STATISTICS & Examples:

1.​ The owner of a factory that sells a

PROBABILITY particular bottled fruit juice claims that the
Made by: Darlene Sophia B. Valdez I 11 STEM B
average capacity of their product is 250 ml.
Is the claim true?
HYPOTHESIS ●​ Solution:
𝐻0 : The bottled drinks contain 250 ml per
TESTING bottle. H0: µ = 250 → CLAIM
𝐻1 : The bottled drinks do not contain 250
-​ is a proposed explanation, assertion, ml per bottle. H1: µ ≠ 250
or assumption about a population
parameter or about the distribution 2.​ A farmer believes that using organic
of a random variable. fertilizers on his plants will yield greater
-​ is a statistical method applied in income. His average income from the past
was P 200, 000.00 per year. State the
making decisions using experimental
hypotheses in symbols.
data. Hypothesis testing is basically
●​ Solution:
testing an assumption that we make
𝐻0 : µ = 200, 000
about a population. 𝐻1 : µ > 200, 000 → CLAIM

3.​ The mean starting salary for ABC

NULL HYPOTHESIS University graduates is at least Php 15,000
per month.
-​ denoted by 𝐻0
●​ Solution:
-​ states that there is no difference
𝐻0: µ ≥ 15, 000 → CLAIM
between a parameter and specific
𝐻1: µ < 15, 000
value, or that there is no difference
between two parameters.
TYPES OF TESTS
It can be written as follows:
𝐻0: 𝜇 = 𝜇0 1.​ DIRECTIONAL TEST
𝐻0: 𝜇 ≤ 𝜇0 -​ One-tailed test
𝐻0: 𝜇 ≥ 𝜇0 -​ The rejection region is lying on
either the left or right tail of the
normal curve.
ALTERNATIVE -​
1.​ Right-directional
HYPOTHESIS test
-​ denoted by 𝐻1 𝑜𝑟 𝐻a -​ The region of rejection is
-​ states that there is a difference on the right tail. It is used
between a parameter and specific when the alternative
value, or that there is a difference hypothesis uses
between two parameters. comparatives such as
greater than, higher than,
better than, superior to,
It can be written as follows:
exceeds, etc.
𝐻1: 𝜇 ≠ 𝜇0
-​
𝐻1: 𝜇 > 𝜇0
𝐻1: 𝜇 < 𝜇0
 2.​ Left-directional test Examples:
-​ The region of rejection is
1.​ The owner of a factory that sells a
on the left tail. It is used particular bottled fruit juice claims that the
when the alternative average capacity of their product is 250 ml.
hypothesis uses Is the claim true?
comparatives such as less ●​ Solution:
than, smaller than, H0: µ = 250 → CLAIM
inferior to, lower than, H1: µ ≠ 250
below, etc. → non-directional, two-tailed

2.​ A farmer believes that using organic

Examples:
fertilizers on his plants will yield greater
ONE-TAILED (RIGHT) income. His average income from the past
●​ Null Hypothesis: The average life of was P 200, 000.00 per year. State the
batteries is less than or equal to 15 hypotheses in symbols.
hours. ●​ Solution:
H0: µ ≤ 15 H0: µ = 200 000
●​ Alternative Hypothesis: The average H1: µ > 200 000 → CLAIM
→ one-tailed, to the right
life of batteries is greater than 15
hours.
3.​ The mean starting salary for ABC
H1: µ > 15
University graduates is at least Php 15,000
per month.
ONE-TAILED (LEFT) ●​ Solution:
●​ Null Hypothesis: The average life of H0: µ ≥ 15 000 → CLAIM
batteries is greater than or equal to 15 H1: µ < 15 000
hours. → one-tailed, to the left
H0: µ ≥ 15
●​ Alternative Hypothesis: The average
TYPES OF ERRORS
life of batteries is less than 15 hours.
H1: µ < 15
1.​ TYPE I ERROR
-​ If the null hypothesis is true and
2.​ NON-DIRECTIONAL TEST
rejected, then it is a Type I error.
-​ Two-tailed test
-​ The probability of committing a
-​ The rejection region is lying on
Type I error is denoted by α
both tails of the normal curve. It
(alpha).
is used when the alternative
-​
hypothesis uses words such as
not equal to, significantly 2.​ TYPE II ERROR
different, etc. -​ If null hypothesis is false and
accepted, then it is a Type II
Example: error.
●​ Null Hypothesis: The average life of -​ The probability of committing a
batteries is equal to 15 hours. Type II error is denoted by β
𝑯0: 𝝁 = 𝟏𝟓 (beta).
●​ Alternative Hypothesis: The average life of
batteries is not equal to 15 hours.
𝑯1: 𝝁 ≠ 𝟏𝟓
 Examples: CRITICAL REGION
1.​ Maria insists that she is 30 years old when,
-​ Rejection region
in fact, she is 32 years old. What error is
Maria committing? -​ is the set of all values of the test
●​ Answer: Maria is rejecting the truth. statistic that causes us to reject the null
She is committing a Type I error hypothesis.

2.​ A man plans to go hunting the Philippine

monkey-eating eagle believing that it is NON-REJECTION REGION
proof of his mettle. What type of error is
this?
-​ Acceptance region
●​ Answer: Hunting Philippine eagles is -​ is the set of all values of the test
prohibited by law. Thus, it is not a statistic that causes us to fail to reject
good sport. It is a Type II error. the null hypothesis.

CRITICAL VALUE
-​ boundary
-​ is a point on the test distribution that is
compared to the test statistic to
determine if the null hypothesis would
be rejected.

LEVEL OF SIGNIFICANCE
-​ denoted by alpha or 𝛂 refers to the
degree of significance in which we
accept or reject the null hypothesis. Example:
Illustrate the rejection region given the critical value and
identify if the t-values lie in the non-rejection region or
In public health research, alpha is usually 0.01 or rejection region:
1%.
a.​ critical t-value of -2.33
In social science, alpha 𝜶 is usually 0.05 or 5%.
computed t-value of -1.38
0.10 or 10% in other studies.

NON-REJECTION REGION

In symbol, it is written as:

𝛼 = 0.01
𝛼 = 0.05 b.​ critical t-value of 2.12
𝛼 = 0.10
computed t-value of 2.15
If the alternative hypothesis used ≠,
then alpha will be divided by 2,
α
2
= 0.005 REJECTION
α
= 0.025
2
α
REGION
2
= 0.05

Example:
●​ Maria uses 5% level of significance in proving that
there is no significant change in the average number
of enrollees in the 10 sections for the last two years.
Identifying Appropriate Test
Statistic Involving Population ρ =
χ
𝑁
Mean
χ - the number of individuals in the group
with a given characteristic
Test Statistic N - total population size

-​ is a value used to determine the

probability needed in decision making.
Example:
-​ It is a random variable that is In a particular ATM branch, 65% are just checking
calculated from sample data and used their available balance. 120 people were randomly
selected and 78 confirmed that they had just
in a hypothesis.
checked their account balance.
ρ = 0. 65

z- test t-test
NULL HYPOTHESIS
The sample is The sample is also
-​ States that the proportion is equal to a
assumed to be assumed to be
specific value or the synthesized
normally distributed. normally distributed.
When the variance is A t-test is used when proportion.
known and either the the population -​ Denoted by ρ0.
distribution is normal variance or standard H0 : ρ = ρ0
or sample size is deviation are not H0 : ρ ≥ ρ0
large, use a z-test known. The sample H0 : ρ ≤ ρ0
statistic. size is less than 30.

CENTRAL LIMIT THEOREM

ALTERNATIVE
-​ If the population is normally
distributed or the sample size is large HYPOTHESIS
and the true population mean 𝝁=𝝁0,
-​ Competing claim that the population
then z has a standard normal
proportion is less than, greater than, or
distribution.
not equal to p0.
-​ When population standard deviation 𝜎
Ha : ρ ≠ ρ0
is not known, we may still use z-score
Ha : ρ > ρ0
by replacing the population standard
Ha : ρ < ρ0
deviation 𝜎 by its estimate, sample
standard deviation s.
Example:
A sample of 100 students were randomly
POPULATION selected from Pinagpala High School and 18
of them said they are left-handed. Test the
PROPORTION hypothesis that less than 20% of the students
are left-handed by using α = 0. 05 as the level
-​ is a part of the population with a
of significance.
particular attribute or trait expressed
●​ Solution:
as a fraction, decimal, or percentage of
H0 : ρ = 0. 20
the whole population.
Ha : ρ < 0. 20
-​ Denoted by ρ.
TYPES OF TEST A sample of 100 students were randomly selected
from Pinagpala High School and 18 of them said
they are left-handed. Test the hypothesis that less
1.​ ONE-TAILED than 20% of the students are left-handed by using
α = 0. 05 as the level of significance.
2.​ TWO-TAILED
78
p
̂ = 120
= 0. 65
A sample of 100 students were randomly
selected from Pinagpala High School and 18 1.​ A school report claims that 10% of
Grade 7 students are underweight. To
of them said they are left-handed. Test the
verify this, a teacher randomly selects
hypothesis that less than 20% of the students 780 students and finds that 125 of them
are left-handed by using α = 0. 05 as the level are underweight. At a 0.05 significance
of significance. level, is there enough evidence to say
H0 : ρ = 0. 20 that the proportion of underweight
students is different from 10%?
Ha : ρ < 0. 20 → left-tailed test 125
p
̂ = 780
= 0. 16 q = 1-0.16 = 0.90

STEPS ON HYPOTHESIS TEST: I.​ Formulate the hypotheses:

H0 : ρ = 0. 10
1.​ Formulate hypotheses. Ha : ρ ≠ 0. 10
2.​ Set the level of significance and
determine the critical value. II.​ Set the level of significance and
3.​ Compute the appropriate test statistic. determine the critical value:
4.​ Make the decision. Two-tailed
5.​ State the conclusion α = 0. 05
cv = ± 1. 96
𝑝̂−ρ 𝑝̂−ρ
𝑍com= or 𝑍com=
ρ𝑞
𝑛
ρ(1−𝑝)
𝑛 III.​ Compute the appropriate test statistic
𝑝̂−ρ 0.16̂−0.10
𝑍com= = = 5.61
Where: ρ𝑞
𝑛
(0.10)(0.90)
780
𝑍com - z-test statistic for proportion
𝑝̂ - sample proportion IV.​ Make the decision
p - population proportion
n - sample size Decision: Reject H0.
q - complement of the population
proportion
q = 1-p

V.​ State the conclusion

SAMPLE PROPORTION Therefore, we conclude that at 0.05
level of significance, there is enough
-​ The ratio of the number of elements in evidence that the percentage of Grade
the sample possessing the 7 students who are underweight is
characteristics of interest over the different from 10%.
number of elements in the sample or n.
2. A sample of 100 students were
randomly selected from Pinagpala High
χ
p
̂ = 𝑛 School and 18 of them said they are
left-handed. Test the hypothesis that less
χ - number of successes in the sample than 20% of the students are left-handed
n - sample size by using α = 0. 05 as the level of
significance.
 18
p
̂ = 100
= 0. 18 q = 1-0.20 = 0.80

I.​ Formulate the hypotheses

H0 : ρ = 0. 20
Ha : ρ < 0. 20

II.​ Set the level of significance and

determine the critical value
Left-tailed
α = 0. 05
cv = -1.645

III.​ Compute the appropriate test

statistic

𝑝̂−ρ 0.18−0.20
𝑍com= ρ𝑞
= (0.20)(0.80)
= -0.5
𝑛 100

IV.​ Make the decision

Decision:
Failed to reject H0.

V.​ State the conclusion

At a 5% significance level, there
is not enough evidence to
conclude that less than 20% of
the students at Pinagpala High
School are left-handed.