real-valued functions as scalar functions.
for some real-valued functions f , g and h defined on D. (Such functions are called ⇀
⇀ 2 If R is a vector-valued function with components f , g and h, then
the component functions of R .) ⇀
every real number t in the domain of R determines a unique vector
⟨f (t), g(t), h(t)⟩ in R3 .
Definition 3 If the domain is not specified, it is understood that the domain of R
⇀
⇀ ⇀ ⇀
The form (⋆) of R is called a vector equation of R . If we write R in the following is the intersection of the domains of its component functions.
form:
x = f (t), y = g(t), z = h(t), (⋆⋆)
⇀
we call them as parametric equations of R with t as parameter. If we eliminate
the parameter t from (⋆⋆), we obtain two equations in terms of the variables x, y
⇀
and z, called cartesian equations of R .

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§ The Calculus of Vector-Valued Functions § The Calculus of Vector-Valued Functions
Example 1
Consider the vector-valued function
  Definition
⇀ 1 ⇀ ⇀
R (t) = √ , cos t, ln t . Let R , S be vector-valued functions, c be a scalar and f be a scalar
1−t ⇀ ⇀ ⇀ ⇀ ⇀ ⇀ ⇀ ⇀
function. We define the functions R + S , c R , f R , R · S and R × S as
1 follows:
Let f (t) = √ , g(t) = cos t and h(t) = ln t, with Df , Dg and Dh as ⇀ ⇀ ⇀ ⇀
1−t 1 ( R + S )(t) = R (t) + S (t)
their respective domains. Then ⇀ ⇀
2 (c R )(t) = c R (t)
⇀ ⇀
Df = (−∞, 1), Dg = R, Dh = (0, +∞), 3 (f R )(t) = f (t) R (t)
⇀ ⇀ ⇀ ⇀
4 ( R · S )(t) = R (t) · S (t)
⇀
so that the domain of R is ⇀ ⇀ ⇀ ⇀
5 ( R × S )(t) = R (t) × S (t)

Df ∩ Dg ∩ Dh = (−∞, 1) ∩ R ∩ (0, +∞) = (0, 1).

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§ The Calculus of Vector-Valued Functions § The Calculus of Vector-Valued Functions

Example 2
Definition We compute
⇀ ⇀ 
t2 − 1

For a vector-valued function R (t) = ⟨f (t), g(t), h(t)⟩, the limit of R (t) as lim
2
, cos(πt), et −1
t approaches a is given by t→1 2t − 2
⇀
D E as follows:
lim R (t) = lim f (t), lim g(t), lim h(t)
t→a t→a t→a t→a  2
t2 − 1
  
t −1 2 2
lim , cos(πt), et −1 = lim , lim cos(πt), lim et −1
provided all of the indicated limits exist. If any of the limits on the right- t→1 2t − 2 t→1 2t − 2 t→1 t→1
⇀  
hand side of the above equation does not exist, then we say that lim R (t) 2t t2 −1
t→a = lim , lim cos(πt), lim e
does not exist. t→1 2 t→1 t→1

= ⟨1, −1, 0⟩

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§ The Calculus of Vector-Valued Functions § The Calculus of Vector-Valued Functions
Definition
⇀ ⇀′ ⇀
The derivative of a vector-valued function R , denoted by R or Dt R , is
Definition
⇀ a vector-valued function defined by
A vector-valued function R is said to be continuous at a number a if the
following conditions are satisfied: ⇀′ 1 ⇀ ⇀ 
R (t) = lim R (t + ∆t) − R (t) ,
∆t→0 ∆t
⇀ ⇀ ⇀ ⇀
1 R (a) exists; 2 lim R (t) exists; 3 lim R (t) = R (a).
t→a t→a
for any value of t for which the limit exists. When the limit exists at t = a,
⇀
we say that R is differentiable at t = a
Theorem
⇀ Theorem
A vector-valued function R (t) = ⟨f (t), g(t), h(t)⟩ is continuous at a if and ⇀
only if all functions f , g and h are continuous at a. Let R (t) = ⟨f (t), g(t), h(t)⟩, and suppose that the components f , g and
⇀
h are all differentiable for some value of t. Then R is differentiable at that
value of t, and
⇀′
R (t) = f ′ (t), g ′ (t), h′ (t) .

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§ The Calculus of Vector-Valued Functions § The Calculus of Vector-Valued Functions

Theorem
Example 3
⇀ ⇀
⇀
Dp E Let R , S be vector-valued functions, c be a scalar and f be a scalar
Let R (t) = t2 + 1, cos t, e−3t . Then function. Then
⇀ ⇀′ ⇀′ ⇀′
⇀′
D hp i E 1 ( R + S ) (t) = R (t) + S (t);
t2 + 1 , Dt [cos t] , Dt e−3t

R (t) = Dt ⇀′ ⇀′
  2 (c R ) (t) = c R (t);
1 2
−1/2 −3t ⇀′ ⇀′ ′ ⇀
= t +1 (2t), − sin t, e (−3) 3 (f R ) (t) = f (t) R (t) + f (t) R (t);
2 ⇀ ⇀′
h
⇀ ⇀′
i
⇀
h ′
⇀
i
4 ( R · S ) (t) = R (t) · S (t) + R (t) · S (t) ;
 
t −3t
= √ , − sin t, −3e
⇀ ⇀′ ⇀ ⇀′ ⇀ ⇀
h i h ′ i
t2 + 1 5 ( R × S ) (t) = R (t) × S (t) + R (t) × S (t) .

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§ The Calculus of Vector-Valued Functions § The Calculus of Vector-Valued Functions

Example 4
ˆ
Definition We evaluate cos(3t), sin t, e4t dt as follows:
⇀
Let R (t) = ⟨f (t), g(t), h(t)⟩ be a vector-valued function. The indefinite
⇀ ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ
integral of R is defined as

4t 4t
cos(3t), sin t, e dt = cos(3t) dt, sin t dt, e dt
ˆ ˆ ˆ ˆ 
⇀
R (t) dt = f (t) dt, g(t) dt, h(t) dt .
 
1 1
= sin(3t) + C1 , − cos t + C2 , e4t + C3
3 4
⇀ 
1 1

The definite integral of R from a to b is defined as
= sin(3t), − cos t, e4t + ⟨C1 , C2 , C3 ⟩
ˆ b ˆ b ˆ b ˆ b  3 4
⇀ 
1 1

⇀
R (t) dt = f (t) dt, g(t) dt, h(t) dt . = sin(3t), − cos t, e4t + C ,
a a a a 3 4
⇀
where C = ⟨C1 , C2 , C3 ⟩.

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§ Curves in R3 § Curves in R3
Definition
⇀
Let R be a vector-valued function with parameter t. The set of terminal
⇀ Example 5
points of the position representation of R (t), as t assumes all values in the
⇀ ⇀
domain of R , is called a curve traced by R . A line passing through the point (x0 , y0 , z0 ) and having direction numbers
[a, b, c] is a curve with vector equation
⇀
R (t) = (x0 + at)ı̂ + (y0 + bt)ȷ̂ + (z0 + ct)k̂.

The symmetric equations of the line can be used to obtain cartesian

equations of the line. For instance, if a, b and c are nonzero, catesian
equations of the line are
x − x0 y − y0 y − y0 z − z0
= = .
a b b c

Figure: A curve in R3

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§ Curves in R3 § Curves in R3
Example 7
Example 6 The following figure shows the sketch of the curve
⇀
Consider the curve having a vector equation R (t) = 2 cos t ı̂ + 2 sin t ȷ̂ + t k̂, coiling around a circular cylinder of
⇀ radius 4.
R (t) = 2 cos t ı̂ + 2 sin t ȷ̂ + t k̂.
⇀
Parametric equations of R (t) are
x = 2 cos t y = 2 sin t z = t.
The following table shows the values of x, y, z given some values of t.
t x y z t x √y z
2π 2π
0 √2 0 0 3
−1
√ √3 3
π π 3π 3π
6 √3 √1 6 4
−√2 2 4
π π 5π 5π
4
2 √2 4 6
− 3 1 6
π π
3
1 3 3
π −2 0 π
π π
2
0 2 2
⇀
Figure: The circular helix R (t) = ⟨2 cos t, 2 sin t, t⟩, where 0 ≤ t ≤ 4π

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§ Curves in R3 § Curves in R3
The curve of the previous example is called a circular helix. In general, Example 8
a helix is a curve having the vector equation
Consider the curve with vector equation
⇀
R (t) = a cos t ı̂ + b sin t ȷ̂ + ct k̂, ⇀
R (t) = t ı̂ + t2 ȷ̂ + t3 k̂.
where a, b and c are nonzero constants. If a = b, the curve is a circular
Parametric equations of the curve are
helix. Parametric equations of the helix are
x=t y = t2 z = t3 .
x = a cos t y = b sin t z = ct.
Eliminating t from the first and the second equation gives the equation
Observe that from the first two parametric equations of the helix,
y = x2 , showing that the projection of the curve on the xy-plane is a
x2 y 2 parabola with vertex at the origin. Eliminating t from the first and the
+ 2 = cos2 t + sin2 t = 1. third equation gives the equation z = x3 , a cubic equation. Hence,
a2 b
cartesian equations of the curve is
This shows that the projection of the helix on the xy-plane (the “view” of
the helix on the xy-plane) is an ellipse centered at the origin. y = x2 z = x3 .

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§ Curves in R3 § Curves in R3
Example 9
⇀ ⇀
The sketch of the curve R (t) = t ı̂ + t2 ȷ̂ + t3 k̂ is shown below. The curve R (t) = ⟨t, t2 , t3 ⟩ is an example of a twisted cubic. In general,
a twisted cubic has the vector equation
⇀
R (t) = at ı̂ + bt2 ȷ̂ + ct3 k̂,

where a, b and c are nonzero constants.

Remarks
1 A vector equation of a curve gives a curve a “direction” at each
point. Thus, a vector equation can give a sense of “positive
orientation” to the curve.
2 A vector equation of a curve is not unique.
⇀
Figure: The twisted cubic R (t) = ⟨t, t2 , t3 ⟩, where −2 ≤ t ≤ 2

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§ Curves in R3 § Curves in R3
Definition
⇀
To illustrate the second remark, the circular helix The portion of the curve C with vector equation R (t) = ⟨f (t), g(t), h(t)⟩
from the point where t = a to the point where t = b is called an arc of the
⇀
R (t) = 2 cos t ı̂ + 2 sin t ȷ̂ + t k̂. curve.

from the previous example can be represented by any of the following vector
equations:
⇀
R1 (t) = 2 cos(t + 2π) ı̂ + 2 sin(t + 2π) ȷ̂ + (t + 2π) k̂
⇀
R2 (t) = 2 cos(2t) ı̂ + 2 sin(2t) ȷ̂ + 2t k̂
⇀
R3 (t) = 2 cos(2π − t) ı̂ + 2 sin(2π − t) ȷ̂ + (2π − t) k̂.

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§ Curves in R3 § Curves in R3
Definition
⇀
Suppose that the curve C is traced by the vector-valued function R , and
Theorem
P is a point on C which is the terminal point of the position representation
If L represents the length of the arc of the curve with vector equation ⇀
⇀ of R (t), for some parameter t.
R (t) = ⟨f (t), g(t), h(t)⟩ from the point where t = a to the point where
• The unit tangent vector of C at P , denoted by ⇀ T (t), is the unit
t = b, then ⇀′ ⇀′ ⇀
vector in the direction of R (t) (provided that R (t) ̸= 0 ):
ˆ b ˆ bp
⇀′
L= ∥ R (t)∥ dt = [f ′ (t)]2 + [g ′ (t)]2 + [h′ (t)]2 dt. ⇀ 1 ⇀′
a a T (t) = ⇀′ R (t).
∥ R (t)∥
Example 10
⇀ • The unit normal vector of C at P , denoted by ⇀ N (t), is the unit
Find the length of arc of the circular helix R (t) = ⟨2 cos t, 2 sin t, t⟩ from ⇀′ ⇀′ ⇀
the point where t = 0 to the point where t = 2π. vector in the direction of T (t) (provided that T (t) ̸= 0 ):

⇀ 1 ⇀′
N (t) = ⇀′ T (t).
∥ T (t)∥

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§ Curves in R3 § Curves in R3

Definition
⇀ ⇀ ⇀
The vectors T (t), N (t) and B (t) are called the moving trihedral of C at
Definition P.
⇀
Suppose that the curve C is traced by the vector-valued function R , and
P is a point on C which is the terminal point of the position representation
⇀
of R (t), for some parameter t.
• The unit binormal vector of C at P , denoted by ⇀ B (t), is defined by
⇀ ⇀ ⇀
B (t) = T (t) × N (t).

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§ Curves in R3 § Curves in R3

Definition
Example 11 ⇀
Suppose that the curve C is traced by the vector-valued function R , and
1 Find the moving trihedral of the circular helix
P is a point on C which is the terminal point of the position representation
⇀ ⇀
R (t) = ⟨2 cos t, 2 sin t, t⟩ of R (t), for some parameter t.
⇀
1 The curvature vector of C at P , denoted by K (t), is defined as the
at any parameter t. ⇀
rate of change of T (t) with respect to the arc length of C:
2 Find the moving trihedral of the curve
⇀ 1 ⇀′ ⇀′ ⇀
⇀ K (t) = ⇀′ T (t) (provided R (t) ̸= 0 ).
R (t) = t2 ı̂ + (t + 13 t3 ) ȷ̂ + (t − 13 t3 ) k̂ ∥ R (t)∥

at the point where t = 1. 2 The curvature of C at P , denoted by K(t), is defined as

⇀
K(t) = ∥K (t)∥.

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§ Curves in R3

Example 12
1 Find the curvature vector and the curvature of the line at any
parameter t.
2 Find the curvature vector and the curvature of the circular helix
⇀
R (t) = ⟨2 cos t, 2 sin t, t⟩

at the point where t = π.

Karlo S. Orge (MSU-IIT) MAT070 Chapter 2 31 / 127